Bihar MLAs 2015–2020

Bihar ( ) is a state in Eastern India. It is the second largest state by population, the 12th largest by area, and the 14th largest by GDP in 2024. Bihar borders Uttar Pradesh to its west, Nepal to the north, the northern part of West Bengal to the east, and Jharkhand to the south. Bihar is split by the river Ganges, which flows from west to east. On 15 November 2000, a large chunk of southern Bihar was ceded to form the new state of Jharkhand. Around 11.27% of Bihar's population live in urban areas as per a 2020 report. Additionally, almost 58% of Biharis are below the age of 25, giving Bihar the highest proportion of young people of any Indian state. The official language is Hindi, which shares official status alongside that of Urdu. The main native languages are Maithili, Magahi and Bhojpuri. But there are several other languages being spoken at smaller levels.

In Ancient and Classical India, the area that is now Bihar was considered the centre of political and cultural power and as a haven of learning. Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankar led the shramana order in this region in 9th century BCE. Jainism was revived and re-organised by Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankar in 6th century BCE. From Magadha arose India's first empire, the Maurya empire, as well as one of the world's most widely adhered-to religions: Buddhism. Magadha empires, notably under the Maurya and Gupta dynasties, unified large parts of South Asia under a central rule. Another region of Bihar, Mithila, was an early centre of learning and the centre of the Videha kingdom.

However, since the late 1970s, Bihar has lagged far behind other Indian states in terms of social and economic development.
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* Many economists and social scientists claim that this is a direct result of the policies of the central government: such as the freight equalisation policy, its apathy towards Bihar,
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* lack of Bihari sub-nationalism,
* Ahmed Farzand and Mishra Subhash
Leaders of Bihar unite to counter Raj Thackeray
India Today, 31 October 2008
* and the Permanent Settlement of 1793 by the British East India Company. The state government has, however, made significant strides in developing the state. Improved governance has led to an economic revival in the state through increased investment in infrastructure, better healthcare facilities, greater emphasis on education, and a reduction in crime and corruption.
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Etymology

The name ''Bihar'' is derived from the Sanskrit and Pali word (Devanagari: ), meaning 'abode" and usually referred to a Buddhist monastery. The region roughly encompassing the present state had many Buddhist vihāras, the abodes of Buddhist monks in the ancient and medieval periods.

History

Ancient period

Chirand, on the northern bank of the Ganga River, in Saran district, has an archaeological record from the Neolithic age . Regions of Bihar – such as Magadha, Mithila, and Anga – are mentioned in religious texts and epics of ancient India.

Mithila gained prominence after the establishment of the Videha Kingdom. During the late Vedic period Videha became one of the major political and cultural centers of South Asia, along with Kuru and Pañcāla. The kings of the Videha Kingdom were called Janakas. Sita, a daughter of one of the Janaks of Mithila is mentioned as the consort of Lord Rama, in the Hindu epic ''Ramayana'', written by Valmiki. The Videha Kingdom later became incorporated into the Vajjika League which had its capital in the city of Vaishali, which is also in Mithila. Vajji had a republican form of government where the head of state was elected from the rajas. Based on the information found in texts pertaining to Jainism and Buddhism, Vajji was established as a republic by the sixth century BCE, before the birth of Gautama Buddha in 563 BCE, making it the first known republic in India.

The Haryanka dynasty, founded in 684 BCE, ruled Magadha from the city of Rajgriha (modern Rajgir). The two well-known kings from this dynasty were Bimbisara and his son Ajatashatru, who imprisoned his father to ascend the throne. Ajatashatru founded the city of Pataliputra which later became the capital of Magadha. He declared war and conquered the Vajjika League. The Haryanka dynasty was followed by the Shishunaga dynasty. Later, the Nanda dynasty ruled a vast tract stretching from Punjab to Odisha.

The Nanda dynasty was replaced by the Maurya Empire, India's first empire. The Maurya Empire and the religion of Buddhism arose in the region that now makes up modern Bihar. The Mauryan Empire, which originated from Magadha in 321 BCE, was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, who was born in Magadha. It had its capital at Pataliputra (modern Patna). Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, who was born in Pataliputra (Patna), is often considered to be among the most accomplished rulers in world history.

The Gupta Empire, which originated in Magadha in 240 CE, is referred to as the Golden Age of India in science, mathematics, astronomy, commerce, religion, and Indian philosophy. Bihar and Bengal were invaded by Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty in the 11th century.

Medieval period

Buddhism in Magadha declined due to the invasion of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, during which many of the viharas were destroyed along with the universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila. Some historians believe that thousands of Buddhist monks were massacred during the 12th century. D. N. Jha suggests, instead, that these incidents were the result of Buddhist–Brahmin skirmishes in a fight for supremacy. After the rule of the Pala Empire, the Karnat dynasty came into power in the Mithila region in the 11th century and they were succeeded by the Oiniwar dynasty in the 14th century. Aside from Mithila, there were other small kingdoms in medieval Bihar. The area around Bodh Gaya and much of Magadha came under the Buddhist Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya. The Khayaravala dynasty were present in the southwestern portions of the state until the 13th century.

Many famous Buddhist and Hindu philosophers and scholars have originated or studied in Bihar during the period from the 5th to 13th century at institutions like Nalanda and Vikramashila including Kamalaśīla, Ratnākaraśānti, Śāntarakṣita, Abhayakaragupta, Udayana and Gaṅgeśa.

Sasaram was also the first capital city of the Sur Empire founded by the ruler of Bihar, Sultan Sher Shah Suri who was Pashtun.

Colonial era

After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the British East India Company obtained the diwani rights (rights to administer and collect tax revenue) for Bihar, Bengal, and Odisha. The rich resources of fertile land, water, and skilled labour had attracted the foreign imperialists, particularly the Dutch and British, in the 18th century. A number of agriculture-based industries had been started in Bihar by foreign entrepreneurs. Bihar remained a part of the Bengal Presidency of British India until 1912, when Bihar and Orissa were carved out as separate provinces.

Pre- and post-Independence

Farmers in Champaran had revolted against indigo cultivation in 1914 (at Pipra) and 1916 (Turkaulia). In April 1917, Mahatma Gandhi visited Champaran, where Raj Kumar Shukla had drawn his attention to the exploitation of the peasants by European indigo planters. The Champaran Satyagraha that followed received support from many Bihari nationalists, such as Rajendra Prasad, Shri Krishna Sinha and Anugrah Narayan Sinha.

In the northern and central regions of Bihar, the Kisan Sabha (peasant movement) was an important consequence of the independence movement. It began in 1929 under the leadership of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati who formed the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS), to mobilise peasant grievances against the zamindari attacks on their occupancy rights. The movement intensified and spread from Bihar across the rest of India, culminating in the formation of the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) at the Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress in April 1936, where Saraswati was elected as its first president.

Following independence, Bihari migrant workers have faced violence and prejudice in many parts of India, such as Maharashtra, Punjab, and Assam.

Decades following the independence in 1947 were full of violent conflicts between the landless section of Bihari society and the landed elite who controlled the government at various level. This was an outcome of the failed land reform drive and improper implementation of the land ceiling laws that were passed by Indian National Congress government in the 1950s. Landed castes like Rajput and Bhumihar became suspicious of the land reforms and used their influence in government to hinder the efforts of the land redistribution programme, which may have alleviated the huge caste based income inequalities. Unscrupulous tactics such as absentee landlordism neutralised the reforms which was architected by Krishna Ballabh Sahay.

In the Zamindari areas of Bihar, such as Bhojpur district, the Dalits were also subjected to frequent humiliation and practice of begar existed. This led to first spark of mass scale naxalism to grew up in the plains of Bhojpur. This armed struggle was led initially by Master Jagdish Mahto, a school teacher turned naxalite. Soon, the struggle spread into other parts of Bihar, where the landlords and agricultural labourers locked horns against each other. Between 1950 and 2000, several massacres took place. In Bihar, unlike the other parts of India, the naxalism took the form of caste conflict as the landed section of society belonged primarily to Forward Castes and a section of Upper Backward Castes, on the other hand, the landless were the people belonging to Schedule Castes and a section of Other Backward Castes. Formation of caste based private armies called ''senas'' took place in response to violent activities of the naxalites. One of the most dreaded caste army of the landlord was Ranvir Sena, which was involved in massacres of Dalits in Laxmanpur Bathe. The Dalit struggle against these caste armies was led by Indian People's Front and its successor Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation, which was controlled at the upper echelon by the middle peasant castes such as the Koeris and Yadavs, with Dalits and Extremely Backward Castes forming its mass support base and activists.

Meanwhile, the 1960s saw the rise of political instability in the state with dwindling power of Indian National Congress and rise of parties like Samyukta Socialist Party. The leaders belonging to Backward Castes became vocal for their political rights. The toppling of Mahamaya Prasad Sinha government by Jagdeo Prasad hastened the end of dominance of Forward Caste backed Indian National Congress in the state.

Geography

Bihar covers a total area of , with an average elevation above sea level of . It is land locked by Nepal in the north, Jharkhand in the south West Bengal in the east and Uttar Pradesh to the west. It has three parts on the basis of physical and structural conditions: the Southern Plateau, the Shivalik Region, and Bihar's Gangetic Plain. Furthermore, the vast stretch of the fertile Bihar Plain is divided by the Ganges River into two unequal parts – North Bihar and South Bihar. The Ganges flows west–east and, along with its tributaries, regularly floods parts of the Bihar plain. The main northern tributaries are the Gandak and Koshi, which originate in the Nepalese Himalayas, and the Bagmati, which originates in the Kathmandu Valley. Other tributaries are the Son, Budhi Gandak, Chandan, Orhani and Phalgu. Bihar has some small hills, such as the Rajgir hills in center, Kaimur Range in south-west and Shivalik Range in North. Bihar has a forest area of 6,764.14 km², which is 7.1 per cent of its geographical area. The sub-Himalayan foothills of Shivalik ranges, primary Someshwar and Dun mountain, in West Champaran district are clad in a belt of moist deciduous forest. As well as trees, this consists of brush, grasses and reeds.

Bihar lies completely in the Subtropical region of the Temperate Zone, and its climatic type is humid subtropical. Its temperature is subtropical in general, with hot summers and cold winters. Bihar has an average daily high temperature of only 26 °C with a yearly average of 26 °C. The climate is very warm, but has only a very few tropical and humid months. Several months of the year it is warm to hot at temperatures continuously above 25 °C, sometimes up to 29 °C. Due to less rain the best time for travelling is from October to April. The rainiest days occur from May to September.

Flora and fauna

Bihar has a nature conservation area of , which is 7.27% of its geographical area. The sub-Himalayan foothill of Someshwar and the Dun ranges in the Champaran district have belts of moist deciduous forests, mixed with shrubs, grass and reeds. High rainfall (above 1,600 mm 3 in promotes forests of Sal (''Shorea robusta'') in these areas. Other important trees are Sal Cedrela Toona, Khair, and Semal. Deciduous forests also occur in the Saharsa and Purnia districts, with common trees including ''Shorea robusta'' (), Diospyros melanoxylon (), '' Boswellia serrata'' (), '' Terminalia tomentose'' (), '' Terminalia bellerica'' (), ''Terminalia arjuna'' (), ''Pterocarpus marsupium'' (), and '' Madhuca indica'' ().

Valmiki National Park covers about of forest and is the 18th Tiger Reserve of India, ranked fourth in terms of the density of its tiger population. It has a diverse landscape and biodiversity in addition to sheltering protected carnivores. Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary in Bhagalpur region is a reserve for the endangered South Asian river dolphin. Other species in Bihar include leopard, bear, hyena, bison, chital and barking deer. Crocodilians including gharials and muggers as well as Gangetic turtles can be found in the river systems. Karkatgarh Waterfall on Karmanasa River is a natural habitat of the crocodilians. In 2016, the government of Bihar has accepted the proposal of the forest authorities to turn the area into a Crocodile Conservation Reserve (CCR). Other notable wildlife sanctuaries include Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhimbandh Wildlife Sanctuary and Gautam Buddha Wildlife Sanctuary. Many varieties of local and migratory bird species can be seen in natural wetland of Kanwar Lake Bird Sanctuary, Asia's largest oxbow lake and only Ramsar site in Bihar, and other notable wetlands of Baraila lake, Kusheshwar Nath Lake, Udaypur lake.

Natural resource

Bihar is the principal holder of the country's pyrite reserves and possesses 95% of all known resources.

In May 2022, a gold mine was found in the district of Jamui. It accounts for more than 44% of the country's gold reserve, approximately 223 million tons.

Demographics

At the 2011 census, Bihar was the third most populous state of India with a total population of 104,099,452. It was also India's most densely populated state, with 1,106 persons per square kilometre. The sex ratio was 1090 females per 1000 males in the year 2020. Almost 58% of Bihar's population was below 25 years age, which is the highest in India. In 2021, Bihar has had an urbanisation rate of 20%. Bihar has an adult literacy rate of 70.9% (79.7% for males and 60.5% for females) in 2017 according to NSC report 2017. According to Bihar caste survey 2023, Bihar's literacy rate grew upto 79.8% (which is 18% increase from 61.18% of Census 2011) showing remarkable growth in education sector from past decades. Population increased to 130,725,310 as per the Bihar caste survey conducted in 2023.

Religion

According to the 2023 census, 81.99% of Bihar's population practised Hinduism, while 17.70% followed Islam. Christianity (0.05%), Buddhism (0.08%), and Sikhism (0.01%) are religious minorities in Bihar. Most of Bihar's population belongs to Indo-Aryan-speaking ethnic groups. It also attracted Punjabi Hindu refugees during the Partition of British India in 1947.

Hindi is the official language of the state and is spoken natively by 25.54% of the total population. At 8.42%, Urdu is the second official language in 15 districts of the state. However, the majority of the people speak one of the Bihari languages, most of which were classified as dialects of Hindi during the census. The major ones are Bhojpuri (24.86%), Maithili (12.55%) and Magahi (10.87%) Angika and Bajjika, two other Bihari languages, are classified under other dialects of Hindi in the census. Maithili is a recognised regional language of India under the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India. Proponents have called for Bhojpuri, Magahi, Angika, and Bajjika to receive the same status. Smaller communities of Bengali and Surjapuri speakers are found in some parts of the state, especially in the eastern districts and urban areas.

Government and administration

Under the Constitution of India, the Governor is the head of the government of Bihar, and is appointed by the President of India. The Chief minister is the executive head of the government who, with its cabinet ministers, makes all important policy decisions. The political party or coalition of political parties having a majority in the Bihar Legislative Assembly forms the government.

The Chief Secretary is the head of the bureaucracy of the state, under whom a hierarchy of officials is drawn from the Indian Administrative Service, Indian Police Service, Indian Forest Service, and different wings of the state civil services. The judiciary is headed by the Chief Justice of the High Court. Bihar has a high court in Patna, which has been functioning since 1916. All the branches of the government are located in the state capital, Patna.

The state is administratively divided into nine divisions and 38 districts. For the administration of urban areas, Bihar has 19 municipal corporations, 89 nagar parishads (city councils), and 154 nagar panchayats (town councils).

Divisions

; Note:

* Population data obtained from the sum of the populations of the districts.

Politics

The politics of Bihar have been based on caste since the onset of Indian independence. The important castes with political presence and influence in Bihar includes: Yadav, Koeri, Kurmi, Rajput, Bhumihar, and Brahmin. Before 1990, politics was dominated by Forward Castes– Brahmin, Rajput, Bhumihar, and Kayastha. The numerous Other Backward Class group was only given a token representation in the government. This over representation of upper castes was due to their dominance in the Indian National Congress, which dominated the politics of the state for three decades after the independence of India. According to political scientist Sanjay Kumar: "Using their dominant role in state's government, in the period before 1990, the Forward Castes deliberately subverted the 'land reforms', which could have helped Backward Castes and the Scheduled Castes". The upper backwards relied on the political parties of Lok Dal and later Janata Dal for increasing their political representation. The year of 1989-90 saw the implementation of Mandal Commission's recommendation by V. P. Singh's government, which reserved 27% per cent seats in government jobs and educational institutions for the members of Other Backward Class. This event mobilised them against the "politics of religion" of the Bhartiya Janata Party, which was backed by the Forward Castes. Important figures such as Lalu Prasad Yadav and Nitish Kumar took a leading role in this mobilisation, and by 1990, the upper backwards– Koeri, Kurmi, Yadav became the new political elites of the state.

Historically, a caste troika consisting the three communities, Kushwaha, Kurmi and Yadav also led an anti-upper caste agitation in the state of Bihar, pushing them to the prominence in the state's politics.

However, the tipping point of this Backward Caste unity came in 1995 Bihar Legislative Assembly election, when the dominant OBC castes, who were at the forefront in the collective struggle against the Forward Castes, were divided into two rival political camps. While one of these camps was led by Yadavs under Janata Dal, the other camp was led by Koeri and Kurmis, who assembled under the Samata Party. According to Sanjay Kumar, this was the election in which the caste divide in the state was most evident not between the Forward and Backward Castes, but rather between two groups of Backward Castes itself. It was this election from which the Forward Castes felt completely marginalised in Bihar's electoral politics and from then onwards, no longer held any significant role in the state's politics.

By 2004, ''The Economist'' magazine said that "Bihar adbecome a byword for the worst of India, of widespread and inescapable poverty, of corrupt politicians indistinguishable from mafia-dons they patronise, caste-ridden social order that has retained the worst feudal cruelties". In 2005, the World Bank believed that issues faced by the state were "enormous" because of "persistent poverty, complex social stratification, unsatisfactory infrastructure and weak governance".
there are two main political formations: the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) which comprises Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), Rashtriya Lok Janshakti Party (RLJP); and the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) between Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), Hindustani Awam Morcha, Rashtriya Lok Samta Party, Janata Dal (United) (JDU) and Indian National Congress (INC). There are many other political formations. The Communist Party of India had a strong presence in Bihar at one time, which has since weakened. The Communist Party of India (Marxist) CPI(M) and CPM and All India Forward Bloc (AIFB) have a minor presence, along with the other extreme leftist parties.

Nitish Kumar has been chief minister of Bihar for 13 years between 2005 and 2020. In contrast to prior governments, which emphasised divisions of caste and religion, his political platform was based on economic development, reduction of crime and corruption, and greater social equality. Since 2010, the government confiscated the properties of corrupt officials and redeveloped them into school buildings. They also introduced the Bihar Special Court Act to curb crime. It also legislated a two-hour lunch break on Fridays, to enable Muslim employees to pray and thereby reduce absenteeism. The government has prohibited the sale and consumption of alcohol in the state since March 2016, which has been linked to a drop in tourism and a rise in substance abuse.

Public health

Bihar generally ranks among the weakest in health outcomes in comparison to other Indian states because it lacks adequate health care facilities. While the National Health Mission, the Clinical Establishments Act of 2010, and the formation of the Empowered Action Group (EAG) provide federal funds to expand and improve healthcare services, Bihar's ability to fully utilise this funding is lacking.

Research indicates that Bihar relies on privatised hospitals to provide healthcare to the masses, with the second-highest ratio among Indian states for private to public spending and high levels of corruption. These factors are associated with slower healthcare delivery and steep healthcare costs. Corruption is enabled as Bihar lacks continuity and transparency of health reporting as required by the Clinical Establishments Act of 2010. In turn, this prevents the government from making evidence-based conclusions about policy changes and hospital effectiveness, resulting in patterns of ill-informed spending and inconsistent hiring.

When comparing Bihar to Kerala, the number of healthcare professionals (including registered nurses, auxiliary nurses, physicians and health supervisors) at each hospital are significantly lower, and remain constant over time while they steadily increase in number in Kerala.Government of India- Ministry of Health & Family Welfare- Health and Family Welfare Census Data, 2008–2015 According to Ministry of Health statistics, the greatest shortfalls are for physicians and specialists at 75%. Bihar has only 50% of the sub-health centres, 60% of the primary health centres, and 9% of the community health centres required by the national supply-to-population standards. The number of public hospital beds in Bihar decreased between 2008 and 2015. Given the high population density of the state, Bihar is significantly behind in the number of healthcare professionals that should be employed. Despite these shortcomings, Bihar has shown gradual signs of improvement for female health workers, the overall death rate, and infant, neo-natal, child and maternal mortality rates.

Economy

Bihar's gross state domestic product (GSDP) for the fiscal year (FY) 2024- was around  billion. By sectors, its composition is 19.9% agriculture, 21.5% industry and 58.6% services. Bihar has one of the fastest-growing state economy in terms of GSDP, with a growth rate of 13.5% in FY 2024-25. The economy of Bihar was projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 13.4% during 2012–2017 (the 12th Five-Year Plan). Bihar has experienced strong growth in per capita net state domestic product (NSDP). At current prices, per capita NSDP of the state grew at a CAGR of 12.91% from 2004 to 2005 to 2014–15. Bihar's per capita income went up by 40.6% in FY 2014–15. The state's debt was estimated at 77% of GDP by 2007.

Agriculture

Among the states of India, Bihar is the fourth-largest producer of vegetables and the eighth-largest producer of fruits. About 80% of the state's population is employed in agriculture, which is above the national average. The main agricultural products are litchi, guava, mango, pineapple, brinjal, lady's finger, cauliflower, cabbage, rice, wheat, sugarcane, and sunflower. Though good soil and favourable climatic conditions favour agriculture, this can be hampered by floods and soil erosion. The southern parts of the state endure annual droughts, which affect crops such as paddy.

Industry

Begusarai is the industrial and financial capital of Bihar. It has major industries like Barauni Refinery, NTPC, Barauni (BTPS), Barauni Fertiliser Plant (HURL Barauni), Sudha Dairy Plant, Pepsi Bottling Plant, Graphite India Limited.

Hajipur, Dalmianagar, Munger, Jamalpur and Barauni are the major industrial cities in Bihar The capital city, Patna, is one of the better-off cities in India when measured by per capita income.
Hajipur is also known for presence of private industries like Competence Exports, which gained international recognition in 2024, when it was reported to be catering to the demand of many European countries. In 2024, Hajipur was reported to become the exporter of designer shoes for European companies. It also exported shoes for Russian Army amidst their Ukrainian campaign.

The Finance Ministry has sought to create investment opportunities for big industrial houses like Reliance Industries. Further developments have taken place in the growth of small industries, improvements in IT infrastructure, a software park in Patna, Darbhanga, Bhagalpur, and the completion of the expressway from the Purvanchal border through Bihar to Jharkhand. In August 2008, a Patna-registered company called the Security and Intelligence Services took over the Australian guard and mobile patrol services business of American conglomerate, United Technologies Corporation (UTC). SIS is registered and taxed in Bihar.

Prior to prohibition, Bihar emerged as a brewery hub with numerous production units. In August 2018, United Breweries Limited announced it would begin production of non-alcoholic beer at its previously defunct brewery in Bihar.

Startup

The startup ecosystem in Bihar is rapidly evolving, fuelled by a combination of entrepreneurial zeal and proactive government initiatives. The Bihar Startup Policy 2022-2027 aims to make Bihar a preferred destination for startups and entrepreneurs by leveraging local youth for inclusive growth.

The policy offers various incentives, including interest-free seed funding up to ₹10 lakh, tax exemptions, and access to incubation centers. The government has established a Startup Bihar Fund Trust (SBFT) with an initial corpus of ₹500 crore to provide venture capital for startups. Key sectors witnessing significant growth include agritech, healthcare, edtech, and e-commerce. With a focus on skill development, mentorship, and ease of doing business, Bihar is steadily transforming into an emerging hub for startups, driving both economic growth and employment.

Income distribution

In terms of income, the districts of Patna, Begusarai, Bhagalpur, Munger, and placed highest among the 38 districts in the state, recording the highest per capita gross district domestic product of 2,15,049, 84,279 , ₹80,471, 79,272 respectively, in FY 2022-23.

Bihar also ranks very low in per capital income in comparison to other cities in India. Patna has per capital income of 1.85L, which is much lower than other cities like Gurugram (7.41L), Noida (6.13), Bengaluru (6.21L), Hyderabad (6.58L) and Mumbai (6.43).

Income disparity among social groups

Rumela Sen, a lecturer at Columbia University, outlines the inequalities and backwardness prevalent in Bihar in the post-independence period as a consequence of the "delaying tactics" against the implementation of land reform and utilisation of kinship ties by the upper-caste landlords, who had an obstructionist attitude towards land reform policies. The upper-caste not only dominated the administration, but also the politics in the post-independence period; they utilised their caste ties in order to prevent the distribution of about 9000 acres of land intended for the poor. Since the landlords primarily belonged to upper-castes, just like the politicians and administrators in the early decades after independence, they were successful in grabbing large holdings of land amidst the passage of the Zamindari abolition act of 1952.

Culture

Paintings

There are several traditional styles of painting practised in Bihar. One is Mithila painting, a style used in the Mithila region of Bihar. Traditionally, this form was practised mainly by women, passed down generation to generation. Painting was usually done on walls during festivals, religious events, births, marriages, and other cultural milestones.Carolyn Brown Heinz, 2006, "Documenting the Image in Mithila Art", Visual Anthropology Review, Vol. 22, Issue 2, pp. 5–33 It was traditionally done on the plastered walls of mud huts, and is also done on cloth, handmade paper and canvas. Famous Mithila painters include Smt Bharti Dayal, Mahasundari Devi, the late Ganga Devi, and Sita Devi.

Mithila painting is also called Madhubani art. It mostly depicts human beings and their association with nature. Common scenes illustrate deities and Saraswati from ancient epics, celestial objects, and religious plants like Tulsi, and scenes from the royal court and social events. Generally, no space is left empty.

Bhojpuri painting is a folk painting style that has flourished in the Bhojpuri region of Bihar thousands of years ago. This painting style is a type of wall painting primarily done on temple walls or on walls of the rooms of newly married couples and the main motifs are that of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati. Although in recent times motifs of natural objects and life and struggles of village people are also depicted to make the painting more acceptable among the common people and bring the style close to reality.

The Patna School of Painting (''Patna Kalam''), sometimes called "Company Painting", flourished in Bihar during the early 18th to mid-20th centuries. It was an offshoot of the Mughal Miniature School of Painting. Those who practised this art form were descendants of Hindu artisans of Mughal painting. Facing persecution from the Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb, these artisans found refuge, via Murshidabad, in Patna during the late 18th century. Their art shared the characteristics of the Mughal painters, expanded subject matter from court scenes to bazaar scenes, daily life and ceremonies. They used watercolours on paper and on mica. This school of painting formed the basis for the formation of the Patna Art School under the leadership of Shri Radha Mohan. The school is an important centre of the fine arts in Bihar.

Performing arts

Bihar has produced musicians like Bharat Ratna and Ustad Bismillah Khan, and dhrupad singers like the Malliks ( Darbhanga Gharana) and the Mishras (Bettiah Gharana), along with poets like Vidyapati Thakur who contributed to the genre of Maithili music. The classical music in Bihar is a form of Hindustani classical music.

Gaya is another centre of classical music, particularly of the Tappa and Thumri varieties. Pandit Govardhan Mishra–son of the Ram Prasad Mishra, himself an accomplished singer– is perhaps the finest living exponent of Tappa singing in India, according to Padma Shri Gajendra Narayan Singh, founding secretary of the Sangeet Natak Academi of Bihar.

Gajendra Narayan Singh also writes, in his memoir, that Champanagar, Banaili, was another major centre of classical music. Rajkumar Shyamanand Sinha of Champanagar, Banaili princely state, was a great patron of music and was himself a renowned figure in the world of classical vocal music in Bihar in his time. Singh, on the subject of Indian classical music in a separate book of his, wrote that "Kumar Shyamanand Singh of Banaili estate had such expertise in singing that many great singers including Kesarbai Kerkar acknowledged his ability. After listening to bandishes from Kumar Sahib, Pandit Jasraj was moved to tears and lamented that, alas, he did not have such ability himself."

During the 19th century, many Biharis emigrated as indentured labourers to the West Indies, Fiji, and Mauritius. During this time many sorrowful plays and songs called ''birha'' became popular in the Bhojpur region, as ''Bhojpuri Birha''. Dramas incorporating this theme continue to be popular in the theatres of Patna.

Cinema

Bihar has a robust Bhojpuri-language film industry. There is also a smaller production of Magadhi-, Maithili language films. The first film with Bhojpuri dialogue was '' Ganga Jamuna'', released in 1961.
Bhaiyaa, the first Magadhi film, was released in 1961.
The first Maithili movie was '' Kanyadan'' released in 1965.
Maithili film '' Mithila Makhaan'' won the
National Film Award for Best Maithili Film in 2016.
The history of films entirely in Bhojpuri begins in 1962 with the well-received film '' Ganga Maiyya Tohe Piyari Chadhaibo'' ("Mother Ganges, I will offer you a yellow sari"), which was directed by Kundan Kumar.
1963's '' Lagi nahin chute ram'' was the all-time hit Bhojpuri film, and had higher attendance than ''Mughal-e-Azam'' in the eastern and northern regions of India. Bollywood's '' Nadiya Ke Paar'' is another well-known Bhojpuri-language movie. Films such as '' Bidesiya'' ("Foreigner", 1963, directed by S. N. Tripathi) and ''Ganga'' ("Ganges", 1965, directed by Kundan Kumar) were profitable and popular, but in general Bhojpuri films were not commonly produced in the 1960s and 1970s.

In the 1980s, enough Bhojpuri films were produced to support a dedicated industry. Films such as ''Mai'' ("Mom", 1989, directed by Rajkumar Sharma) and ''Hamar Bhauji'' ("My Brother's Wife", 1983, directed by Kalpataru) had success at the box office. However, this trend faded during the 1990s.

In 2001, Bhojpuri films regained popularity with ''Saiyyan Hamar'' ("My Sweetheart", directed by Mohan Prasad), which raised actor Ravi Kishan to prominence. Several other commercially successful films followed, including ''Panditji Batai Na Biyah Kab Hoi'' ("Priest, tell me when I will marry", 2005, directed by Mohan Prasad) and ''Sasura Bada Paisa Wala'' ("My father-in-law, the rich guy", 2005). These films did much better business in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar than mainstream Bollywood hits at the time, and were both made on extremely tight budgets. ''Sasura Bada Paisa Wala'' also introduced Manoj Tiwari, formerly a well-loved folk singer, to the wider audiences of Bhojpuri cinema. The success of Ravi Kishan and Manoj Tiwari's films led to a revival in Bhojpuri cinema, and the industry began to support an awards show and trade magazine ''Bhojpuri City''. The industry produces over one hundred films per year.

In 2019, the Maithili film '' Mithila Makhaan'' won Best Maithili Film in the 63rd National Film Awards.

Mass media

''Biharbandhu'' was the first Hindi newspaper published in Bihar. It was started in 1872 by Madan Mohan Bhatta, a Marathi Brahman who settled in Bihar Sharif. Hindi journalism often failed until it became an official language in the state. Hindi was introduced in the law courts in Bihar in 1880.

Urdu journalism and poetry have a long history in Bihar, with many poets such as Shaad Azimabadi, Kaif Azimabadi, Kalim Ajiz and Bismil Azimabadi. Bihar publishes many Urdu dailies, such as ''Qomi Tanzim'' and ''Sahara'', and the monthly ''Voice of Bihar''.

The beginning of the 20th century was marked by a number of notable new publications. A monthly magazine named ''Bharat Ratna'' was started in Patna, in 1901. It was followed by ''Ksahtriya Hitaishi'', ''Aryavarta from Dinapure'', ''Udyoga'', and ''Chaitanya Chandrika''. ''Udyog'' was edited by Vijyaanand Tripathy, a famous poet of the time, and ''Chaitanya Chandrika'' by Krishna Chaitanya Goswami, a literary figure of that time. The literary activity was not confined to Patna alone but to other districts of Bihar.

Festivals

Chhath Puja is the biggest and most popular festival in Bihar. The four-day-long holy Hindu festival includes intense celebration across the state. Chhath Puja are done in various cities, towns, and villages throughout Bihar. All of Bihar involves itself in devotion to Chhath Puja. The city is decked up in lighting decorations and thousands of colourful ghats are set up, where effigies of the goddess Chhath Maiya and her brother God Surya are displayed and worshipped at both sunset and sunrise. People of all religious backgrounds go to the bank of any river or near by a pond or lake in order to give arghya to the Sun. They carry fruits and thekuaa along with them in soop and daura (a bowl-like structure made of bamboo) for their worship activities. Nowadays, these traditions have spread to multiple countries worldwide wherever Bihari community is present.

Durga Puja is also the biggest, most popular and widely celebrated festival in Bihar. The ten-day-long colourful Hindu festival includes intense celebration across the state. Pandals are erected in various cities, towns, and villages throughout Bihar. The cities of Bihar are transformed during Durga Puja. Urban areas are decked up in lighting decorations and thousands of colourful pandals are set up where effigies of the goddess Durga and her four children are displayed and worshipped. The idols of the goddess are brought in from Kumortuli, where idol-makers work throughout the year fashioning clay models of the goddess. Since independence in 1947, Durga Puja has slowly changed into more of a glamorous carnival than that of a religious festival. Today people of diverse religious and ethnic backgrounds partake in the festivities. On Vijayadashami, the last day of the festival, the effigies are paraded through the streets with riotous pageantry before being immersed into the rivers.

Tourism

Bihar is visited by many tourists from around the world,Statistics
on Tourism in Bihar on Indian Government's website In 2019, 33 million tourists visited Bihar, including more than 1 million foreign tourists.

Bihar is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, as well as many other ancient monuments. The Mahabodhi Temple (literally: "Great Awakening Temple"), a UNESCO World Heritage site, is an ancient Buddhist temple in Bodh Gaya, marking the location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment. Bodh Gaya (in Gaya district) is about 96 km (60 mi) from Patna. The Khuda Bakhsh Library, which has one of the world's largest collection of books, rare manuscripts and paintings is located in Patna.

Nalanda Mahavihara, a UNESCO World Heritage site, is among the oldest universities in the world, situated in Nalanda, Bihar. It comprises the archaeological remains of a monastic and scholastic institution dating from the third century BCE to the 13th century CE. It includes stupas, shrines, viharas (residential and educational buildings) and important art works in stucco, stone and metal. Nalanda stands out as the most ancient university of the Indian subcontinent. Archaeological Survey of India has recognised 72 monuments in Bihar as Monuments of National Importance. Furthermore, Archaeological Survey of India has recognised 30 additional monument as protected monuments in Bihar.

Bihar has many places for ecotourism, which includes Valmiki National Park, famous for its national park and tiger reserve. Vikramshila Dolphin Sanctuary is home to the endangered Gangetic Dolphin. Bihar has many wildlife sanctuaries such as Bhimbandh Wildlife Sanctuary, Gautam Buddha Wildlife Sanctuary, Kaimur Sanctuary, Udaypur Wildlife Sanctuary, and the Pant Wildlife Sanctuary. Bihar is host to many species of migratory birds at bird sanctuaries like Kanwar Lake Bird Sanctuary and the Nagi Dam Bird Sanctuary.

Many tourists visit Bihar because of the religious significance of the area. The Hindu Goddess Sita, the consort of Lord Rama, is believed to have been born in Sitamarhi in the Mithila region of modern-day Bihar. Gautama Buddha is believed to have attained Enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, a town located in the modern day district of Gaya in Bihar. Vasupujya, the 12th Jain Tirthankara was born in Champapuri, Bhagalpur. Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara of Jainism, was born in Vaishali around the sixth century BCE. The Śrāddha ritual performed in the Pitru Paksha period is considered to be most powerful in the holy city of Gaya, which is seen as a special place to perform the rite, and hosts a fair during the Pitri Paksha period.

Transport

Airports

Bihar has a total of three operational airports as of 2020: Lok Nayak Jayaprakash Airport in Patna, Gaya Airport in Gaya, and Darbhanga Airport in Darbhanga. All three airports have scheduled flights to major cities around India. Gaya Airport is the only international airport in Bihar, having seasonal flights to countries like Thailand, Bhutan, and Myanmar.

Railways

Bihar has a rail network length of in 2020. All major cities, districts and towns are well connected. Munger, Jamalpur and Bhagalpur are well connected with all major Stations of country. Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor, after completion, will pass through Kaimur, Rohtas, Aurangabad, and Gaya with a total length of in Bihar.

State Expressways and highways

Gaya-Darbhanga Expressway (access controlled highway) will be Bihar's first expressway, with a length of 189 km. It is expected to be completed by 2024. Bihar also has state highways with a total length of 4,006 km (2,489 mi)  and national highways with a total length of 5,358 km (3,329 mi).

Metro transit

Patna will be the first city in Bihar to have mass rapid transit system. Patna Metro with network of length is under construction as of 2022. However, it is currently delayed due to land acquisition process.

Bus transit

Bihar State Road Transport Corporation (BSRTC) runs interstate, intrastate, and international route buses. BSRTC has a daily ridership of around 100,000. Its fleet includes non-electric and electric buses, and AC and non-AC buses. Delhi, Ranchi, and Kathmandu in Nepal are some of the destinations served outside Bihar. Patliputra Inter-State Bus Terminal is a major bus transit hub in Bihar.

Inland Waterways

National Waterways-1 runs along the Ganges river. Gaighat in Patna has a permanent terminal of inland waterways for handling cargo vessels. The Ganges is navigable throughout the year, and was the principal river highway across the vast Indo-Gangetic Plain. Vessels capable of accommodating five hundred merchants were known to ply this river in the ancient period, when it served as a conduit for overseas trade. The role of the Ganges as a channel for trade was enhanced by its natural links to major rivers and streams in north and south Bihar.

Education

Historically, Bihar has been a major centre of learning, home to the ancient universities of Nalanda (est. 450 CE), Odantapurā (est. 550 CE), and Vikramashila (est. 783 CE). Nalanda and Vikramshila universities were destroyed by the invading forces of Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1200 CE. Bihar saw a revival of its education system during the later part of the British rule, when Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Library was established in 1891 by Sir Khan Bahadur Khuda Bakhsh which is currently one of the world's largest functioning library and boasts more than five million items. It is known for its paintings and rare manuscripts.

Patna University, the seventh oldest university on the Indian subcontinent, was established in 1917. Some other centres of high learning established under British rule are Patna College (est. 1839), Bihar School of Engineering (est. 1900; now known as National Institute of Technology, Patna), Prince of Wales Medical College (est. 1925; now Patna Medical College and Hospital), Science College, Patna (est. 1928), Patna Women's College, Bihar Veterinary College (est. 1927), and Imperial Agriculture Research Institute (est. 1905; now Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agriculture University, Pusa). The Patna University, one of the oldest universities in Bihar, was established in 1917, and is the seventh oldest university of the Indian subcontinent. NIT Patna, the second oldest engineering college of India, was established as a survey training school in 1886 and later renamed as the Bihar College of Engineering in 1932.

Today, Bihar is home to eight Institutes of National Importance: IIT Patna, IIM Bodh Gaya, AIIMS, Patna, NIT Patna, IIIT Bhagalpur, NIPER Hajipur, Khuda bakhsh Oriental Library, and the Nalanda International University. In 2008, Indian Institutes of Technology Patna was inaugurated with students from all over India and in the same year the National Institute of Fashion Technology Patna was established as the ninth such institute in India. The Indian Institute of Management Bodh Gaya was established in 2015. In March 2019, the government of Bihar sent a proposal to the centre government to upgrade Darbhanga Medical College and Hospital into an AIIMS-like institution. Bihar is home of four Central universities which includes Central University of South Bihar, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agriculture University and Nalanda University. In 2015, the central government proposed the re-establishment of Vikramshila in Bhagalpur and had designated 500 crores (5 billion) for it. Bihar also has the National Institute of Fashion Technology Patna, National Law University, Patna Institute of Hotel Management (IHM), Footwear Design and Development Institute, Bihta and Central Institute of Plastic Engineering & Technology (CIPET) Center. CIPET and IHM was established in Hajipur in 1994 and 1998 respectively. Bihar Engineering University was established under Bihar Engineering ''University Act, 2021 of'' Bihar Government with the purpose of the development and management of educational infrastructure related to technical, medical, management, and related professional education in Bihar. Based on 2020–21 data, Bihar Engineering University has 56 and Bihar medical science University under the Bihar medical science University act, 2021. There are Pharmacy colleges, 15 Medical colleges, and 36 Nursing colleges after establishing this university. Aryabhatta Knowledge University has 33 educational colleges, 8 community colleges, and one vocational college. Chanakya National Law University and Chandragupt Institute of Management were established in the later half of 2008 and now attracts students from not just within Bihar but also students from far flung states. Nalanda International University was established in 2014 with active investment from countries such as Japan, Korea, and China. The A.N. Sinha Institute of Social Studies is a premier research institute in the state. Bihar has eight medical colleges which are funded by the government, namely Patna Medical College and Hospital, Nalanda Medical College and Hospital, Vardhman Institute of Medical Sciences, Indira Gandhi Institute of Medical Sciences, Darbhanga Medical College and Hospital, Anugrah Narayan Magadh Medical College and Hospital Gaya, Sri Krishna Medical College and Hospital, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Bhagalpur, Government Medical College, Bettiah and five private medical colleges Bihar has the seven oldest Government Engineering colleges; Muzaffarpur institute of technology, Bhagalpur college of Engineering, Gaya college of Engineering, Nalanda College of Engineering, Darbhanga college of Engineering, Motihari college of Engineering, and the Loknayak Jai Prakash Institute of Technology.

Bihta, a suburb of the state capital Patna, is home of institutes like IIT Patna, AIIMS Patna, BIT Patna and is now emerging as an educational hub. With institutes like Super 30, Patna has emerged as a major center for engineering and civil services coaching. The major private IIT-JEE coaching institutes have opened up their branches in Bihar and this has reduced the number of students who go to, for example, Kota and Delhi for engineering/medical coaching.

Bihar e-Governance Services & Technologies (BeST) and the government of Bihar have initiated a unique program to establish a centre of excellence called Bihar Knowledge Center, a school to equip students with the latest skills and customised short-term training programs at an affordable cost. The centre aims to attract the youth of the state to improve their technical, professional, and soft skills, to meet the current requirements of the industrial job market. The National Employability Report of Engineering Graduates, 2014, puts graduates from Bihar in the top 25 per cent of the country, and rates Bihar as one of the three top states at producing engineering graduates in terms of quality and employability.

Notable people

See also

* Bihar Day
* List of Bihari singers
* Outline of Bihar
* Timeline of Bihar
* Bihari culture
* Cuisine of Bihar
* Chhotanagpur Front
* Chhotanagpur Plateau Praja Parishad
* Zerat
* Bihta Dry Port

Notes

References

Further reading

* '' Swami Sahajanand Saraswati Rachnawali (Selected works of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati), Prakashan Sansthan, Delhi, 2003''.
* Christopher Alan Bayly, ''Rulers, Townsmen, and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion, 1770–1870'', Cambridge University Press, 1983.
* Anand A. Yang, ''Bazaar India: Markets, Society, and the Colonial State in Bihar'', University of California Press, 1999.
* Acharya '' Hazari Prasad Dwivedi Rachnawali'', Rajkamal Prakashan, Delhi.
* ''Swami Sahajanand and the Peasants of Jharkhand: A View from 1941'' translated and edited by Walter Hauser along with the unedited Hindi original (Manohar Publishers, paperback, 2005).
* ''Sahajanand on Agricultural Labour and the Rural Poor'' translated and edited by Walter Hauser (Manohar Publishers, paperback, 2005).
* ''Religion, Politics, and the Peasants: A Memoir of India's Freedom Movement'' translated and edited by Walter Hauser (Manohar Publishers, hardbound, 2003).
* Pandit Yadunandan (Jadunandan) Sharma, 1947, ''Bakasht Mahamari Aur Uska Achook Ilaaz'' (Bakasht Epidemic and its Infalliable Remedy) in Hindi, Allahabad.
* Jagannath Sarkar, "Many Streams" Selected Essays by Jagannath Sarkar and Reminiscing Sketches" Compiled by Gautam Sarkar Edited by Mitali Sarkar, First Published May 2010, Navakarnataka Publications Private Limited, Bangalore.
* Indradeep Sinha, 1969, ''Sathi ke Kisanon ka Aitihasic Sangharsha'' (Historic Struggle of Sathi Peasants), in Hindi, Patna.
* Indradeep Sinha, ''Real face of JP's total revolution'', Communist Party of India (1974).
* Indradeep Sinha, ''Some features of current agrarian situation in India'', All India Kisan Sabha, (1987).
* Indradeep Sinha, ''The changing agrarian scene: Problems and tasks'', Peoples Publishing House (1980).
* Indradeep Sinha, ''Some questions concerning Marxism and the peasantry'', Communist Party of India (1982).
*
* Nand Kishore Shukla, ''The Trial of Baikunth Sukul: A Revolutionary Patriot'', Har-Anand, 1999, 403 pages, .
* ''Shramikon Ke Hitaishi Neta, Itihas Purush: Basawon Singh'' published by the Bihar Hindi Granth Academy (1st Edition, April 2000).
* Ramchandra Prasad, Ashok Kumar Sinha, ''Sri Krishna Singh'' in ''Adhunik Bharat ke Nirmata Series'', Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
* Walter Hauser, 1961, ''Peasant Organisation in India: A Case Study of the Bihar Kisan Sabha, 1929–1942'', Ph.D. Thesis, University of Chicago, (Forthcoming publication).
* Rai, Algu, 1946, ''A Move for the Formation of an All-Indian Organisation for the Kisans'', Azamgrah.
* N. G. Ranga, 1949, ''Revolutionary Peasants'', New Delhi.
* N. G. Ranga, 1968, ''Fight For Freedom'', New Delhi.
* Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan, 1943, ''Naye Bharet ke Naye Neta (New Leaders of New India)'', in Hindi, Allahabad.
* Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan, 1957, ''Dimagi Gulami (Mental Slavery)'', in Hindi, Allahabad.
* Manmath Nath Gupta, ''Apane samaya ka surya Dinkar'', Alekha Prakasana (1981).
* Khagendra Thakur, ''Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar': Vyaktitva aur Krititva'', Publications Division, 2008 Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
* Vijendra Narayan Singh, ''Bharatiya Sahitya ke Nirmata: Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar'', Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 2005, .
* Kumar Vimal, ''Ramdhari Singh Dinkar Rachna – Sanchayan'', Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 2008, .
* Mishra Shree Govind
''History Of Bihar 1740–1772''
, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1970
* Verma B S
''Socio-religious Economic And Literary Condition Of Bihar (From ca. 319 A.D. to 1000 A.D.)''
, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1962
* Maitra
''Magahi Culture''
, Cosmo Publications, New Delhi, 1983
* Naipaul V S, ''India: A Wounded Civilization'', Picador, 1977
* Trevithick Alan, ''The Revival Of Buddhist Pilgrimage At Bodh Gaya (1811–1949): Anagarika Dharmapala And The Mahabodhi Temple''
* Jannuzi F. Tomasson
''Agrarian Crisis In India: The Case Of Bihar''
University of Texas Press, 1974, ,
* Omalley L S S, ''History of Magadh'', Veena Publication, 2005,
* Shukla Prabhat Kumar
''Indigo And The Raj: Peasant Protests In Bihar 1780–1917''
Pragati Publications, 1993,
* Ahmad Qeyamuddin
''Patna Through The Ages: Glimpses of History, Society & Economy''
, Commonwealth Publishers, 1988
* Jain B D, ''Ardha Magadhi Reader'', Sri Satguru Publications, Lahore, 1923
* Patra C, ''Life in Ancient India: As Depicted In The Digha Nikaya'', Punthi Pustak, 1996,
* Hazra Kanai Lal, ''Buddhism in India As Described by the Chinese Pilgrims AD 399–689'', Munshiram Manoharlal, 1983,
* McCrindle John W., ''Ancient India As Described By Megasthenes And Arrian'', Munshiram Manoharlal
* McCrindle John W.
''Ancient India As Described By Ptolemy''
, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1927,
* Sastry Harprasad, ''Magadhan Literature'', Sri Satguru Publications, Calcutta, 1923
* Rai Alok, ''Hindi Nationalism'', Orient Longman, 2000,
* Waddell Austine L., ''Report on the Excavations at Pataliputra (Patna) – The Palibothra of the Greeks'', Asian Publicational Services, Calcutta, 1903
* Das Arvind N., ''The State of Bihar: an economic history without footnotes'', Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1992
* Brass Paul R., ''The politics of India since Independence'', Cambridge University Press, 1990
* Askari S. H., ''Mediaeval Bihar: Sultanate and Mughal Period'', Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library, Patna, 1990
* Tayler William, ''Three Months at Patna during the Insurrection of 1857'', Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library, Patna, 2007
* Taylor P.J.O., ''"What really happened during the Mutiny: A day by day account of the major events of 1857–1859 in India"'', Oxford University Press, 1997,
* Pathak Prabhu Nath
''Society and Culture in Early Bihar (C.A.D. 200 – 600)''
, Commonwealth Publishers, 1988
* Basham A. L., ''The Wonder that was India'', Picador, 1954,
* Nambisan Vijay, ''Bihar in the eye of the beholder'', Penguin Books, 2000,
* Pathak Mohan, ''Flood plains and Agricultural occupance'', Deep & Deep Publication, 1991,
* D'Souza Rohan, ''Drowned and Dammed:Colonial Capitalism and Flood Control in Eastern India'', Oxford University Press, 2006,
* Radhakanta Barik – ''Land & Caste Politics in Bihar'' (Shipra Publications, Delhi, 2006)

External links

; Government

Official site of Bihar


Bihar State Tourism Development Corporation

; General information
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