}
The Awash River (sometimes spelled Awaash;
Oromo: ''Awaash OR Hawaas'',
Amharic
Amharic is an Ethio-Semitic language, which is a subgrouping within the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic languages. It is spoken as a first language by the Amhara people, and also serves as a lingua franca for all other metropolitan populati ...
: ዐዋሽ,
Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'',
Somali: ''Webiga Dir'',
Italian: ''Auasc'') is a major river of
Ethiopia
Ethiopia, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country located in the Horn of Africa region of East Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north, Djibouti to the northeast, Somalia to the east, Ken ...
. Its course is entirely contained within the boundaries of Ethiopia and empties into a chain of interconnected lakes that begin with
Lake Gargori and end with
Lake Abbe
Lake Abbe, also known as Lake Abhe Bad, is a salt lake (geography), salt lake, lying on the Ethiopia-Djibouti border. It is one of a chain of six connected lakes, which also includes (from north to south) lakes Lake Gargori, Gargori, Lake Laitali ...
(or Abhe Bad) on the border with
Djibouti
Djibouti, officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country in the Horn of Africa, bordered by Somalia to the south, Ethiopia to the southwest, Eritrea in the north, and the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden to the east. The country has an area ...
, about from the head of the
Gulf of Tadjoura. The Awash River is the principal stream of an
endorheic
An endorheic basin ( ; also endoreic basin and endorreic basin) is a drainage basin that normally retains water and allows no outflow to other external bodies of water (e.g. rivers and oceans); instead, the water drainage flows into permanent ...
drainage basin
A drainage basin is an area of land in which all flowing surface water converges to a single point, such as a river mouth, or flows into another body of water, such as a lake or ocean. A basin is separated from adjacent basins by a perimeter, ...
covering parts of the
Amhara,
Oromia
Oromia (, ) is a Regions of Ethiopia, regional state in Ethiopia and the homeland of the Oromo people. Under Article 49 of 1995 Constitution of Ethiopia, Ethiopian Constitution, the capital of Oromia is Addis Ababa, also called Finfinne. The ...
and
Somali Regions, as well as the southern half of the
Afar Region
The Afar Region (; ; ), formerly known as Region 2, is a Regions of Ethiopia, regional state in northeastern Ethiopia and the homeland of the Afar people. Its capital is the planned city of Semera, which lies on the paved Awash, Ethiopia, Awash� ...
. The Awash River basin, spanning 23 administrative zones, covers 10% of Ethiopia's area.
The basin usually has two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), and a longer one between June and September (''Kiremt''), which partly fall into one longer rainy season.
Climate change
Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in Global surface temperature, global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate variability and change, Climate change in ...
is predicted to increase the water deficiency in all seasons and for parts of the basin, due to a projected increase in temperature and decrease in precipitation.
[ Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]
The Awash River basin is the most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, and most populous (over 15% or nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin in Ethiopia (as of 2021).
[ Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License] Rapid growth of agriculture, industries and
urbanization
Urbanization (or urbanisation in British English) is the population shift from Rural area, rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. ...
within the Awash basin, as well as population growth is placing increasing demands on the basin’s
water resources
Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful for humans, for example as a source of drinking water supply or irrigation water. These resources can be either Fresh water, freshwater from natural sources, or water produ ...
. The main sources of
water pollution
Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of Body of water, water bodies, with a negative impact on their uses. It is usually a result of human activities. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and ...
in the upper Awash River basin come from industrial and urban wastes,
agricultural runoff (
pesticide
Pesticides are substances that are used to control pests. They include herbicides, insecticides, nematicides, fungicides, and many others (see table). The most common of these are herbicides, which account for approximately 50% of all p ...
s,
fertilizer
A fertilizer or fertiliser is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. Fertilizers may be distinct from liming materials or other non-nutrient soil amendments. Man ...
s), and
sewage
Sewage (or domestic sewage, domestic wastewater, municipal wastewater) is a type of wastewater that is produced by a community of people. It is typically transported through a sewerage, sewer system. Sewage consists of wastewater discharged fro ...
discharge.
Polluting industries in the Awash River basin include
tanneries, paint factories,
slaughterhouse
In livestock agriculture and the meat industry, a slaughterhouse, also called an abattoir (), is a facility where livestock animals are slaughtered to provide food. Slaughterhouses supply meat, which then becomes the responsibility of a mea ...
s,
textiles
Textile is an Hyponymy and hypernymy, umbrella term that includes various Fiber, fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, Staple (textiles)#Filament fiber, filaments, Thread (yarn), threads, and different types of #Fabric, fabric. ...
,
breweries,
soft drink
A soft drink (see #Terminology, § Terminology for other names) is a class of non-alcoholic drink, usually (but not necessarily) Carbonated water, carbonated, and typically including added Sweetness, sweetener. Flavors used to be Natural flav ...
factories, sugar factories, hospitals, and pharmaceuticals.
The Awash Valley (and especially the
Middle Awash) is internationally famous for its high density of
hominin
The Hominini (hominins) form a taxonomic tribe of the subfamily Homininae (hominines). They comprise two extant genera: ''Homo'' (humans) and '' Pan'' (chimpanzees and bonobos), and in standard usage exclude the genus '' Gorilla'' ( gorillas) ...
fossils, offering unparalleled insight into the early
evolution of humans.
"
Lucy
Lucy is an English language, English feminine given name derived from the Latin masculine given name Lucius with the meaning ''as of light'' (''born at dawn or daylight'', maybe also ''shiny'', or ''of light complexion''). Alternative spellings ar ...
", one of the most famous early hominin fossils, was discovered in the lower Awash Valley.
For its palaeontological and anthropological importance, the lower valley of the Awash was inscribed on the
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...
World Heritage List
World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural heritag ...
in 1980.
Geography

The Awash River basin, spanning 23 administrative zones, covers 10% of Ethiopia's area and hosts about 17% of its population.
It is partly located in the
Main Ethiopian Rift. The Awash River is long.
["Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"]
, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009) It starts in
Ethiopia’s central highlands at an elevation of and passes through a number of locations before joining
Lake Abbe
Lake Abbe, also known as Lake Abhe Bad, is a salt lake (geography), salt lake, lying on the Ethiopia-Djibouti border. It is one of a chain of six connected lakes, which also includes (from north to south) lakes Lake Gargori, Gargori, Lake Laitali ...
at a height of .
[ Text was copied from this source, which is available under ]
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
/ref> The Awash River basin is divided into three sections: upper, middle, and lower.
The Awash rises south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa (; ,) is the capital city of Ethiopia, as well as the regional state of Oromia. With an estimated population of 2,739,551 inhabitants as of the 2007 census, it is the largest city in the country and the List of cities in Africa b ...
in the woreda
Districts of Ethiopia, also called woredas (; ''woreda''), are the third level of the administrative divisions of Ethiopia – after ''List of zones of Ethiopia, zones'' and the ''Regions of Ethiopia, regional states''.
These districts are f ...
of Dendi, close to the town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia
Oromia (, ) is a Regions of Ethiopia, regional state in Ethiopia and the homeland of the Oromo people. Under Article 49 of 1995 Constitution of Ethiopia, Ethiopian Constitution, the capital of Oromia is Addis Ababa, also called Finfinne. The ...
. After entering the bottom of the Great Rift Valley, the Awash flows south to loop around Mount Zuqualla in an easterly then northeasterly direction, before entering Koka Reservoir. There, water is used for the irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, the Awash passes the city of Adama and the Awash National Park. It is then joined on its left bank by its chief affluent, the Germama (or Kasam) River, before turning northeast at approximately as far north as 12° before turning completely east to reach lake Gargori.
Other tributaries
A tributary, or an ''affluent'', is a stream or river that flows into a larger stream ('' main stem'' or ''"parent"''), river, or a lake. A tributary does not flow directly into a sea or ocean. Tributaries, and the main stem river into which the ...
of the Awash include (in order upstream): the Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna and Dukem Rivers. Towns and cities along its course include Metehara, Awash, Gewane and Asaita.
There are tributary rivers, lakes, hot spring
A hot spring, hydrothermal spring, or geothermal spring is a Spring (hydrology), spring produced by the emergence of Geothermal activity, geothermally heated groundwater onto the surface of the Earth. The groundwater is heated either by shallow ...
s, and swamp
A swamp is a forested wetland.Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 497 p. Swamps are considered to be transition zones because both land and water play a role in ...
s in the Middle Awash Basin.
Climate
The climate of the Awash River basin is mostly influenced by the movement of the intertropical convergence zone
The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ , or ICZ), known by sailors as the doldrums or the calms because of its monotonous windless weather, is the area where the northeast and the southeast trade winds converge. It encircles Earth near the t ...
(ITCZ). During its movement northwards in March/April and its retreat southwards, ITCZ creates two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), and a longer one between June and September (''Kiremt''), which partly fall into one longer rainy season. The rainy season tends to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia and almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. The time between October and March is a dry season, called ''Bega''. Semi-arid to arid conditions prevail in the Rift Valley. In contrast, the highlands partly receive more than of rainfall in ca. six months per year.
Climate change
A study in 2018 investigated the effects of climate change
Effects of climate change are well documented and growing for Earth's natural environment and human societies. Changes to the climate system include an Instrumental temperature record, overall warming trend, Effects of climate change on the ...
on water resources
Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful for humans, for example as a source of drinking water supply or irrigation water. These resources can be either Fresh water, freshwater from natural sources, or water produ ...
in the Awash basin. They used three climate model
Numerical climate models (or climate system models) are mathematical models that can simulate the interactions of important drivers of climate. These drivers are the atmosphere, oceans, land surface and ice. Scientists use climate models to st ...
s from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) and for three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, and 2056–2080). The models were selected based on their performance in capturing historical precipitation
In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls from clouds due to gravitational pull. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, rain and snow mixed ("sleet" in Commonwe ...
characteristics. The baseline period used for comparison was 1981–2005. The future water availability was estimated as the difference between precipitation and potential evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration (ET) refers to the combined processes which move water from the Earth's surface (open water and ice surfaces, bare soil and vegetation) into the Atmosphere of Earth, atmosphere. It covers both water evaporation (movement of w ...
projections using the Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. The projections for the future three periods show an increase in water deficiency in all seasons and for parts of the basin, due to a projected increase in temperature and decrease in precipitation. This decrease in water availability will increase water stress in the basin, further threatening water security for different sectors.
Hydrology
Rainfall, droughts and floods
Rainfall varies a lot in the basin from one year to the next (this is called ''high intra-annual variability''). Dry season water shortage is recognized as a challenge for various activities such as irrigation
Irrigation (also referred to as watering of plants) is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, and lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has bee ...
and domestic water supply
Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organisations, community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes. Public water supply systems are crucial to properly functioning societies. Th ...
by the Awash Basin Authority. However, flooding also occurs frequently during the main rainy season in July and August.[Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024]
Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin
REACH Discussion brief. The type of flooding is different for the upper, middle and lower Awash basin. Research has found that "the type and range of flooding in the Awash Basin varies widely reflecting the basin’s complex geography".[Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024)]
Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns
REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK. For example, in urban areas, flash floods and river overflows are known to occur.
Rapid growth of agriculture, industries and urbanization
Urbanization (or urbanisation in British English) is the population shift from Rural area, rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. ...
within the Awash basin, as well as population growth is placing increasing demands on the basin’s water resources. The basin is known for high climate variability involving droughts and floods, and climate change will likely intensify the existing challenges. Future water management strategies needs to be inclusive of all sectors and consider the equity for different users.
Flood adaption measures have been investigated and one of the recommendations is to use "land-use planning
Land use planning or ''Land-use regulation'' is the process of regulating the use of land by a central authority. Usually, this is done to promote more desirable social and environmental outcomes as well as a more efficient use of resources. ...
that is 'flood-centric' in its thinking and approach .. This means identifying (and protecting) flood zones near build-up areas and identifying zones that can be allowed to flood to absorb the impact of extreme events."
Groundwater
Groundwater recharge varies between values exceeding per year in the upper highlands and no recharge at the bottom of the rift valley. Groundwater is predominantly recharged at the escarpments and highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l., where annual rainfall is higher than . Localized small-scale recharge is also supposed to occur at the flanks of the rift valley volcanoes. Artificial groundwater recharge takes further place at irrigated plantations at the rift valley. Recharge from river channel losses and via infiltration from lakes plays a role in the Main Ethiopian Rift and in southern Afar.
The Awash Basin is a densely populated and industrialized area where numerous enterprises rely on groundwater
Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and Pore space in soil, soil pore spaces and in the fractures of stratum, rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available fresh water in the world is groundwater. A unit ...
for their operation. Therefore, the majority of human development initiatives in the basin will continue to depend heavily on the quantity and quality of groundwater. Groundwater management requires proactive measures due to the global challenges posed by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, and various human activities.
Ecology
Most of the Awash basin is part of the Ethiopian montane forests ecoregion. At high altitudes the Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands and Ethiopian montane moorlands predominate. The Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets ecoregion occupies low elevations in the Rift.
The basin's vegetation has a strong anthropogenic impact. All over the upper and central Awash basin, remains of different savanna types are still clearly visible. They range from thorn savannas in the lower rift, bush, grass and open savannas above 800 m and woody savannas on the escarpments and the highlands.[Knoche, M. (2011): Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift). Master thesis, Technische Universität Freiberg, 2011, Freiberg, Germany]
Fauna
The lower Awash Valley is one of the last wildlife preserves for the African wild ass. The mammal is now extinct in Yangudi Rassa National Park, but still found in the adjacent Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve. Other large animals native to the area include Beisa Oryx, Soemmering's gazelle, Dorcas gazelle, gerenuk and Grevy's zebra. Crocodiles also flourish within the river.
Human activities and impacts
The Awash basin is the most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, and most populous (over 15% or nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin in Ethiopia. Middle Awash is known for having both large- and small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry and sugar factories (Wenji, Methara, and Kesem Sugar factories).
Water supply
The water supplies of the major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo and Adama, and also, the irrigation waters for local and commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) depend on the Awash River and its tributaries.[ Text was copied from this source, which is available under ]
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
/ref>
Economic activities
The Awash basin's economy is dominated by the agricultural and service sectors, with the latter prevailing in the large urban center of Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa (; ,) is the capital city of Ethiopia, as well as the regional state of Oromia. With an estimated population of 2,739,551 inhabitants as of the 2007 census, it is the largest city in the country and the List of cities in Africa b ...
. Agriculture dominates water use (about 89% of total water use in the basin) and is expected to continue to be the basis for economic growth in the coming years. Crop production in particular is a major component of the basin's economy and has seen rapid growth in recent years, with the value of output expanding by 7.9% per year in real terms between 2004 and 2014. As of 2012, the total irrigated area of the basin is less than 2% of the total area under cultivation.
Forestry hardly exists inside the Awash River basin, with a few exceptions of small eucalyptus
''Eucalyptus'' () is a genus of more than 700 species of flowering plants in the family Myrtaceae. Most species of ''Eucalyptus'' are trees, often Mallee (habit), mallees, and a few are shrubs. Along with several other genera in the tribe Eucalyp ...
plantations. Outside of Awash National Park the open and woody savannas have been almost completely cultivated with crops. This especially accounts for all escarpment terraces. Thereby the scattered tree cover remained similar to the primary state of the savannas, while the grass layer has been replaced by crops. Only highest altitudes still show connected woodlands. Partly reforestation
Reforestation is the practice of restoring previously existing forests and woodlands that have been destroyed or damaged. The prior forest destruction might have happened through deforestation, clearcutting or wildfires. Three important purpose ...
was carried out on not cultivable altitudes with secondary coniferous forests. The cultivated crops are (endemic) teff, maize, sorghum
''Sorghum bicolor'', commonly called sorghum () and also known as great millet, broomcorn, guinea corn, durra, imphee, jowar, or milo, is a species in the Poaceae, grass genus ''Sorghum (genus), Sorghum'' cultivated for its grain. The grain i ...
, beans and vegetables.
Pasture
Pasture (from the Latin ''pastus'', past participle of ''pascere'', "to feed") is land used for grazing.
Types of pasture
Pasture lands in the narrow sense are enclosed tracts of farmland, grazed by domesticated livestock, such as horses, c ...
s hardly exist where agriculture is possible. The cattle
Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, bovid ungulates widely kept as livestock. They are prominent modern members of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus '' Bos''. Mature female cattle are calle ...
graze on field edges and waysides and on steep escarpments. This is one major reason for erosion
Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as Surface runoff, water flow or wind) that removes soil, Rock (geology), rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust#Crust, Earth's crust and then sediment transport, tran ...
, because vegetation cover is partly destroyed. Stubble-grazing is a common practice in the Awash basin.
Recurrent extreme wet and dry weather events challenge economic activities in the basin. The large portion of rural poor engaged in rainfed agriculture in the drought-prone marginal lands located in the middle and lower reaches of the basin suffer greatly from recurring drought.
Climate variability already has a severe impact on populations and economic productivity in the Awash basin. Severe droughts in the basin have led to a significant depression of crop yields and death of livestock, resulting in increases in food insecurity. A modest (5%) decrease in rainfall was estimated to reduce the basin’s gross domestic product
Gross domestic product (GDP) is a monetary measure of the total market value of all the final goods and services produced and rendered in a specific time period by a country or countries. GDP is often used to measure the economic performanc ...
(GDP) 5%, with a 10% decrease in agricultural productivity.[ Text was copied from this source, which is available under ]
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
/ref> Humanitarian assistance
Humanitarian assistance is aid and action designed to save lives, alleviate suffering, and maintain human dignity during and after man-made crises and disasters. It encompasses a wide range of activities, including providing food, water, shelter, ...
requests are relatively common due to climate shocks, such as the 2015/2016 El Niño events which resulted in a severe drought and a humanitarian response targeting over 10 million people nationally, with many priority districts located in the Awash basin.
Pollution
Municipal and industrial wastewater treatment
Industrial wastewater treatment describes the processes used for Wastewater treatment, treating wastewater that is produced by industries as an undesirable by-product. After treatment, the treated industrial wastewater (or effluent) may be reus ...
plants are scant and inefficient in the Awash River basin. Where they exist, their effluents (often poorly treated) are channeled into nearby streams, thus polluting them.
Growing industrialization
Industrialisation (British English, UK) American and British English spelling differences, or industrialization (American English, US) is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an i ...
and urbanization in the Awash River basin has severely damaged the ecosystem
An ecosystem (or ecological system) is a system formed by Organism, organisms in interaction with their Biophysical environment, environment. The Biotic material, biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and en ...
due to the toxins discharged into water bodies. The main sources of water pollution
Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of Body of water, water bodies, with a negative impact on their uses. It is usually a result of human activities. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and ...
in the upper Awash River basin come from industrial and urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticide
Pesticides are substances that are used to control pests. They include herbicides, insecticides, nematicides, fungicides, and many others (see table). The most common of these are herbicides, which account for approximately 50% of all p ...
s, fertilizer
A fertilizer or fertiliser is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. Fertilizers may be distinct from liming materials or other non-nutrient soil amendments. Man ...
s), and sewage
Sewage (or domestic sewage, domestic wastewater, municipal wastewater) is a type of wastewater that is produced by a community of people. It is typically transported through a sewerage, sewer system. Sewage consists of wastewater discharged fro ...
discharge. Both anthropogenic and geogenic activities contribute to the observed water quality degradation. The term ''geogenic'' refers to naturally occurring contamination through tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, and sand weathering phenomena.
Heavy metal pollution in the surface water has become a growing concern for the environment and people’s health. Polluting industries in the Awash River basin include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouse
In livestock agriculture and the meat industry, a slaughterhouse, also called an abattoir (), is a facility where livestock animals are slaughtered to provide food. Slaughterhouses supply meat, which then becomes the responsibility of a mea ...
s, textiles
Textile is an Hyponymy and hypernymy, umbrella term that includes various Fiber, fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, Staple (textiles)#Filament fiber, filaments, Thread (yarn), threads, and different types of #Fabric, fabric. ...
, breweries, soft drink
A soft drink (see #Terminology, § Terminology for other names) is a class of non-alcoholic drink, usually (but not necessarily) Carbonated water, carbonated, and typically including added Sweetness, sweetener. Flavors used to be Natural flav ...
factories, sugar factories, hospitals, and pharmaceuticals. Wastewater enters the river from cities such as Addis Abeba, Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, Sebeta, Bishoftu, Gelan, Adama, Modjo. Agricultural runoff may be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, and Zn) in aquatic bodies, and industrial disposal could also lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, and Pb concentrations.
Water quality
A study of river water quality
Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water based on the standards of its usage. It is most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which compliance, generally achieved through tr ...
in 2023 showed that high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, and Ba were exhibited with values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, and 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals analyzed, 20% of the parameters within the study area were above the WHO limit for drinking water; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), and Mo (103.8 μg/L) were exhibited at sites along the river system. This is a problem as water from the river is used as a source of drinking water
Drinking water or potable water is water that is safe for ingestion, either when drunk directly in liquid form or consumed indirectly through food preparation. It is often (but not always) supplied through taps, in which case it is also calle ...
and irrigation
Irrigation (also referred to as watering of plants) is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, and lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has bee ...
.
The presence of emerging organic contaminants in the river water is another concern. These substances include pharmaceuticals, personal care products
Personal care products are consumer products which are applied on various external parts of the body such as Human skin, skin, hair, Nail (anatomy), nails, lips, external genital and anal areas, as well as Human tooth, teeth and mucous membrane of ...
, industrial byproducts, and agricultural chemicals. High levels of emerging organic contaminants were detected in a study in 2023 in the river and shallow groundwater
Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and Pore space in soil, soil pore spaces and in the fractures of stratum, rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available fresh water in the world is groundwater. A unit ...
systems: "Pesticides, veterinary drugs, artificial sweeteners, and personal care products were detected in samples from all sources (surface, ground, and tap water). Endocrine disruptors and equine drugs were found in both surface and groundwater sources."
The river water and shallow groundwater are intrinsically connected. Contaminants in the river water can pollute the groundwater and vice versa. A study in 2024 investigated the characteristics of groundwater in a region of Middle Awash for multipurpose use. It found that contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, and zinc were found enriched in groundwater near Lake Beseka, majorly influenced by geogenic activities, volcanic ash, and weathering of rocks. Over half of the groundwater sources were unsuitable for drinking, posing significant health risks to local communities that rely heavily on these sources due to limited access to clean surface water.
In the Middle Awash Basin and the country at large, the water quality of most groundwater sources is inadequately monitored and insufficiently regulated. Consequently, areas within the upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, and Addis Ababa, are highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction and pollution of groundwater.
Paleontology
Humans have lived in the valley of the Awash almost since the beginning of the species. Numerous pre-human hominid remains have been found in the Middle Awash. The remains found in the Awash Valley date from the late Miocene
The Miocene ( ) is the first epoch (geology), geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about (Ma). The Miocene was named by Scottish geologist Charles Lyell; the name comes from the Greek words (', "less") and (', "new") and mea ...
, Pliocene
The Pliocene ( ; also Pleiocene) is the epoch (geology), epoch in the geologic time scale that extends from 5.33 to 2.58[Pleistocene
The Pleistocene ( ; referred to colloquially as the ''ice age, Ice Age'') is the geological epoch (geology), epoch that lasted from to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change was fin ...](_blank)
(roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), and include fossils of many Australopithecines, including "Lucy", the most famous individual Australopithecus
''Australopithecus'' (, ; or (, ) is a genus of early hominins that existed in Africa during the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene. The genera ''Homo'' (which includes modern humans), ''Paranthropus'', and ''Kenyanthropus'' evolved from some ''Aus ...
. Other extinct hominids discovered at the site include ''Homo erectus
''Homo erectus'' ( ) is an extinction, extinct species of Homo, archaic human from the Pleistocene, spanning nearly 2 million years. It is the first human species to evolve a humanlike body plan and human gait, gait, to early expansions of h ...
'' and '' Ardipithecus''.
History
In the 16th century the Awash River was called the great Dir river and lay in the country of the Muslims
Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
.
20th Century
The first European to trace the course of the Awash to its end in the Aussa oasis was Wilfred Thesiger in 1933/1934, who started at the city of Awash, followed the river's course to its final end in Lake Abhebad, and continued his expedition east to Tadjoura. (Although the explorer L. M. Nesbitt had followed parts of the course of the Awash in 1928, he turned away from the river at Asaita and proceeded north through the Afar Depression to the Red Sea.)
In 1960, the Koka Dam was completed across the Awash River at a point around from Addis Ababa. With its opening, it became a major source of hydroelectric
Hydroelectricity, or hydroelectric power, is Electricity generation, electricity generated from hydropower (water power). Hydropower supplies 15% of the world's electricity, almost 4,210 TWh in 2023, which is more than all other Renewable energ ...
power in the area. The resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (also known as the Koka Reservoir), has an area of about . Both lake and dam are threatened by increasing sedimentation
Sedimentation is the deposition of sediments. It takes place when particles in suspension settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained and come to rest against a barrier. This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to th ...
.
Society and culture
The valley of the Awash from about 9° N downstream is the traditional home of the Afar people
The Afar (), also known as the Danakil, Adali and Odali, are a Cushitic peoples, Cushitic ethnic group inhabiting the Horn of Africa. They primarily live in the Afar Region of Ethiopia and in northern Djibouti, as well as the entire southern co ...
and Issa people. The valley of the Awash have been included as part of the Fatagar, Ifat, and Shewa.
The Awash International Bank is named after the Awash River.
See also
* Adama–Awash Expressway
* Awash–Weldiya Railway
* List of rivers of Ethiopia
* List of fossil sites ''(with link directory)''
* List of hominina (hominid) fossils ''(with images)''
* List of most polluted rivers
* List of World Heritage Sites in Ethiopia
The UNESCO, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites are places of importance to cultural heritage, cultural or natural heritage as described in the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, establis ...
References
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Rivers of Ethiopia
Ethiopian Highlands
World Heritage Sites in Ethiopia
Great Rift Valley
Prehistoric Afar Triangle