is a
Samurai
The samurai () were members of the warrior class in Japan. They were originally provincial warriors who came from wealthy landowning families who could afford to train their men to be mounted archers. In the 8th century AD, the imperial court d ...
moral code concerning samurai attitudes, behavior and lifestyle.
Its origins date back to the
Kamakura period
The is a period of History of Japan, Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura, Kanagawa, Kamakura by the first ''shōgun'' Minamoto no Yoritomo after the conclusion of the G ...
, but it was formalized in the
Edo period
The , also known as the , is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and some 300 regional ''daimyo'', or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengok ...
(1603–1868). There are multiple types of bushido which evolved significantly through history.
Contemporary forms of bushido are still used in the social and economic organization of Japan.
''Bushido'' is also used as an overarching term for all the codes, practices, philosophies and principles of samurai culture.
It is loosely analogous to the
Europe
Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...
an concept of
chivalry
Chivalry, or the chivalric language, is an informal and varying code of conduct that developed in Europe between 1170 and 1220. It is associated with the medieval Christianity, Christian institution of knighthood, with knights being members of ...
, but with some major differences.
Origin
The concept of a samurai code or codes was developed and refined centuries before the Edo period in the Kamakura period.
Such ideas formalized earlier moral values and ethics, most commonly stressing a combination of sincerity, frugality, loyalty,
martial arts
Martial arts are codified systems and traditions of combat practiced for a number of reasons such as self-defence; military and law enforcement applications; combat sport, competition; physical, mental, and spiritual development; entertainment; ...
mastery, honour until death,
"bravery", and "loyalty to the samurai's lord." Bushido proper developed between the 16th and 20th centuries, but this was debated by pundits who believed they were building on a legacy dating back to the 10th century.
The term bushido itself is "rarely attested in pre-modern literature", but a code of honor did exist among the writing elite and
historian
A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human species; as well as the ...
s who were generally disgusted enough at the dishonorable activity of some fighters such as
shinobi as to rarely mention them.
Ideas of honor that led to bushido developed in response to the longstanding dishonorable behavior of samurai,
emerging stealth and espionage techniques,
and Zen Buddhist
soldier
A soldier is a person who is a member of an army. A soldier can be a Conscription, conscripted or volunteer Enlisted rank, enlisted person, a non-commissioned officer, a warrant officer, or an Officer (armed forces), officer.
Etymology
The wo ...
tenets.
The relative peace in Japan during the
Kamakura period
The is a period of History of Japan, Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura, Kanagawa, Kamakura by the first ''shōgun'' Minamoto no Yoritomo after the conclusion of the G ...
favored ideas of honor in battle, expressed in customs such as announcing one's family name and/or lineages before fighting, attempting to limit fights among warrior nobles to horseback archery or sword duels with no subterfuge or trickery, and conducting oneself like a legendary character or renowned hero (tales of daring were popular in the Kamakura period
).
Pre-bushido honor codes during this time were also contributed to by commoners, who sometimes took on similar roles to samurai
and often used their family names as introductions to fighting despite not being noble.
However, even during the relatively small family and land quarrels of this time, as well as duels thought to be honorable, warriors often disregarded these norms of combat and the announcement of family names or lineages was mostly a way to brag and assert a right to fight and/or gain whatever a faction was looking for after a fight.
Outright bragging was also known to happen.
These already tenuous codes of honor were weakened when the Japanese, expecting the invading Mongols to be laid-back with their combat, humiliatingly sent an
envoy
Envoy or Envoys may refer to:
Diplomacy
* Diplomacy, in general
* Envoy (title)
* Special envoy, a type of Diplomatic rank#Special envoy, diplomatic rank
Brands
*Airspeed Envoy, a 1930s British light transport aircraft
*Envoy (automobile), an au ...
that fired a
noisemaker arrow to officially commence the start of what the Japanese assumed would be a series of small duels and skirmishes.
Additionally, Mongols usually cut swathes through soldiers that attempted to announce their lineages before facing them.
Despite ultimately winning against the Mongols, these honor norms, along with the
shogun
, officially , was the title of the military aristocracy, rulers of Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to 1868. Nominally appointed by the Emperor of Japan, Emperor, shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country, exc ...
ate, were weakened enough to cause endemic division that led to the end of the Kamakura period and the court wars of the
Nanboku-chō period
The , also known as the Northern and Southern Courts period, was a period in Japanese history between 1336-1392 CE, during the formative years of the Ashikaga shogunate, Muromachi (Ashikaga) shogunate. Ideologically, the two courts fought for 50 ...
.
Born from
Neo-Confucianism during times of peace in the Edo period and following Confucian texts, while also being influenced by
Shinto
, also called Shintoism, is a religion originating in Japan. Classified as an East Asian religions, East Asian religion by Religious studies, scholars of religion, it is often regarded by its practitioners as Japan's indigenous religion and as ...
and
Zen Buddhism
Zen (; from Chinese: '' Chán''; in Korean: ''Sŏn'', and Vietnamese: ''Thiền'') is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty by blending Indian Mahayana Buddhism, particularly Yogacara and Madhyamaka ph ...
, it balanced violence with the
therapeutic ideals of wisdom and peace accepted at the time. It was developed further during the
Muromachi period (1336–1573) and formally defined and applied in law by
Tokugawa shogunate
The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the was the military government of Japan during the Edo period from 1603 to 1868.
The Tokugawa shogunate was established by Tokugawa Ieyasu after victory at the Battle of Sekigahara, ending the civil wars ...
s in the Edo period.
There is no strict definition, and interpretations of the code have varied over time.
Bushido has undergone many changes throughout Japanese history, and various Japanese clans interpreted it in their own way until the 19th century, enough for it to be most often a series of unwritten oral expectations that could be described as different codes, with further variations likely existing in the same warrior noble house, rather than a single code.
One of the earliest known usages of bushido is in the extremely influential late 16th century text ''The Military Mirror of Kai'', where it was used to describe unwritten rules in a complex metaphorical way that commoners could purportedly not live up to.
Another early use of the written term is in the
Kōyō Gunkan in 1616 by
Kōsaka Masanobu. In 1685, the
ukiyo-e
is a genre of Japanese art that flourished from the 17th through 19th centuries. Its artists produced woodblock printing, woodblock prints and Nikuhitsu-ga, paintings of such subjects as female beauties; kabuki actors and sumo wrestlers; scenes ...
book by artist
Hishikawa Moronobu included the term and artwork of samurai with simple descriptions meant for children.
In 1642, the was written by samurai Saito Chikamori and included moral precepts which explained the theoretical aspects of bushido.
It was written with accessible
kana and intended for commoners, not warriors.
It was very popular, demonstrating that the idea of bushido had spread among the population.
The Kashoki shows that moral values were present in bushido by 1642.
The term, bushido, came into common international usage with the 1899 publication of
Nitobe Inazō's ''
Bushido: The Soul of Japan'' which was read by many influential western people.
In ''Bushido'' (1899), Nitobe wrote:
Bushidō, then, is the code of moral principles which the samurai
The samurai () were members of the warrior class in Japan. They were originally provincial warriors who came from wealthy landowning families who could afford to train their men to be mounted archers. In the 8th century AD, the imperial court d ...
were required or instructed to observe...More frequently it is a code unuttered and unwritten...It was an organic growth of decades and centuries of military career. In order to become a samurai this code has to be mastered.
In ''Feudal and Modern Japan'' (1896), historian Arthur May Knapp wrote:
The samurai of thirty years ago had behind him a thousand years of training in the law of honor, obedience, duty, and self-sacrifice ... It was not needed to create or establish them. As a child he had but to be instructed, as indeed he was from his earliest years, in the etiquette of self-immolation.
Etymology

is a Japanese word that literally means "warrior way". It is first attested in the 1616 work , a military chronicle recording the exploits of the
Takeda clan.
[1988, (Kokugo Dai Jiten, Revised Edition) (in Japanese), Tōkyō: ]Shogakukan
is a Japanese publisher of comics, magazines, light novels, dictionaries, literature, non-fiction, home media, and other media in Japan.
Shogakukan founded Shueisha, which also founded Hakusensha. These are three separate companies, but ...
The term is a compound of , a Chinese-derived word first attested in Japanese in 712 with the
''on'yomi'' (Sino-Japanese reading), and .
[1995, ('' Daijisen'') (in Japanese), Tōkyō: ]Shogakukan
is a Japanese publisher of comics, magazines, light novels, dictionaries, literature, non-fiction, home media, and other media in Japan.
Shogakukan founded Shueisha, which also founded Hakusensha. These are three separate companies, but ...
, [2006, ('']Daijirin
is a comprehensive single-volume Japanese dictionary edited by , and first published by in 1988. This title is based upon two early Sanseidō dictionaries edited by Shōzaburō Kanazawa (金沢庄三郎, 1872–1967), ''Jirin'' (辞林 "Fores ...
''), Third Edition (in Japanese), Tōkyō: Sanseidō, In modern usage, ''bushi'' is often used as a synonym for ''samurai'';
however, historical sources make it clear that ''bushi'' and ''samurai'' were distinct concepts, with the former referring to
soldier
A soldier is a person who is a member of an army. A soldier can be a Conscription, conscripted or volunteer Enlisted rank, enlisted person, a non-commissioned officer, a warrant officer, or an Officer (armed forces), officer.
Etymology
The wo ...
s or
warrior
A warrior is a guardian specializing in combat or warfare, especially within the context of a tribal society, tribal or clan-based warrior culture society that recognizes a separate warrior aristocracy, social class, class, or caste.
History
...
s and the latter referring instead to a kind of hereditary
nobility
Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally appointed by and ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. T ...
.
In the early 17th century, the term with its ''on'yomi'' reading was used alongside the synonymous alternative form , read using native Japanese vocabulary (
''kun'yomi'') as ''mono no fu no michi''.
Another important term is .
Usage
For centuries the samurai adhered to multiple types of the code of which the interpretations varied per samurai clan and per member of the military nobility.
This encompassed morality, their role in society, and how to live a life with honor and virtue. The samurai had some common values, but they did not have a single definition or path that all samurai were required to abide. The samurai were as practical on the battlefield as any other warriors. These concepts, codes and ideals were ingrained in the samurai since they rose to power in the
Kamakura period
The is a period of History of Japan, Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura, Kanagawa, Kamakura by the first ''shōgun'' Minamoto no Yoritomo after the conclusion of the G ...
(1185–1333).
At certain eras, there were prevalent rules and unwritten customs such as the "Way of the Bow and the Horse" (弓馬の道, kyūba no michi) since the 12th century and, in the
Edo period
The , also known as the , is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and some 300 regional ''daimyo'', or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengok ...
, the code of the samurai was formalized with specific virtues and laws by the ruling
Tokugawa Shogunate
The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the was the military government of Japan during the Edo period from 1603 to 1868.
The Tokugawa shogunate was established by Tokugawa Ieyasu after victory at the Battle of Sekigahara, ending the civil wars ...
.
Notable samurai, such as
Miyamoto Musashi (1584–1645) and
Yamamoto Tsunetomo (1659–1719).,
wrote extensively about their interpretations of bushido. In the 1870s, the
Meiji restoration
The , referred to at the time as the , and also known as the Meiji Renovation, Revolution, Regeneration, Reform, or Renewal, was a political event that restored Imperial House of Japan, imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Althoug ...
abolished the samurai class and they were transferred to professional, military and business classes. However, the former samurai and their descendants continued to be influential in Japanese society because they occupied important positions. Bushido has continued to exist in various types. Additional concepts and ideas were added to bushido so that it could evolve with the times. It was used in the
Armed Forces of the Empire of Japan and symbolically by the successor
Japan Self-Defense Forces. In the
Taisho period, bushido was advocated as the way of the merchant.
It can be dormant for years and revived during geopolitical instability. Centuries of rule by the samurai class has left a deep impact on Japanese society. Thus various forms are still used today in e.g. Japanese culture, business, martial arts and communication.
Myth and reality
Bushido is often described as a specific moral code that all members of the
samurai
The samurai () were members of the warrior class in Japan. They were originally provincial warriors who came from wealthy landowning families who could afford to train their men to be mounted archers. In the 8th century AD, the imperial court d ...
class were obligated to follow. However, historically, the samurai adhered to multiple warrior codes and the interpretations varied per samurai clan, individuals and eras.
These codes and philosophies changed dramatically during the different eras. The earliest proto-bushido type existed since the
Kamakura period
The is a period of History of Japan, Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura, Kanagawa, Kamakura by the first ''shōgun'' Minamoto no Yoritomo after the conclusion of the G ...
(1185).
The degrees of devotion and interpretations varied between individuals.
Since at least the
Sengoku period, samurai didn't have compunction to use certain weapons.
Retreating from battles did occur if it was unwinnable while others chose to fight till the end.
Samurai did not actively seek an honorable death.
However, it was honorable to die in the service of a
daimyo only while furthering the daimyo's cause.
Samurai had dark customs, the most notable: ''
Kiri-sute gomen'' was the right to strike lower class who dishonored them.
''
Seppuku'' was ritual suicide, to die honorably or restore one's honor.
''
Tsujigiri'' (crossroads killing) to attack a human opponent to test a weapon or skill became rampant in the early Edo period until a ban was issued.
The exact frequency of tsujigiri is unknown and it was never officially condoned by any samurai clan. However, it and other types of samurai-committed murder did happen enough to become a point of complaint among Europeans.
Samurai did ''head collection'' with a ritual to beautify severed heads of worthy rivals and put on display.
[Gaskin, Carol; Hawkins, Vince. Breve historia de los samuráis (Juan Antonio Cebrián, trad.). London. Nowtilus S.L., 2004. Print. . pg. 56.] The samurai applied various cruel punishments on criminals. The most common capital punishments up until the
Meiji Restoration
The , referred to at the time as the , and also known as the Meiji Renovation, Revolution, Regeneration, Reform, or Renewal, was a political event that restored Imperial House of Japan, imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Althoug ...
were (in order of severity): decapitation, decapitation with disgraceful exposure of head post-death,
crucifixion (for e.g.
parricide), and
death by burning with incendiaries.
Members of the samurai class had the privilege to perform
hara-kiri (suicide disemboweling).
If it was not lethal then a friend or relation performed decapitation (kaishaku).
In 1597,
Toyotomi Hideyoshi ordered the prosecution of
26 Martyrs of Japan.
They were tortured, mutilated, paraded through villages and executed by
crucifixion, tied to crosses on a hill and impaled by lances (spears).
In the 17th century, the
Tokugawa Shogunate
The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the was the military government of Japan during the Edo period from 1603 to 1868.
The Tokugawa shogunate was established by Tokugawa Ieyasu after victory at the Battle of Sekigahara, ending the civil wars ...
executed over 400 Christians (
Martyrs of Japan) for being more loyal to their faith than the Shogunate.
The capital punishments were beheading, crucifixion,
death by burning and .
Bushido has been described as Japanese
chivalry
Chivalry, or the chivalric language, is an informal and varying code of conduct that developed in Europe between 1170 and 1220. It is associated with the medieval Christianity, Christian institution of knighthood, with knights being members of ...
,
and samurai in general have been described as being like
Western knight
A knight is a person granted an honorary title of a knighthood by a head of state (including the pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the church, or the country, especially in a military capacity.
The concept of a knighthood ...
s. There are notable similarities and differences depending on which bushido type is compared with chivalry.
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
had a modifying influence on the virtues of chivalry, whereas bushido was influenced by
Zen Buddhism
Zen (; from Chinese: '' Chán''; in Korean: ''Sŏn'', and Vietnamese: ''Thiền'') is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty by blending Indian Mahayana Buddhism, particularly Yogacara and Madhyamaka ph ...
,
Shinto
, also called Shintoism, is a religion originating in Japan. Classified as an East Asian religions, East Asian religion by Religious studies, scholars of religion, it is often regarded by its practitioners as Japan's indigenous religion and as ...
, and
Confucianism
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, Religious Confucianism, religion, theory of government, or way of li ...
.
Bushido is commonly associated with the moral norms of Nitobe Inazō's ''
Bushido: The Soul of Japan'' (1900), because his book popularized the term bushido internationally. However, it is a romanticized interpretation of bushido which differs from other historical literature by samurai. Thus, the morals defined by Nitobe do not represent all of bushido. Some researchers claim that chivalric bushido as defined by Nitobe (a.k.a. Meiji Bushido) was invented in the 19th century. However, there is a plethora of historical literature about Japanese warrior codes, practices, philosophies since the
Kamakura period
The is a period of History of Japan, Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura, Kanagawa, Kamakura by the first ''shōgun'' Minamoto no Yoritomo after the conclusion of the G ...
. These types can be categorized by era into Sengoku, Edo, Meiji and Contemporary Bushido.
Therefore the term ''bushido'' can be used as an ''overarching term'' for all the codes, practices, philosophies and principles of samurai culture.
Chinese politician
Dai Jitao acknowledged the historical legitimacy of bushido and said it originated as a theory of a social order, but it had evolved considerably. In the
Tokugawa period
The , also known as the , is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and some 300 regional ''daimyo'', or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengok ...
, bushido was used to describe an ethical theory and it became a religious concept based on
Shinto
, also called Shintoism, is a religion originating in Japan. Classified as an East Asian religions, East Asian religion by Religious studies, scholars of religion, it is often regarded by its practitioners as Japan's indigenous religion and as ...
. In the Meiji period, bushido absorbed European ideals and formed the foundation of Japan's political ethics. Chinese writer
Zhou Zuoren supported the historical legitimacy, although it was thought to be altered and corrupted in the modern period.
Historical development
The values that became bushido evolved significantly over the centuries to the present.
These first appeared as unwritten customs in the 12th century with
shogun
, officially , was the title of the military aristocracy, rulers of Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to 1868. Nominally appointed by the Emperor of Japan, Emperor, shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country, exc ...
Minamoto Yoritomo.
The written term ''bushido'' first appears in the
Koyo Gunkan of roughly circa 1616, an account of the military exploits of the
Takeda clan.
Bushido evolved from being totally devoted to valor in battle into refined types that were more related to moral integrity.
The samurai had different types of bushido in each era in
history
History is the systematic study of the past, focusing primarily on the Human history, human past. As an academic discipline, it analyses and interprets evidence to construct narratives about what happened and explain why it happened. Some t ...
, reflecting changing requirements on the battlefield and in society.
The era name should be used to describe the type of bushido.
Heian period
The first predecessor to bushido was the class morality system of the
Heian period
The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. It followed the Nara period, beginning when the 50th emperor, Emperor Kammu, moved the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto). means in Japanese. It is a ...
.
Kamakura period

The first proper Japanese central government was established around the year 700. Japan was ruled by the
Emperor
The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...
(Tennō) with bureaucratic support of the aristocracy. They gradually lost control of their armed servants, the samurai. By the mid-12th century, the samurai class had seized control. The samurai (bushi) ruled Japan with the
shogun
, officially , was the title of the military aristocracy, rulers of Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to 1868. Nominally appointed by the Emperor of Japan, Emperor, shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country, exc ...
(将軍) as the overlord until the mid 19th century. The shogun was originally the Emperor's military deputy. After the
Genpei War
The was a national civil war between the Taira clan, Taira and Minamoto clan, Minamoto clans during the late Heian period of Japan. It resulted in the downfall of the Taira and the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate under Minamoto no Yori ...
(1180–1185),
Minamoto no Yoritomo
was the founder and the first shogun of the Kamakura shogunate, ruling from 1192 until 1199, also the first ruling shogun in the history of Japan.Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Minamoto no Yoriie" in . He was the husband of Hōjō Masako ...
usurped power from the civil aristocracy by establishing a military government called the
bakufu situated in
Kamakura
, officially , is a city of Kanagawa Prefecture in Japan. It is located in the Kanto region on the island of Honshu. The city has an estimated population of 172,929 (1 September 2020) and a population density of 4,359 people per km2 over the tota ...
since 1192.
The Emperor and his court became
figurehead
In politics, a figurehead is a practice of who ''de jure'' (in name or by law) appears to hold an important and often supremely powerful title or office, yet '' de facto'' (in reality) exercises little to no actual power. This usually means that ...
s.
[ Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005)]
"''Kamakura-jidai''"
in ''Japan Encyclopedia'', p. 459.

The appearance of bushido is linked to that of feudal Japan and the first
shogun
, officially , was the title of the military aristocracy, rulers of Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to 1868. Nominally appointed by the Emperor of Japan, Emperor, shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country, exc ...
at the time of
Minamoto no Yoritomo
was the founder and the first shogun of the Kamakura shogunate, ruling from 1192 until 1199, also the first ruling shogun in the history of Japan.Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Minamoto no Yoriie" in . He was the husband of Hōjō Masako ...
(1147–1199) in the 12th century. The own moral dimension bushido gradually appears in the warrior culture and landmark in stories and military treaties only from the 14th and 15th century.
Thus is noted a permanence of the modern representation of its antiquity in Japanese culture and its diffusion.
In the 10th and 11th century there was the ''Way of the Man-At-Arms'' (Tsuwamon no michi), and the ''Way of the Bow and Arrows'' (Kyûsen / kyûya no Michi). At the time of the
Genpei War (1180–1185), it was called ''"Way of the Bow and the Horse"'' (弓馬の道, kyūba no michi)
because of the major importance of this style of combat for the warriors of the time, and because it was considered a traditional method, that of the oldest samurai heroes, such as
Prince Shōtoku,
Minamoto no Yorimitsu and
Minamoto no Yoshiie (Hachimantarō). According to
Louis Frédéric, the kyūba no michi appeared around the 10th century as a set of rules and unwritten customs that samurai were expected to comply. There was also ''"Yumiya toru mi no narai"'' (customs for those who draw the bow).
This shows there was an emerging sense of ideal warrior behavior that evolved from daily training and warfare experience.
''
The Tale of the Heike'' depicts an idealized story of the
Genpei War
The was a national civil war between the Taira clan, Taira and Minamoto clan, Minamoto clans during the late Heian period of Japan. It resulted in the downfall of the Taira and the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate under Minamoto no Yori ...
(1180–1185) with a struggle between two powerful samurai clans, the
Minamoto and the
Taira. Clearly depicted throughout the epic is the ideal of the cultivated warrior. During the early modern era, these ideals were vigorously pursued in the upper echelons of warrior society and recommended as the proper form of the Japanese man of arms. The influence of Shinto, Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism on bushido's early development instilled among those who live by the code a religious respect for it.
Many early literary works of Japan talk of warriors, but the term ''bushidō'' does not appear in text until the Edo period. The code which would become bushido was conceptualized during the late-
Kamakura period
The is a period of History of Japan, Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura, Kanagawa, Kamakura by the first ''shōgun'' Minamoto no Yoritomo after the conclusion of the G ...
(1185–1333) in Japan.
Since the days of the
Kamakura shogunate, the "way of the warrior" has been an integral part of Japanese culture.
[Department of Asian Art. "Kamakura and Nanbokucho Periods (1185–1392)." In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.] Scholars generally regard pre-modern Japan as a "warrior nation" since the medieval period.
The samurai were role models for society since medieval times. In accordance with
Confucianism
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, Religious Confucianism, religion, theory of government, or way of li ...
, one of their duties was to serve as a role model for society. They balanced their martial arts skills with peaceful accomplishments such as literature, poetry and the
tea ceremony. Such as the medieval Japanese proverb ''
Hana wa sakuragi, hito wa bushi'' (, literally "the
estblossom is the cherry blossom; the
estman is the warrior"). In 1843 Nakamura said:
Muromachi-Azuchi (1336–1603)
During the
Muromachi period (1336–1573) the way of the warrior began to ''refine'' by inserting in their daily activities, alongside martial training,
Zen
Zen (; from Chinese: ''Chán''; in Korean: ''Sŏn'', and Vietnamese: ''Thiền'') is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty by blending Indian Mahayana Buddhism, particularly Yogacara and Madhyamaka phil ...
meditation,
painting
Painting is a Visual arts, visual art, which is characterized by the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface (called "matrix" or "Support (art), support"). The medium is commonly applied to the base with ...
(monochrome style),
ikebana
is the Japanese art of flower arrangement. It is also known as . The origin of ikebana can be traced back to the ancient Japanese custom of erecting Evergreen, evergreen trees and decorating them with flowers as yorishiro () to invite the go ...
, the
tea ceremony,
poetry
Poetry (from the Greek language, Greek word ''poiesis'', "making") is a form of literature, literary art that uses aesthetics, aesthetic and often rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meaning (linguistics), meanings in addition to, or in ...
such as the
death poem (written by samurai before suicidal missions or battles) and
literature
Literature is any collection of Writing, written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially novels, Play (theatre), plays, and poetry, poems. It includes both print and Electroni ...
.
Carl Steenstrup noted that 13th- and 14th-century writings (''
gunki monogatari'') "portrayed the ''bushi'' in their natural element, war, eulogizing such virtues as reckless bravery, fierce family pride, and selfless, at times senseless devotion of master and man".
The sayings of
Sengoku-period retainers and warlords such as
Katō Kiyomasa
was a Japanese ''daimyō'' of the Azuchi–Momoyama period, Azuchi–Momoyama and Edo periods. His court title was . His name as a child was ''Yashamaru'', and first name was ''Toranosuke''. He was one of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Hideyoshi's Seven ...
(1562–1611) and
Nabeshima Naoshige were generally recorded or passed down to posterity around the turn of the 16th century when Japan had entered a period of relative peace. In a handbook addressed to "all ''samurai'', regardless of rank", Katō states:
Katō was a ferocious warrior who banned even recitation of poetry, stating:
Nabeshima Naoshige (1538–1618) says similarly, that it is shameful for any man to die without having risked his life in battle, regardless of rank, and that "''bushidō'' is in being crazy to die. Fifty or more could not kill one such a man. However, Naoshige also suggests that "everyone should personally know exertion as it is known in the lower classes".
By the mid-16th century, several of Japan's most powerful warlords began to vie for supremacy over territories amidst the Kyoto government's waning power. With Kyoto's capture by the warlord
Oda Nobunaga
was a Japanese ''daimyō'' and one of the leading figures of the Sengoku period, Sengoku and Azuchi-Momoyama periods. He was the and regarded as the first "Great Unifier" of Japan. He is sometimes referred as the "Demon Daimyō" and "Demo ...
in 1573, the
Muromachi period concluded.
In 1551 CE, one of the
first western people to visit Japan was the
Roman Catholic
The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2025. It is among the world's oldest and largest international institut ...
missionary
A missionary is a member of a Religious denomination, religious group who is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thoma ...
Francis Xavier
Francis Xavier, Jesuits, SJ (born Francisco de Jasso y Azpilicueta; ; ; ; ; ; 7 April 15063 December 1552), venerated as Saint Francis Xavier, was a Kingdom of Navarre, Navarrese cleric and missionary. He co-founded the Society of Jesus ...
. The description of Francis shows that
honor,
weaponry and
warfare
War is an armed conflict between the armed forces of State (polity), states, or between governmental forces and armed groups that are organized under a certain command structure and have the capacity to sustain military operations, or betwe ...
were valued of utmost importance in Japanese culture.
The practice of decapitating and collecting enemy heads is an example of honor in samurai culture.
The severed heads were shown to a general as evidence that they killed wanted opponents and to collect rewards.
More heads meant higher prestige, honor and rewards.
A beautification ritual of the severed heads called ''
Ohaguro'' was performed.
[Turnbull, Stephen. Samurai The Story of Japan's Great Warriors. London. Prc Publishing Ltd, 2004. Print. pg. 231.] Prestigious heads were arranged on a table and presented in front of the warriors.
All heads were identified and marked to prevent mistakes.
The guards were left and right of the general and cited spells to transfix demonic spirits of the enemy.
Then a samurai said his own name, lifted a box to show and describe the severed head.
The general inspected the trophy heads while holding a fan so that the dead could not recognize his face.
If the claimed head was correct then the samurai received a payment otherwise he was dismissed.
Despite the war-torn culmination of this era and the birth of the Edo period, Samurai codes of conduct continued to extend beyond the realms of warfare. Forms of bushido-related
Zen Buddhism
Zen (; from Chinese: '' Chán''; in Korean: ''Sŏn'', and Vietnamese: ''Thiền'') is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty by blending Indian Mahayana Buddhism, particularly Yogacara and Madhyamaka ph ...
and
Confucianism
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, Religious Confucianism, religion, theory of government, or way of li ...
also emerged during this period.
[Tasuke, p. 78] A Samurai adhering to bushido-like codes was expected to live a just and ethical social life; honoring the practices of the gentry in the absence of military campaigns.
Edo (1603–1868)

Japan enjoyed two and a half centuries of relative peace during the
Edo period
The , also known as the , is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and some 300 regional ''daimyo'', or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengok ...
(1600 to the mid-19th century). Japan didn't have domestic or international conflict. These peaceful times in Tokugawa society enabled bushido to be refined from a focus on ''valor in battle'' to more ''moral integrity''.
The
Tokugawa shogunate
The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the was the military government of Japan during the Edo period from 1603 to 1868.
The Tokugawa shogunate was established by Tokugawa Ieyasu after victory at the Battle of Sekigahara, ending the civil wars ...
(1603–1867) codified aspects of the Samurai warrior values and formalized them into parts of the Japanese feudal law.
In addition to the "house codes" issued in the context of the fiefdoms (han) and texts that described the right behavior of a warrior (such as the Hagakure), the first
Buke shohatto (Laws for the Military Houses, 武家諸法度) was issued by the government in 1615, which prescribed to the lords of the fiefdoms (
daimyo) and the samurai warrior aristocracy responsibilities and activities, the rules of conduct, simple and decent clothing, the correct supply in case of official visits, etc.
The edicts were reissued in 1629, and in 1635, by the third shogun
Tokugawa Iemitsu. The new edicts made clear the shogunate's authority and its desire to assert control. The swordsmanship skills of the samurai developed into character-building martial arts.
During this period, the ''samurai'' class played a central role in the policing and administration of the country. The
''bushidō'' literature of this time contains much thought relevant to a warrior class seeking more general application of martial principles and experience in peacetime, as well as reflection on the land's long history of war. The literature of this time includes:
* ''Shoke no Hyōjō'' by Ogasawara Sakuun (1621)
* ''Budo Shōshinshu'' (武道初心集) by Taira Shigesuke,
Daidōji Yūzan (1639–1730)
*''
Hagakure'' as related by
Yamamoto Tsunetomo to
Tsuramoto Tashiro.
*
Bugei Juhappan (武芸十八般)
*
A Book of Five Rings by
Miyamoto Musashi
The first mention of the term ''bushido'' is in the scriptures
Koyo Gunkan (甲陽軍鑑) from Takeda-ryū (martial arts school), written around 1616 by samurai
Kōsaka Masanobu (1527–1578).
It consists of 20 scrolls that mention bushido over 30 times.
It contains the history of the
Takeda family and their military tactics.
The Koyo Gunkan describes valor and exploits in battle.
For example, it is a waste of talent when a bushido practitioner takes on administrative roles in government or financial affairs (e.g. dealings in rice, money, timber, or forest land). It emphasizes that bushido lies only in "becoming as a spear" on the battlefield.
The scrolls were widely disseminated as a martial arts instruction manual by the samurai class and helped to popularize the term.
In
Koyo Gunkan (1616), bushido is a survival technique for individual fighters, and it aims to make the development of the self and the clan troupe advantageous by raising the samurai name. He also affirms that he seeks a lord who praises himself for wandering, as reflected in Tōdō Takatora (1556–1630)'s deceased memoir that "A samurai cannot be called a samurai until he has changed his lords seven times." Also, as symbolized by
Asakura Norikage (1477–1555), "The warrior may be called a beast or a dog; the main thing is winning." As symbolized by Asakura Norikage, it is essential to win the battle even with the slander of cowardice. The feature is that it also contains the cold-hearted philosophy. These are mainly related to the way of life as a samurai, and they are the teachings of each family, and they are also equivalent to the treatment of vassals.
Dr. Hiroko Willcock (senior lecturer at
Griffith University
Griffith University is a public university, public research university in South East Queensland on the Eastern states of Australia, east coast of Australia. The university was founded in 1971, but was not officially opened until 1975. Griffith ...
, Australia) explained ''Koyo Gunkan is the earliest comprehensive extant work that provides a notion of bushido as a samurai ethos and the value system of the samurai tradition.''
However, it does not have a set of principles regarded as "true" or "false", but rather varying perceptions widely regarded as formidable throughout different centuries. Emphasized by Thomas Cleary,
During the
Genna era (1615–1624) of the
Edo period
The , also known as the , is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and some 300 regional ''daimyo'', or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengok ...
and later, the concept of "the way of the gentleman" (Shidō) was newly established by the
philosopher
Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...
and
strategist Yamaga Sokō (1622–1685) and others who tried to explain this value in the
morality
Morality () is the categorization of intentions, Decision-making, decisions and Social actions, actions into those that are ''proper'', or ''right'', and those that are ''improper'', or ''wrong''. Morality can be a body of standards or principle ...
of the
Confucian Cheng–Zhu school. For the first time, Confucian ethics (such as Honor and Humanity", "filial piety") became the norm required by samurai. Yamaga Sokō was widely viewed as the "Sage of Bushidō" in early twentieth-century Japan.
Martial arts scholar Ogasawara Sakuun compiled 20 scrolls called Shoke no Hyōjō about the military arts in 1621.
Therein bushido is described as iji (willpower).
The scrolls describe the essence of bushido as the strength to not yield to rewards or power, but adhere to personal convictions that dominate one's inner principles.
In 1642, the was written by samurai ''Saitō Chikamori'' (斎藤親盛, 1603–1674) (ex-vassal of the
Mogami clan from
Yamagata Domain) and published.
[Showa Women's University Professor Akio Fukasawa (昭和女子大教授・深沢秋男)] Chikamori's pen name was Nyoraishi (如儡子). The kashoki are 5 scrolls with wide-ranging content, including samurai knowledge with moral precepts,
the knowledge of ordinary people, the teachings of Confucian Buddhism, and narrative ones. It has moral precepts which explain theoretical aspects of bushido.
The 5th scroll has an important definition that was made by a samurai:
Thus the first known description of morality in bushido and the ''bushido spirit'' was the Kashoki.
The kashoki was important with promulgating the ''bushido spirit'' among the
common population.
Thus it was written for
commoners, not warriors.
Its accessibility made it very popular, because it was written in
kana (hiragana and katakana) rather than
kanji
are logographic Chinese characters, adapted from Chinese family of scripts, Chinese script, used in the writing of Japanese language, Japanese. They were made a major part of the Japanese writing system during the time of Old Japanese and are ...
which can be read by people with
elementary school reading skills.
There were many editions which had major influence on the behavior of commoners such as adults, adolescents, women and generations.
Master swordsman
Miyamoto Musashi's life exemplifies bushido.
Musashi (1584–1645) wrote
The Book of Five Rings (Gorin no Sho) around 1643.
It consists of five volumes (Earth, Water, Fire, Wind and Void). The Book of Earth describes the general framework of bushidō.
For example: apply skills in any situation, always carry two swords, learn how to effectively use the lance,
naginata, bow and arrow, and guns. A daimyo should know the strength of his troops and how to properly deploy them. Devote yourself to training to master a way, avoid evil acts and thoughts, broaden perspectives with arts and knowledge about different professions, make objective judgments etc.
In 1685, the
ukiyo-e
is a genre of Japanese art that flourished from the 17th through 19th centuries. Its artists produced woodblock printing, woodblock prints and Nikuhitsu-ga, paintings of such subjects as female beauties; kabuki actors and sumo wrestlers; scenes ...
book by artist
Hishikawa Moronobu (1618–1694) was published.
It features heroic popular tales of samurai warriors with simple descriptions per artwork.
The title includes the word ''bushido'' and it was meant for children which shows that it had spread among the general population.
The Chinese politician
Dai Jitao (1891–1949) attended
Nihon University
, abbreviated as , is a private research university in Japan. Its predecessor, Nihon Law School (currently the Department of Law), was founded by Yamada Akiyoshi, the Minister of Justice, in 1889. The university's name is derived from the Ja ...
's law program in 1907. He was fluent in
Japanese and learned about bushido. Dai criticized the supposedly violent nature of the traditional Japanese ''feudal class'' structure before the
Meiji period
The was an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868, to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonizatio ...
. Dai said the samurai brutally exploited the class structure to abuse and kill people below them in the social order (and biasedly claimed the opposite for Chinese society as peace-loving). According to Dai, after Confucianism became influential in the 17th century, it brought ideas of benevolence and humanity that pacified the cruel samurai and set Japan upon the course to become a modern and civilized society. Dai also appreciated aspects of the samurai. For example Dai said: Japan continued to benefit from their spirit of self-sacrifice, selfless loyalty, and—after Confucianism was introduced—compassion. Dai blamed the problems of modern Japan (post-Meiji restoration) due to the loss of samurai virtues when the former merchant class gained power and large corporations started to steer government policy.
[Lu Yan (2004). Re-Understanding Japan: Chinese Perspectives 1895–1945. Page= 87-9. Honolulu, University of Hawai'i Press.] Dai said after the samurai class was heavily influenced by Confucian ideals of compassion, their bushido became essentially a "life of blood and tears", because they selflessly shed blood for their lords and cried tears of compassion for farmers and other lower class people.
The ''
Hagakure'' contains many sayings attributed to
Sengoku-period retainer
Nabeshima Naoshige (1537–1619) regarding ''bushidō'' related philosophy early in the 18th century by
Yamamoto Tsunetomo (1659–1719), a former
retainer to Naoshige's grandson,
Nabeshima Mitsushige. The
Hagakure was compiled in the early 18th century, but was kept as a kind of "secret teaching" of the
Nabeshima clan until the end of the Tokugawa ''bakufu'' (1867).
["The Samurai Series: The Book of Five Rings, Hagakure -The Way of the Samurai & Bushido – The Soul of Japan" ELPN Press (November, 2006) ] His saying, "''I have found the way of the warrior is death''", was a summation of the focus on honour and reputation over all else that ''bushidō'' codified. This is occasionally misinterpreted that bushido is a code of death. The true meaning is by having a constant consciousness of death, people can achieve a state of freedom that transcends life and death, whereby "''it is possible to perfectly fulfill one's calling as a warrior.''"
Tokugawa-era
rōnin, scholar and strategist
Yamaga Sokō (1622–1685) wrote extensively on matters relating to ''bushidō'', ''bukyō'' (a "warrior's creed"), and a more general ''shidō'', a "way of gentlemen" intended for application to all stations of society. Sokō attempts to codify a kind of "universal ''bushidō''" with a special emphasis on "pure"
Confucian values, (rejecting the mystical influences of Tao and Buddhism in Neo-Confucian orthodoxy), while at the same time calling for recognition of the singular and divine nature of Japan and Japanese culture. These radical concepts—including ultimate devotion to the Emperor, regardless of rank or clan—put him at odds with the reigning shogunate. He was exiled to the
Akō domain, (the future setting of the
47 Rōnin incident), and his works were not widely read until the rise of nationalism in the early 20th century.

The aging Yamamoto Tsunetomo's interpretation of ''bushidō'' is perhaps more illustrative of the philosophy refined by his unique station and experience, at once dutiful and defiant, ultimately incompatible with the laws of an emerging civil society. Of the 47 ''rōnin''—to this day, generally regarded as exemplars of ''bushidō''—Tsunetomo felt they were remiss in hatching such a wily, delayed plot for revenge, and had been over-concerned with the success of their undertaking. Instead, Tsunetomo felt true ''samurai'' should act without hesitation to fulfill their duties, without regard for success or failure.
This romantic sentiment is of course expressed by warriors throughout history, though it may run counter to the art of war itself. This ambivalence is found in the heart of ''bushidō'', and perhaps all such "
warrior
A warrior is a guardian specializing in combat or warfare, especially within the context of a tribal society, tribal or clan-based warrior culture society that recognizes a separate warrior aristocracy, social class, class, or caste.
History
...
codes". Some combination of traditional ''bushidō''
's organic contradictions and more "universal" or "progressive" formulations (like those of Yamaga Sokō) would inform Japan's disastrous military ambitions in the 20th century.
According to the social psychologist Toshio Yamagishi (
:ja:山岸俊男, 1948–2018) "Bushido is the ideal human image formed mainly in the Edo period, in other words a virtue in the groupism world."
It was the perfect person that fitted the ideal control of the samurai administration in the Edo period.
Meiji-Showa (1868–1945)

Recent scholarship in both Japan and abroad has focused on differences between the samurai caste and the bushido theories that developed in modern Japan. Bushido evolved considerably over time. Bushido in the prewar period emphasized the role of the emperor and placed greater value on the imperial virtues of loyalty and self-sacrifice than many Tokugawa-era interpretations.
[Eiko Ikegami. ''The Taming of the Samurai: Honorific Individualism and the Making of Modern Japan.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995.]

Prominent scholars consider the bushido prevalent since the
Meiji era
The was an Japanese era name, era of History of Japan, Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868, to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feu ...
to be a simplification of the attributes of samurai. Samurai originally fought for personal matters and the honor of their family and clan. When Japan was unified, the role of samurai included public administrative responsibilities, such as public order preservation, judicial responsibility, infrastructure maintenance, disaster recovery, farmland development, healthcare administration and industrial promotion.
The samurai class was abolished in the 1870s and the role of those in it grew more bureaucratic, focusing on the formation of a modern nation-state. With the diminishing of social classes, some values were transferred to the whole population, such as loyalty to the emperor.
The author
Yukio Mishima asserted that "invasionism or militarism had nothing to do with bushidō from the outset." According to Mishima, a man of bushido is someone who has a firm sense of self-respect, takes responsibility for his actions and sacrifices himself to embody that responsibility.
Dai Jitao credited the samurai with sole responsibility for the
Meiji Restoration
The , referred to at the time as the , and also known as the Meiji Renovation, Revolution, Regeneration, Reform, or Renewal, was a political event that restored Imperial House of Japan, imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Althoug ...
, which enabled Japan's modernization, while the populace merely allowed it to happen.
[Dai Jitao (2011). Riben lun. Beijing, Guangming Ribao Chuban She. Page= 46] Dai argued that Japanese combative tendency and militarism were purely founded in Japan's socio-religious superstitions centered on the notion of divine authority. It did not exist in Chinese or Indian thought.
Bushido was used as a propaganda tool by the government and military, who doctored it to suit their needs. The original
Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors of 1882 uses the word ''hōkoku'' (報国), signifying the idea of indebtedness to one's nation because of one's birth. Such debt must be repaid through physical or mental exertion. This idea did not exist in earlier bushido.
Chinese writer
Zhou Zuoren regarded the bushido promoted by the military as a corruption of a noble and ancient tradition.
He discussed the act of
seppuku and the importance of old samurai practices in his 1935 essay series, "Riben guankui". He named the story of the
Forty-seven rōnin
The revenge of the , also known as the or Akō vendetta, was a historical event in Japan in which a band of ''rōnin'' (lordless samurai) avenged the death of their former master on 31 January 1703. The incident has since become legendary. I ...
of the Akō Domain, who were sentenced to seppuku after avenging their daimyo, and their legacy in the story
Chūshingura (A Treasury of Loyal Retainers). He discussed the
Sakai incident, in which 20 samurai from Tosa Domain committed seppuku in 1868 for attacking French sailors. These examples were compared with the soft punishment given to the soldiers who assassinated Prime Minister
Inukai Tsuyoshi
Inukai Tsuyoshi (, 4 June 1855 – 15 May 1932) was a Japanese statesman who was Prime Minister of Japan, prime minister of Japan from 1931 to his assassination in 1932. At the age of 76, Inukai was Japan's second oldest serving prime minister, ...
in 1932. Zhou condemned them for not taking responsibility by committing suicide like traditional samurai.
In 1936, Zhou wrote about the loss of humanity and empathy of traditional bushido during the deterioration of the Second World War. He pointed to the samurai novel by
Jun'ichirō Tanizaki as an example where victors of a battle treated enemy corpses with dignity.
Bushido regained popularity and became intertwined with Japan's nationalist expression in the mid-1800s in response to Britain's invasion of China in the
First Opium War. Xenophobia toward Westerners rose in Japan during the 1850s and 1860s which contributed to the perceived legitimacy of the imperial restoration. Use of "bushido" in text increased during this period and its concept was viewed with more positivity. While it disappeared during the 1870s, it reappeared in the 1880s to express the loss of traditional values during the rapid introduction of Western civilization and a renewed sense of urgency to defend Japanese traditions. The
victory of Japan over China in 1895 restored a feeling of pride in bushido, which was considered the "origin of military success."
The researcher Oleg Benesch argued that the concept of modern bushido changed throughout the modern era as a response to foreign stimuli in the 1880s, such as the English concept of the gentleman.
Nitobe Inazō's bushido interpretations followed a similar trajectory, though he was following earlier trends. This relatively pacifistic bushido was hijacked and adapted by militarists and the government from the early 1900s as nationalism increased around the time of the
Russo–Japanese War.
The entrepreneur
Fukuzawa Yukichi appreciated bushido and emphasized that maintaining the morale of scholars is the essence of eternal life.
[许介鳞:日本「武士道」揭谜 (Japanese "Bushido" the mysteries exposed)](_blank)
Nitoto Inazuke submitted his book, ''Bushido'', to
Emperor Meiji
, posthumously honored as , was the 122nd emperor of Japan according to the List of emperors of Japan, traditional order of succession, reigning from 1867 until his death in 1912. His reign is associated with the Meiji Restoration of 1868, which ...
and stated, "Bushido is prosperous here, assists Komo, and promotes the national style, so that the public will return to the patriotic virtues of loyal ministers." He wrote that bushido has slightly different requirements for men and women. For women, bushido means guarding their chastity, educating their children, supporting their husbands and maintaining their families.
The ''
junshi'' suicide of
General Nogi Maresuke and his wife on the death of Emperor Meiji earned praise as an example of opposition to the trend of decaying morals in Japan. It also earned criticism from those who believed that aspect of bushido should not be revived.
After the Meiji Restoration, the martial arts etiquette represented by
Ogasawara-ryū (小笠原流) popularized training. Bushido-influenced martial arts and education corresponded with nationalistic ideals prevalent prior to 1941. Honoring tradition through bushido-inspired martial skills enabled society to remain interconnected, harnessing society's reverence of ancestral practices for national strength.
According to researcher William R. Patterson, "The martial arts were seen as a way not to maintain ancient martial techniques but instead to preserve a traditional value system, Bushido, that could be used to nurture national spirit. In the midst of modernization the Japanese were struggling to hold onto some traditions that were uniquely Japanese and that could unify them as countrymen."
For example,
Kanō Jigorō argued, "Because judo developed based on the martial arts of the past, if the martial arts practitioners of the past had things that are of value, those who practice judo should pass all those things on. Among these, the samurai spirit should be celebrated even in today's society."
During interbellum and Second World War
Shōwa Japan, bushido was pressed into use for militarism
to present war as purifying, and death a duty. Bushido was pitched as revitalizing traditional values and "transcending the modern". Bushido would provide a spiritual shield to let soldiers fight to the end. When giving orders,
General Hideki Tojo routinely slapped the faces of the men under his command, saying face-slapping was a "means of training" men who came from families that were not part of the samurai caste, and for whom bushido was not second nature. Tojo wrote a chapter in the book ''Hijōji kokumin zenshū'' (''Essays in time of national emergency'') which the Army Ministry published in March 1934. It called for Japan to become a totalitarian "national defense state". It included 15 essays by senior generals and argued Japan defeated Russia in the Russo–Japanese War because bushido gave the Japanese superior willpower: they did not fear death, unlike the Russians who wanted to live.

As the Second World War turned, the spirit of bushido was invoked to urge that all depended on the firm and united soul of the nation. When Japan lost the
Battle of Attu, the government attempted to paint the more than two thousand Japanese deaths as an inspirational epic for the fighting spirit of the nation. Arguments that the plans for the
Battle of Leyte Gulf, involving all Japanese ships, would expose Japan to serious danger if they failed, were countered with the plea that the Navy be permitted to "bloom as flowers of death". The Japanese believed that indoctrination in bushido would give them the edge as the Japanese longed to die for the emperor, while the Americans were afraid to die. However, superior American pilot training and airplanes meant the Japanese were outclassed by the Americans. The first proposals of
organized suicide attacks met resistance. While bushido called for a warrior to be always aware of death, they were not to view it as the sole end. However, desperation brought about acceptance and such attacks were acclaimed as the true spirit of bushido.
Bushido regarded surrender as cowardly. Those who did forfeited their honor and lost dignity and respect:
The practice of beheading captured soldiers and prisoners originates from samurai culture in the 14th century or earlier.
Japanese propaganda claimed prisoners of war captured during the Second World War denied mistreatment, and declared they were treated well by virtue of bushido generosity. Broadcast interviews with prisoners were described as not propaganda and voluntarily given based on such sympathy for the enemy that only bushido could inspire.
During the Second World War, many Japanese infantry were trapped on
Guam
Guam ( ; ) is an island that is an Territories of the United States, organized, unincorporated territory of the United States in the Micronesia subregion of the western Pacific Ocean. Guam's capital is Hagåtña, Guam, Hagåtña, and the most ...
, surrounded by Allied forces and low on supplies. Despite being outnumbered and in horrific conditions, many soldiers refused to surrender. Nitobe Inazō wrote, "They continued to honor the Bushido code, believing that to rush into the thick of battle and to be slain in it, is easy enough... but, it is true courage to live when it is right to live, and to die only when it is right to die".
[Nitobe, Inazō. 2006 ''Bushido: The Soul of Japan''. Stepney, Australia: Axiom Publishing.]
Contemporary bushido
Bushido is still present in the social and economic organization of Japan.
The samurai spirit and the virtues can still be found in Japanese society.
Notable Japanese consider bushido an important part of their culture.
Certain people use aspects of bushido as a way of life.
Business
Bushido affects myriad aspects in Japanese society and culture. In addition to impacts on military performance, media, entertainment, martial arts, medicine and social work, the bushido code has catalyzed corporate behavior. It is the mode of thought which historically structured the capitalist activity in the 20th century. Business relations, the close relationship between the individual and the group to which he or she belongs, the notions of trust, respect and harmony within the Japanese business world are based on bushido. Therefore, this is at the origin of the
industrial harmony (
:ja:労使協調) ideology of modern Japan. It allowed the country to become, with the
Japanese economic miracle, the economic leader of Asia in the post-war years of the 1950-1960s.
The industrialist
Eiichi Shibusawa preached bushido as necessary for future times, and the spirit of Japanese business from the Meiji era to the
Taishō Democracy was advocated, which became the backbone necessary for Japanese management.
Shinya Fujimura examines Samurai ethics in the academic article The Samurai Ethics: A Paradigm for Corporate Behavior. Bushido principles indicate that rapid economic growth does not have to be a goal of modern existence. Relatedly, economic contentment is attainable regardless of hegemonic gross-domestic product statistics. In Fujimura's words, "The tradition permeates the country's corporate culture and has informed many of its social developments". Fujimura states egalitarian principles practiced by the Samurai have permeated through modern business society and culture. Principles like Honorable Poverty, "Seihin," encourage those with power and resources to share their wealth, directly influencing national success. Bushido also provides enterprises with social meaning. Eloquently described by Fujimura, "The moral purpose that bushido articulates transcends booms and busts ... it is often said that a Japanese company is like a family, with executives caring about employees and employees showing respect to executives. Bushido, then, is part of the basis for a sense of national identity and belonging—an ideal that says the Japanese are one people, in it together.
In
Taiwan
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...
there continued to be positive views of bushido.
Such as late ROC president
Lee Teng-hui (1923–2020) admired traditional Japanese values and bushido influenced him.
In
Japanese Taiwan, Teng-hui learned
kendo in school and he was deeply influenced by bushido and the Japanese ''Bushido spirit'', which had a significant impact on his future life.
He wrote the 2003 Japanese book ''"Bushido" Precis: What is Noblesse oblige?'' which strived to boost Japan's morale during the
economic stagnation by appealing to Japan's warrior spirit.
Communication
In utilization of bushido's seven virtues, the Samurai code has been renewed to contribute towards development of communication skills between adult Japanese couples. Composed in 2012, the empirical document "The Bushido Matrix for Couple Communication" identifies a methodology which can be employed by counseling agents to guide adults in self-reflection and share emotions with their partner. This activity centers on the "Bushido Matrix Worksheet" (BMW). The authors accentuate, "practicing Bushido virtues can ultimately enhance intra- and interpersonal relationship, beginning with personal awareness and extending to couple awareness.
When utilizing the matrix, a couple is asked to identify one of the seven virtues and apply it to their past and current perceptions surrounding its prevalence in their lives.
If individuals identify their relationship to be absent that specific virtue, they may now ponder of its inclusion for their benevolence.
Martial arts

The bushido spirit exists in Japanese martial arts.
Modern bushido focuses more on self-defense, fighting, sports, tournaments and just physical fitness training. While all of these things are important to the martial arts, a much more important thing is missing, which is personal development. Bushido's art taught soldiers the important secrets of life, how to raise children, how to dress, how to treat family and other people, how to cultivate personality, things related to finances. All of these things are important to be a respected soldier. Although modern bushido is guided by eight virtues, that alone is not enough. Bushido not only taught one how to become a soldier, but all the stages of life. The warrior described by bushido is not a profession but a way of life. It is not necessary to be in the army to be a soldier. The term "warrior" refers to a person who is fighting for something, not necessarily physically. Man is a true warrior because of what is in his heart, mind, and soul. Everything else is just tools in the creation to make it perfect. Bushido is a way of life that means living in every moment, honorably and honestly. All this is of great importance in the life of a soldier, both now and in the past.
In the book ''Kata – The true essence of Budo martial arts?'', Simon Dodd and David Brown state that ''bushido spiritualism'' led the martial art 'Bujutsu' to evolve into modern '
Budō
is a Japanese language, Japanese term describing modern Japanese martial arts. It is commonly translated as "Martial Way", or the "Way of Martial Arts".
Etymology
is a compound of the root ( or ; ), meaning "war" or "martial"; and ( or ; ), ...
' (武道).
For their analysis, they review the Kamakura period to reiterate the influence bushido held in martial arts evolution.
They distinctly state, "For clarity any reference to bushido is in relation to bujutsu within the Kamakura to pre-Meiji restoration period (pre-1868), and any links to budo are referring to the modern form of the martial arts."
To supplement this affirmation Dodd and Brown discuss the variance between the meaning behind Bujutsu and Budo. According to Todd and Brown Budo is a redevelopment of traditional
Kamakura period
The is a period of History of Japan, Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura, Kanagawa, Kamakura by the first ''shōgun'' Minamoto no Yoritomo after the conclusion of the G ...
martial arts principles; Budo defines the ''way of the warrior'' through roots in religious ethics and philosophy. The martial art form's translation binds it to Confucian and Buddhist concepts of bushido:
Respected karate-ka Kousaku Yokota explains how Bujutsu could be considered the "art of fighting or killing" and encompasses a 'win at all costs' mentality required for battlefield survival (Yokota, 2010, p. 185). Conversely, Budo could be considered the "art of living or life" and enables a practitioner to live "honestly and righteously or at least with principles". Expanding on both these points, Deshimaru (1982, p. 11; p. 46) reports that the ideogram for bu means to "the cease the struggle" and that "in Budo the point is...to find peace and mastery of the self"
Iaidō, in its transmission and its practice, is the martial art which takes up, in its entirety, bushido by the etiquette, the code of honor, the dress, the carrying of the sword and the fight against oneself rather than against the opponent. Modern combat sports like
kendo derive their philosophy from bushido; unlike other martial arts, prolonged contact or multiple hits tend to be disadvantaged in favor of simple, clean attacks on the body. Bushido has also inspired the code of honor for disciplines such as
aikijutsu,
aikido
Aikido ( , , , ) is a gendai budō, modern Japanese martial art which is split into many different styles including Iwama Ryu, Iwama Shin Shin Aiki Shuren Kai, Shodokan Aikido, Yoshinkan, Renshinkai, Aikikai, and Ki Aikido. Aikido is now practic ...
,
aikibudo,
judo
is an unarmed gendai budō, modern Japanese martial art, combat sport, Olympic sport (since 1964), and the most prominent form of jacket wrestling competed internationally.『日本大百科全書』電子版【柔道】(CD-ROM version of Encyc ...
,
jujitsu,
Kyudo, or the
chanbara.
Kendo has the bushido spirit as epitomized by the motto ''Ken Zen Ichi Nyo'' (lit. "the sword and Zen are one") (剣 禅 一 如).
The philosopher
Tetsuro Watsuji (1889–1960) wrote that kendo involves raising a struggle to a life-transcending level by freeing oneself from an attachment to life.
Kendo inculcates moral instruction through strict adherence to a code of etiquette.
There are kamidana (miniature Shinto shrine) in the dojo.
The basic attitude in Kendo is noble by shunning base feelings and the aim is conquering the self.
Way of life
There are people who use bushido as a way of life. For example, the Japanese music artist
Gackt said that his philosophical way of life is similar to bushido.
In 2011, during interviews about his martial arts action movie
Bunraku (2010) he said: Other notable people who use bushido in life are for example: former ROC president
Lee Teng-hui (1923–2020).
In October 2011, Spain's
Prince of Asturias Award for Concord was given to the heroes of the
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
The Fukushima nuclear accident was a major nuclear accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Ōkuma, Fukushima, Japan, which began on 11 March 2011. The cause of the accident was the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, which r ...
aka the
Fukushima 50.
They were praised for their conduct which "embodied the values most deeply rooted in Japanese society" and "courage and exemplary behaviour" with self-sacrifice.
This was described by the media as "samurai spirit".
Japan Self-Defense Forces

The
Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) are the successor of the
Armed Forces of the Empire of Japan which existed from 1868 till 1947. The JSDF was officially established with the Self-Defense Forces Act in 1954 (Act No. 165 of 1954).
It is primarily used for national defense due to limitations of
Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution. Bushido is only used symbolically for example with names for combat exercises such as Exercise Bushido Guardian (2019).
There are supporters and opposition for introducing bushido to the JSDF.
Supporters
Since 2000, numerous general officers proclaimed the importance of bushido with lectures.
Bushido is useful for uniting troops with slogans such as "bravery" "discipline" and "honesty".
Takashi Araya is an author, martial artist and
JGSDF veteran (1982–2008) who established the first special forces of the
JSDF.
Araya wrote the 2015 book ''To those who Fight: Japan's Cause and Bushido''.
He describes the essence of bushido which was created over a thousand years, and stresses the importance of training soldiers with bushido.
He argues the purpose of Japanese martial arts is not to kill other people, but to cleanse their evil spirits and open the way for coexistence and co-prosperity.
He says by training soldiers with bushido they can become the strongest fighting special forces.
He wants JSDF members to inherit bushido to be brave and live dignifiedly.
By using the action philosophy of bushido, they can become not only strong technologically, but also spiritually.
Opposition
Some critics say that excessive praise of bushido could repeat the mistakes of the former Imperial Armed Forces.
The old Japanese military officer training of the
IJA emphasized courage under fire (assault) instead of scientific ability.
This created close solidarity between the soldiers and officers, but the officers lacked the skills that the soldiers had.
Japanese troops put high significance on dying bravely and spiritual value instead of long-term endurance.
This resulted in "an inclination toward spirituality that ignores reality."
This
ethos
''Ethos'' is a Greek word meaning 'character' that is used to describe the guiding beliefs or ideals that characterize a community, nation, or ideology; and the balance between caution and passion. The Greeks also used this word to refer to the ...
exists in the JSDF. By having officers act like soldiers to earn their loyalty with the courage of bushido, it causes sleep-deprivation.
It's disputed whether it has significance for modern-warfare such as
space warfare and
cyberwarfare
Cyberwarfare is the use of cyberattack, cyber attacks against an enemy State (polity), state, causing comparable harm to actual warfare and/or disrupting vital computer systems. Some intended outcomes could be espionage, sabotage, propaganda, ...
.
There was a case of a
National Police Reserve (1950–1954) member who committed
seppuku to apologize for being unable to become an ideal soldier.
Another example was a young squadron commander who failed an exercise due to repeating to attack rather than change tactics.
The pre-war
Imperial Japanese Navy
The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN; Kyūjitai: Shinjitai: ' 'Navy of the Greater Japanese Empire', or ''Nippon Kaigun'', 'Japanese Navy') was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1868 to 1945, Potsdam Declaration, when it was dissolved followin ...
researcher Alexander Chiralfi said the Japanese mindset was subjective and had no interest in academically analysing unrelated maritime issues.
Subjective and short-sighted discussions don't yield wise strategies.
The ideal image of executives should change according to the times and strategic environment.
Thus, feudal bushido may not fit in a modern strategic environment and culture.
Critics argue that the Meiji Army defeated the
Qing and the
Imperial Russian Army
The Imperial Russian Army () was the army of the Russian Empire, active from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was organized into a standing army and a state militia. The standing army consisted of Regular army, regular troops and ...
, not because of bushido, but because it was a professional military organization.
Therefore, Bushido should not become the values of the whole
JSDF.
Rather the ideal image of JSDF executives should be defined to achieve national interests.
Bushido types and tenets
Multiple bushido types have existed through history. The code varied due to influences such as
Zen Buddhism
Zen (; from Chinese: '' Chán''; in Korean: ''Sŏn'', and Vietnamese: ''Thiền'') is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty by blending Indian Mahayana Buddhism, particularly Yogacara and Madhyamaka ph ...
, Shinto, Confucianism as well as changes in society and on the battlefield.
The consistent ideal is martial spirit, including athletic, military skills and valor: fearlessness toward the enemy in battle.
Bushido is a path that the samurai of each era pursued for their entire existence.
Sengoku bushido
* Period: Muromachi-Azuchi (Sengoku period) (1336–1603)
* Representative and important figures:
Takeda Shingen,
Uesugi Kenshin,
Oda Nobunaga
was a Japanese ''daimyō'' and one of the leading figures of the Sengoku period, Sengoku and Azuchi-Momoyama periods. He was the and regarded as the first "Great Unifier" of Japan. He is sometimes referred as the "Demon Daimyō" and "Demo ...
,
Tokugawa Ieyasu
Tokugawa Ieyasu (born Matsudaira Takechiyo; 31 January 1543 – 1 June 1616) was the founder and first ''shōgun'' of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan, which ruled from 1603 until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. He was the third of the three "Gr ...
,
Katō Kiyomasa
was a Japanese ''daimyō'' of the Azuchi–Momoyama period, Azuchi–Momoyama and Edo periods. His court title was . His name as a child was ''Yashamaru'', and first name was ''Toranosuke''. He was one of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Hideyoshi's Seven ...
,
Nabeshima Naoshige
During this era the
daimyo expanded their territory by force and strategy. Battles occurred frequently in various places. The purpose was to expand one's power. The killing of the enemy in a battle led to evaluation.
Certain daimyos wrote about moral codes with influence from
Zen Buddhism
Zen (; from Chinese: '' Chán''; in Korean: ''Sŏn'', and Vietnamese: ''Thiền'') is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty by blending Indian Mahayana Buddhism, particularly Yogacara and Madhyamaka ph ...
and Confucianism. There was not yet a strong attachment to moral values (apart from honor) in samurai society. Honor, weaponry and warfare were valued of utmost importance in Japanese culture.
Low priority was placed on monetary savings.
Tenets
* Honor
* Warfare
* Weapon mastery
* Martial arts
* Valor in battle
* Early moral codes
Edo bushido
* Period: Early to late Edo (1603–1868)
* Representative and important figures:
Kōsaka Masanobu,
Saito Chikamori,
Yamaga Soko,
Daidoji Tomoyama,
Yagyu Munenori,
Yamaoka Tesshu,
Miyamoto Musashi,
Yamamoto Tsunetomo,
Hishikawa Moronobu
After the chaotic Sengoku period, politics were carried out in orderly fashion, and peace was maintained. The samurai could no longer obtain merit on the battlefield. They found more significance of the samurai's existence in areas other than battle. As per Confucianism, it was valued to work for morals and the public, not for personal reasons. In addition, there were many martial arts who included religious boundaries such as Buddhism and Shinto.
A famous example is a passage in the ''
Hagakure'': "Bushido is realised in the presence of death. In the case of having to choose between life and death you should choose death. There is no other reasoning. Move on with determination." It can be difficult to interpret, but it was radical at the time. That appeared in the Taihei era of the Edo period. The oral tradition of the
Saga Domain feudal lord
Nabeshima Mitsushige,
Yamamoto Tsunetomo, is the main subject. There are many expressions that criticize the samurai who are associated with Confucianism and Buddhism that were popular at the time. There are many works that guide the art of treatment while describing the spirit of the samurai of the Sengoku period.
Tenets
''Bushidō'' expanded and formalized the earlier code of the ''samurai'', and stressed sincerity, frugality, loyalty, mastery of
martial arts
Martial arts are codified systems and traditions of combat practiced for a number of reasons such as self-defence; military and law enforcement applications; combat sport, competition; physical, mental, and spiritual development; entertainment; ...
, and
honour
Honour (Commonwealth English) or honor (American English; American and British English spelling differences#-our, -or, see spelling differences) is a quality of a person that is of both social teaching and personal ethos, that manifests itself ...
to the death. Under the ''bushidō'' ideal, if a ''samurai'' failed to uphold his honor he could only regain it by performing ''
seppuku'' (ritual
suicide
Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death.
Risk factors for suicide include mental disorders, physical disorders, and substance abuse. Some suicides are impulsive acts driven by stress (such as from financial or ac ...
).
The core of bushido consists of a combination of teachings from Japan's three main philosophical traditions: 1.
Buddhist
Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
precepts of serenity, stoicism, and non-attachment to life. 2.
Shinto
, also called Shintoism, is a religion originating in Japan. Classified as an East Asian religions, East Asian religion by Religious studies, scholars of religion, it is often regarded by its practitioners as Japan's indigenous religion and as ...
notions of fidelity and patriotism, and 3.
Confucian morality.
People imbued with can serenely carry out their work in the face of any adversity, and have the willpower to master themselves.
Taira Shigesuke,
Daidōji Yūzan wrote ''Bushido Shoshinshu'' (武道初心集) (pre-1730) which provides practical and moral instructions for samurai to improve personal, social and professional standards.
In an excerpt from his book ''Samurai: The World of the Warrior'', historian
Stephen Turnbull describes the role of seppuku in feudal Japan:
In the world of the warrior, seppuku was a deed of bravery that was admirable in a samurai who knew he was defeated, disgraced, or mortally wounded. It meant that he could end his days with his transgressions wiped away and with his reputation not merely intact but actually enhanced. The cutting of the abdomen released the samurai's spirit in the most dramatic fashion, but it was an extremely painful and unpleasant way to die, and sometimes the samurai who was performing the act asked a loyal comrade to cut off his head at the moment of agony.
''Bushidō'' varied dramatically over time, and across the geographic and socio-economic backgrounds of the ''samurai'', who represented somewhere between 5% and 10% of the Japanese population.
[Cleary, Thomas ''Training the Samurai Mind: A Bushido Sourcebook'' Shambhala (May 2008) ] The first
Meiji-era census at the end of the 19th century counted 1,282,000 members of the "high ''samurai''", allowed to ride a horse, and 492,000 members of the "low samurai", allowed to
wear two swords but not to ride a horse, in a country of about 25 million.
Some versions of ''bushidō'' include compassion for those of lower station, and for the preservation of one's name.
Early ''bushidō'' literature further enforces the requirement to conduct oneself with calmness, fairness, justice, and propriety.
The relationship between learning and the way of the warrior is clearly articulated, one being a natural partner to the other.
Other pundits pontificating on the warrior philosophy covered methods of raising children, appearance, and grooming, but all of this may be seen as part of one's constant preparation for death—to die a good death with one's honor intact, the ultimate aim in a life lived according to ''bushidō''. Indeed, a "good death" is its own reward, and by no means assurance of "future rewards" in the
afterlife
The afterlife or life after death is a purported existence in which the essential part of an individual's Stream of consciousness (psychology), stream of consciousness or Personal identity, identity continues to exist after the death of their ...
. Some ''samurai'', though certainly not all (e.g.,
Amakusa Shirō), have throughout history held such aims or beliefs in disdain, or expressed the awareness that their station—as it involves killing—precludes such reward, especially in
Buddhism
Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
. Japanese beliefs surrounding the ''samurai'' and the afterlife are complex and often contradictory, while the soul of a noble warrior suffering in hell or as a lingering spirit occasionally appears in Japanese art and literature, so does the idea of a warrior being reborn upon a
lotus throne in paradise
The essence of bushido was defined by Saitō Chikamori as:
*Sincerity – do not lie, do not be insincere, do not be superficial
*Responsibility – do not be obsequious
*Frugality – do not be greedy
*Politeness – do not be rude, do not slander
*Modesty – do not be boastful, do not be arrogant
*Loyalty – do not be unfaithful
*Harmony – be on good terms with comrades
*Tranquility – do not be overly concerned with events
*Compassion – show concern for one another, be compassionate, with a strong sense of duty.
Meiji bushido
* Period:
Meiji to mid Showa (1868–1945).
* Representative and important figures:
Nitobe Inazō,
Yukio Mishima,
Kanō Jigorō, Kanno Kakumyō,
Eiichi Shibusawa,
Fukuzawa Yukichi
Meiji bushido added absolute subservience to the will of the Emperor
with an emphasis on loyalty and self-sacrifice.
The book ''
Bushido: The Soul of Japan'' by
Nitobe Inazō popularized bushido internationally during the Meiji era. However, the morals that he described are romanticized interpretations and do not represent all of bushido through history.
In the
Taishō era, bushido as the way of the merchant was advocated by industrialist
Shibusawa Eiichi (1840–1931), known as the "father of Japanese capitalism".
Shibusawa was also a warrior who learned
Shindō Munen-ryū and
Hokushin Ittō-ryū. He spent some time as a vassal of
Tokugawa Yoshinobu
Kazoku, Prince was the 15th and last ''shōgun'' of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan. He was part of a movement which aimed to reform the aging shogunate, but was ultimately unsuccessful. He resigned his position as shogun in late 1867, while ai ...
, and since the Meiji era, he was a businessman and involved in the establishment of hundreds of corporations.
In his book "Theory and Arithmetic" (論語と算盤), he advocated the word "samurai business talent" (士魂商才). He linked the spirit of the samurai (bushido with the influence of Confucianism) to economic activity and denied immoral merchants for self-interest.
Eight virtues of bushido (as defined by Nitobe Inazō)
As mentioned above, historically there was no unified code, which varied from clan to clan, but the so-called ''bushidō'' code was typified by eight
virtue
A virtue () is a trait of excellence, including traits that may be morality, moral, social, or intellectual. The cultivation and refinement of virtue is held to be the "good of humanity" and thus is Value (ethics), valued as an Telos, end purpos ...
s according to
Nitobe Inazō, while he was in the United States, under obvious influence of western chivalry notions
in the
Meiji Period
The was an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868, to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonizatio ...
(1900):
Nitobe defined bushido as "the ways which fighting nobles should observe in their daily life as in their vocation."
*
Be acutely honest throughout your dealings with all people. Believe in justice, not from other people, but from yourself. To the true warrior, all points of view are deeply considered regarding honesty, justice and integrity. Warriors make a full commitment to their decisions.
*
Hiding like a turtle in a shell is not living at all. A true warrior must have heroic courage. It is absolutely risky. It is living life completely, fully and wonderfully. Heroic courage is not blind. It is intelligent and strong.
*
Through intense training and hard work the true warrior becomes quick and strong. They are not as most people. They develop a power that must be used for good. They have compassion. They help their fellow men at every opportunity. If an opportunity does not arise, they go out of their way to find one.
*
True warriors have no reason to be cruel. They do not need to prove their strength. Warriors are not only respected for their strength in battle, but also by their dealings with others. The true strength of a warrior becomes apparent during difficult times.
*
When warriors say that they will perform an action, it is as good as done. Nothing will stop them from completing what they say they will do. They do not have to 'give their word'. They do not have to 'promise'. Speaking and doing are the same action.
*
Warriors have only one judge of honor and character, and this is themselves. Decisions they make and how these decisions are carried out are a reflection of who they truly are. You cannot hide from yourself.
*
Warriors are responsible for everything that they have done and everything that they have said and all of the consequences that follow. They are immensely loyal to all of those in their care. To everyone that they are responsible for, they remain fiercely true.
*
Associated virtues
*
*
*
* (
Giri (Japanese))
Contemporary bushido
* Period: 1950–Present
* Representative and important figures:
Lee Teng Hui,
Gackt,
Fukushima 50
Bushido continues to exist in various forms in for example business, communication, martial arts and as a way of life.
This is also called the bushido spirit.
[
]
Modern translations
Modern Western translation of documents related to ''bushidō'' began in the 1970s with Carl Steenstrup, who performed research into the ethical codes of famous ''samurai'' including Hōjō Sōun and Imagawa Sadayo.
Primary research into ''bushidō'' was later conducted by William Scott Wilson in his 1982 text ''Ideals of the Samurai: Writings of Japanese Warriors''. The writings span hundreds of years, family lineage, geography, social class and writing style—yet share a common set of values. Wilson's work also examined older Japanese writings unrelated to the warrior class: the Kojiki, Shoku Nihongi, the Kokin Wakashū and the Konjaku Monogatari, as well as the Chinese Classics (the Analects, the Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean, and the Mencius
Mencius (孟子, ''Mèngzǐ'', ; ) was a Chinese Confucian philosopher, often described as the Second Sage () to reflect his traditional esteem relative to Confucius himself. He was part of Confucius's fourth generation of disciples, inheriting ...
).
In May 2008, Thomas Cleary translated a collection of 22 writings on ''bushidō'' by warriors, scholars, political advisers, and educators, spanning 500 years from the 14th to the 19th centuries. Titled ''Training the Samurai Mind: A Bushido Sourcebook,'' it gave an insider's view of the samurai world: "the moral and psychological development of the warrior, the ethical standards they were meant to uphold, their training in both martial arts and strategy, and the enormous role that the traditions of Shintoism, Buddhism
Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
, Confucianism
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, Religious Confucianism, religion, theory of government, or way of li ...
, and Taoism
Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...
had in influencing samurai ideals".
In literature
Examples of important Japanese literature related to bushido from the 12th to the 21st century:
Major figures associated with bushido
* Asano Naganori
* Imagawa Ryōshun
*Katō Kiyomasa
was a Japanese ''daimyō'' of the Azuchi–Momoyama period, Azuchi–Momoyama and Edo periods. His court title was . His name as a child was ''Yashamaru'', and first name was ''Toranosuke''. He was one of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Hideyoshi's Seven ...
* Sakanoue no Tamuramaro
* Honda Tadakatsu
*Tokugawa Ieyasu
Tokugawa Ieyasu (born Matsudaira Takechiyo; 31 January 1543 – 1 June 1616) was the founder and first ''shōgun'' of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan, which ruled from 1603 until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. He was the third of the three "Gr ...
* Torii Mototada
* Sasaki Kojirō
* Saigō Takamori
* Yamaga Sokō
* Yamamoto Tsunetomo
* Yamaoka Tesshū
* Yukio Mishima
* Hijikata Toshizō
* Kosaka Masanobu
* Miyamoto Musashi
* Nitobe Inazo
* Kusunoki Masashige
* Gichin Funakoshi
* Kanō Jigorō
* Dom Justo Takayama
* Morihei Ueshiba
* Takeda Sōkaku
* Hideki Tojo
See also
*Budō
is a Japanese language, Japanese term describing modern Japanese martial arts. It is commonly translated as "Martial Way", or the "Way of Martial Arts".
Etymology
is a compound of the root ( or ; ), meaning "war" or "martial"; and ( or ; ), ...
* Hagakure
* Hana wa sakuragi, hito wa bushi
* Japanese martial arts
*'' The Unfettered Mind''
*Japanese Zen
:''See also Zen for an overview of Zen, Chan Buddhism for the Chinese origins, and Sōtō, Rinzai school, Rinzai and Ōbaku for the three main schools of Zen in Japan''
Japanese Zen refers to the Japanese forms of Zen, Zen Buddhism, an orig ...
* Zen at War
* Prussian virtues
References
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
* William Scott Wilson, ''Ideals of the Samurai: Writings of Japanese Warriors'' (Kodansha, 1982)
Training the Samurai Mind: A Bushido Sourcebook
by Thomas Cleary 288 pages Shambhala (May 13, 2008)
* Katsumata Shizuo with Martin Collcutt, "The Development of Sengoku Law," in Hall, Nagahara, and Yamamura (eds.), Japan Before Tokugawa: Political Consolidation and Economic Growth (1981), chapter 3.
* K. A. Grossberg & N. Kanamoto 1981, The Laws of the Muromachi Bakufu: Kemmu Shikimoku (1336) and Muromachi Bakufu Tsuikaho, MN Monographs (Sophia UP)
* Hall, John C. "Japanese Feudal Laws: the Magisterial Code of the Hojo Power Holders (1232) ." Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan 2nd ser. 34 (1906)
* "Japanese Feudal laws: The Ashikaga Code." Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan 1st ser. 36 (1908):
* John Allyn, ''"Forty-Seven Ronin Story"''
* Imagawa Ryoshun, ''The Regulations of Imagawa Ryoshun (1412 A.D.)'' Imagawa_Ryoshun
* Bertram Freeman-Mitford, 1st Baron Redesdale, '' Final_Statement_of_the_47_Ronin (1701 A.D.)''
* ''The Message Of Master Gokurakuji — Hōjō Shigetoki (1198A.D.-1261A.D.)'' Hojo_shigetoki
* Onoda, Hiroo,
No Surrender: My Thirty-Year War.
'' Trans. Charles S. Terry. (New York, Kodansha International Ltd, 1974)
* ''Code of the Samurai: A Modern Translation of the Bushido Shoshinshu of Taira Shigesuke'' by Oscar Ratti, Thomas Cleary , (September 15, 1999)
A History of Law in Japan Until 1868
by Carl Steenstrup; Brill Academic Publishers;second edition (1996)
* ''Budoshoshinshu – The Code of The Warrior'' by Daidōji Yūzan ()
* ''Hagakure-The Book of the Samurai'' By Tsunetomo Yamamoto ( paperback, hardcover)
* ''Go Rin No Sho'' �
Miyamoto Musashi
(1645) ( hardback, hardback Japan only)
*
The Unfettered Mind – Writings of the Zen Master to the Sword master
'' by Takuan Sōhō (Musashi's mentor) ()
* ''The Religion of the Samurai'' (1913 original text), by Kaiten Nukariya, 2007 reprint by ELPN Press
* ''Tales of Old Japan'' by Algernon Bertram Freeman-Mitford (1871) reprinted 1910
* Osprey, "Elite and Warrior Series" Assorted.
* Stephen Turnbull, "Samurai Warfare" (London, 1996), Cassell & Co
* Lee Teng-hui, former President of the Republic of China, "武士道解題 做人的根本 蕭志強譯" in Chinese,前衛, "「武士道」解題―ノーブレス・オブリージュとは" in Japanese,小学館,(2003),
*
External links
*
Sakujiro Yokoyama's Account of a Samurai Sword Duel
'
*
' By Masaru Fujimoto — Special to The Japan Times: Dec. 15, 2002
a good definition of bushidō, includin
*
-The True Story of Saigo Takamori'' Military History Magazine
The website of William Scott Wilson
A 2005 recipient of the Japanese Government's Japan's Foreign Minister's Commendation, William Scott Wilson was honored for his research on Samurai and Bushidō.
Hojo Shigetoki (1198–1261)and His Role in the History of Political and Ethical Ideas in Japan
by Carl Steenstrup; Curzon Press (1979)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bushido
Dō
Edo period
Concepts in Japanese aesthetics
Japanese martial arts
Japanese martial arts terminology
Military history of Japan
Warrior code
Codes of conduct
*
17th-century neologisms
Japanese values
Japanese words and phrases