Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...

Eastern Arabia Eastern Arabia () is a region stretched from Basra to Khasab along the Persian Gulf coast and included parts of modern-day Bahrain, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia (Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia, Eastern Province), and the United Arab ...

Neo-Assyrian Empire The Neo-Assyrian Empire was the fourth and penultimate stage of ancient Assyrian history. Beginning with the accession of Adad-nirari II in 911 BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire grew to dominate the ancient Near East and parts of South Caucasus, Nort ...

Neo-Babylonian Empire The Neo-Babylonian Empire or Second Babylonian Empire, historically known as the Chaldean Empire, was the last polity ruled by monarchs native to ancient Mesopotamia. Beginning with the coronation of Nabopolassar as the King of Babylon in 626 BC a ...

Achaemenid Empire The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire, also known as the Persian Empire or First Persian Empire (; , , ), was an Iranian peoples, Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC. Based in modern-day Iran, i ...

Judaism Judaism () is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic, Monotheism, monotheistic, ethnic religion that comprises the collective spiritual, cultural, and legal traditions of the Jews, Jewish people. Religious Jews regard Judaism as their means of o ...

Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...

Gnosticism Gnosticism (from Ancient Greek language, Ancient Greek: , Romanization of Ancient Greek, romanized: ''gnōstikós'', Koine Greek: Help:IPA/Greek, �nostiˈkos 'having knowledge') is a collection of religious ideas and systems that coalesced ...

Mizrahi Jews Mizrahi Jews (), also known as ''Mizrahim'' () in plural and ''Mizrahi'' () in singular, and alternatively referred to as Oriental Jews or ''Edot HaMizrach'' (, ), are terms used in Israeli discourse to refer to a grouping of Jews, Jewish c ...

Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...

Judaism Judaism () is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic, Monotheism, monotheistic, ethnic religion that comprises the collective spiritual, cultural, and legal traditions of the Jews, Jewish people. Religious Jews regard Judaism as their means of o ...

Samaritanism Samaritanism (; ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic ethnic religion. It comprises the collective spiritual, cultural, and legal traditions of the Samaritan people, who originate from the Hebrews and Israelites and began to emerge as a relative ...

Mandaeism Mandaeism (Mandaic language, Classical Mandaic: ),https://qadaha.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/nhura-dictionary-mandaic-english-mandaic.pdf sometimes also known as Nasoraeanism or Sabianism, is a Gnosticism, Gnostic, Monotheism, ...

endangered An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching, inv ...

Hebrew Hebrew (; ''ʿÎbrit'') is a Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family. A regional dialect of the Canaanite languages, it was natively spoken by the Israelites and ...

Ugaritic Ugaritic () is an extinct Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language known through the Ugaritic texts discovered by French archaeology, archaeologists in 1928 at Ugarit, including several major literary texts, notably the Baal cycl ...

Aramaic alphabet The ancient Aramaic alphabet was used to write the Aramaic languages spoken by ancient Aramean pre-Christian peoples throughout the Fertile Crescent. It was also adopted by other peoples as their own alphabet when empires and their subjects und ...

Phoenician alphabet The Phoenician alphabet is an abjad (consonantal alphabet) used across the Mediterranean civilization of Phoenicia for most of the 1st millennium BC. It was one of the first alphabets, attested in Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions fo ...

Syriac alphabet The Syriac alphabet ( ) is a writing system primarily used to write the Syriac language since the 1st century. It is one of the Semitic languages, Semitic abjads descending from the Aramaic alphabet through the Palmyrene alphabet, and shares sim ...

West Asia West Asia (also called Western Asia or Southwest Asia) is the westernmost region of Asia. As defined by most academics, UN bodies and other institutions, the subregion consists of Anatolia, the Arabian Peninsula, Iran, Mesopotamia, the Armenian ...

Hebrew alphabet The Hebrew alphabet (, ), known variously by scholars as the Ktav Ashuri, Jewish script, square script and block script, is a unicase, unicameral abjad script used in the writing of the Hebrew language and other Jewish languages, most notably ...

Arabic alphabet The Arabic alphabet, or the Arabic abjad, is the Arabic script as specifically codified for writing the Arabic language. It is a unicase, unicameral script written from right-to-left in a cursive style, and includes 28 letters, of which most ...

language Language is a structured system of communication that consists of grammar and vocabulary. It is the primary means by which humans convey meaning, both in spoken and signed language, signed forms, and may also be conveyed through writing syste ...

Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...

Lebanon Lebanon, officially the Republic of Lebanon, is a country in the Levant region of West Asia. Situated at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian Peninsula, it is bordered by Syria to the north and east, Israel to the south ...

Jordan Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, is a country in the Southern Levant region of West Asia. Jordan is bordered by Syria to the north, Iraq to the east, Saudi Arabia to the south, and Israel and the occupied Palestinian ter ...

Turkey Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...

Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...

Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...

Neo-Assyrian Empire The Neo-Assyrian Empire was the fourth and penultimate stage of ancient Assyrian history. Beginning with the accession of Adad-nirari II in 911 BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire grew to dominate the ancient Near East and parts of South Caucasus, Nort ...

lingua franca A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, link language or language of wider communication (LWC), is a Natural language, language systematically used to make co ...

Assyria Assyria (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , ''māt Aššur'') was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization that existed as a city-state from the 21st century BC to the 14th century BC and eventually expanded into an empire from the 14th century BC t ...

Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...

Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...

Asia Minor Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...

Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world. Geographically, the ...

Ancient Iran The history of Iran (also known as Name of Iran, Persia) is intertwined with Greater Iran, which is a socio-cultural region encompassing all of the areas that have witnessed significant settlement or influence exerted by the Iranian peoples and ...

Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...

Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...

Lebanon Lebanon, officially the Republic of Lebanon, is a country in the Levant region of West Asia. Situated at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian Peninsula, it is bordered by Syria to the north and east, Israel to the south ...

Israel Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in West Asia. It Borders of Israel, shares borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the north-east, Jordan to the east, Egypt to the south-west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Isr ...

Palestine Palestine, officially the State of Palestine, is a country in West Asia. Recognized by International recognition of Palestine, 147 of the UN's 193 member states, it encompasses the Israeli-occupied West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and th ...

Jordan Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, is a country in the Southern Levant region of West Asia. Jordan is bordered by Syria to the north, Iraq to the east, Saudi Arabia to the south, and Israel and the occupied Palestinian ter ...

Kuwait Kuwait, officially the State of Kuwait, is a country in West Asia and the geopolitical region known as the Middle East. It is situated in the northern edge of the Arabian Peninsula at the head of the Persian Gulf, bordering Iraq to Iraq–Kuwait ...

Turkey Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...

Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world. Geographically, the ...

Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...

Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...

Neo-Babylonian Empire The Neo-Babylonian Empire or Second Babylonian Empire, historically known as the Chaldean Empire, was the last polity ruled by monarchs native to ancient Mesopotamia. Beginning with the coronation of Nabopolassar as the King of Babylon in 626 BC a ...

Achaemenid Empire The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire, also known as the Persian Empire or First Persian Empire (; , , ), was an Iranian peoples, Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC. Based in modern-day Iran, i ...

Imperial Aramaic Imperial Aramaic is a linguistic term, coined by modern Aramaic studies, scholars in order to designate a specific historical Variety (linguistics), variety of Aramaic language. The term is polysemic, with two distinctive meanings, wider (socioli ...

lingua franca A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, link language or language of wider communication (LWC), is a Natural language, language systematically used to make co ...

logogram In a written language, a logogram (from Ancient Greek 'word', and 'that which is drawn or written'), also logograph or lexigraph, is a written character that represents a semantic component of a language, such as a word or morpheme. Chine ...

Middle Persian Middle Persian, also known by its endonym Pārsīk or Pārsīg ( Inscriptional Pahlavi script: , Manichaean script: , Avestan script: ) in its later form, is a Western Middle Iranian language which became the literary language of the Sasania ...

Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
. '' Daniel and Ezra. Aramaic translation of the Bible is known as the

Targum A targum (, ''interpretation'', ''translation'', ''version''; plural: targumim) was an originally spoken translation of the Hebrew Bible (also called the ) that a professional translator ( ''mǝṯurgǝmān'') would give in the common language o ...

.{{sfn, Kitchen, 1965, pp=31–79{{sfn, Rosenthal, 2006, p={{sfn, Gzella, 2015, pp=304–10 It was the language of Jesus,{{sfn, Ruzer, 2014, pp=182–205{{sfn, Buth, 2014, pp=395–421{{sfn, Gzella, 2015, p=237 who spoke the Galilean dialect during his public ministry, and of the

Jerusalem Talmud The Jerusalem Talmud (, often for short) or Palestinian Talmud, also known as the Talmud of the Land of Israel, is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century Jewish oral tradition known as the Mishnah. Naming this version of the Talm ...

,

Babylonian Talmud The Talmud (; ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (''halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the centerpiece of Jewi ...

, and Zohar. According to the Babylonian Talmud (

Sanhedrin The Sanhedrin (Hebrew and Middle Aramaic , a loanword from , 'assembly,' 'sitting together,' hence ' assembly' or 'council') was a Jewish legislative and judicial assembly of either 23 or 70 elders, existing at both a local and central level i ...

38b), the language spoken by Adam{{sndthe first human in the Bible{{sndwas Aramaic. Some variants of Aramaic are retained as

sacred languages Sacred describes something that is dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity; is considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion; or inspires awe or reverence among believers. The property is often ascribed to objects ( ...

by certain religious communities. Most notable among them is Classical Syriac, the liturgical language of

Syriac Christianity Syriac Christianity (, ''Mšiḥoyuṯo Suryoyto'' or ''Mšiḥāyūṯā Suryāytā'') is a branch of Eastern Christianity of which formative Christian theology, theological writings and traditional Christian liturgy, liturgies are expressed in ...

. It is used by several communities, including the

Assyrian Church of the East The Assyrian Church of the East (ACOE), sometimes called the Church of the East and officially known as the Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East, is an Eastern Christianity, Eastern Syriac Christianity, Syriac Christian denomin ...

, the Ancient Church of the East, the

Chaldean Catholic Church The Chaldean Catholic Church is an Eastern Catholic Churches, Eastern Catholic Catholic particular churches and liturgical rites, particular church (''sui iuris'') in full communion with the Holy See and the rest of the Catholic Church, and is ...

, the

Syriac Orthodox Church The Syriac Orthodox Church (), also informally known as the Jacobite Church, is an Oriental Orthodox Christian denomination, denomination that originates from the Church of Antioch. The church currently has around 4-5 million followers. The ch ...

, the Syriac Catholic Church, the Maronite Church, and also the

Saint Thomas Christians The Saint Thomas Christians, also called Syrian Christians of India, ''Marthoma Suriyani Nasrani'', ''Malankara Nasrani'', or ''Nasrani Mappila'', are an Ethnoreligious group, ethno-religious community of Indian Christians in the state of Ker ...

,

Syriac Christians Syriac Christianity (, ''Mšiḥoyuṯo Suryoyto'' or ''Mšiḥāyūṯā Suryāytā'') is a branch of Eastern Christianity of which formative theological writings and traditional liturgies are expressed in the Classical Syriac language, a var ...

of

Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...

,

India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...

.{{sfn, Beyer, 1986, pp=38–43{{sfn, Casey, 1999, pp=83–93 One of the liturgical dialects was Mandaic,{{sfn, Burtea, 2012, pp=670–85 which besides becoming a vernacular, Neo-Mandaic, also remained the liturgical language of

Mandaeism Mandaeism (Mandaic language, Classical Mandaic: ),https://qadaha.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/nhura-dictionary-mandaic-english-mandaic.pdf sometimes also known as Nasoraeanism or Sabianism, is a Gnosticism, Gnostic, Monotheism, ...

.{{sfn, Häberl, 2012, pp=725–37 Syriac was also the liturgical language of several now-extinct

gnostic Gnosticism (from Ancient Greek: , romanized: ''gnōstikós'', Koine Greek: �nostiˈkos 'having knowledge') is a collection of religious ideas and systems that coalesced in the late 1st century AD among early Christian sects. These diverse g ...

faiths, such as

Manichaeism Manichaeism (; in ; ) is an endangered former major world religion currently only practiced in China around Cao'an,R. van den Broek, Wouter J. Hanegraaff ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times''. SUNY Press, 1998 p. 37 found ...

. Neo-Aramaic languages are still spoken in the 21st century as a

first language A first language (L1), native language, native tongue, or mother tongue is the first language a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period hypothesis, critical period. In some countries, the term ''native language'' ...

by many communities of Assyrians,

Mizrahi Jews Mizrahi Jews (), also known as ''Mizrahim'' () in plural and ''Mizrahi'' () in singular, and alternatively referred to as Oriental Jews or ''Edot HaMizrach'' (, ), are terms used in Israeli discourse to refer to a grouping of Jews, Jewish c ...

(in particular, the Iraqi Jews), and

Mandaeans Mandaeans (Mandaic language, Mandaic: ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡉࡀ) ( ), also known as Mandaean Sabians ( ) or simply as Sabians ( ), are an ethnoreligious group who are followers of Mandaeism. They believe that John the Baptist was the final and ...

of the

Near East The Near East () is a transcontinental region around the Eastern Mediterranean encompassing the historical Fertile Crescent, the Levant, Anatolia, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and coastal areas of the Arabian Peninsula. The term was invented in the 20th ...

,{{sfn, Heinrichs, 1990, pp=xi–xv{{sfn, Beyer, 1986, p=53 with the main Neo-Aramaic languages being Suret (~240,000 speakers) and Turoyo (~250,000 speakers).{{cite web , url=https://userblogs.fu-berlin.de/saop/didyouknow/ , title=Did you know , website=Surayt-Aramaic Online Project , publisher=Free University of Berlin Western Neo-Aramaic (~3,000) persists in only two villages in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains in western

Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...

. They have retained use of the once-dominant lingua franca despite subsequent

language shift Language shift, also known as language transfer, language replacement or language assimilation, is the process whereby a speech community shifts to a different language, usually over an extended period of time. Often, languages that are perceived ...

s experienced throughout the Middle East.

Name

The connection between Chaldean, Syriac, and Samaritan as "Aramaic" was first identified in 1679 by German theologian Johann Wilhelm Hilliger.{{cite book, author=Johann Wilhelm Hilliger, title=Summarium Lingvæ Aramææ, i.e. Chaldæo-Syro-Samaritanæ: olim in Academia Wittebergensi orientalium lingvarum consecraneis, parietes intra privatos, prælectum & nunc ... publico bono commodatum, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NgrgAAAAMAAJ, year=1679, publisher=Sumtibus hæred. D. Tobiæ Mevii & Elerti Schumacheri, per Matthæum Henckelium, quote= artial English translation "The Aramaic language name comes from its gentile founder, Aram (Gen 10:22), in the same manner as the Slavic languages Bohemian, Polish, Vandal etc. Multiple dialects are Chaldean, Syrian, Samaritan."; Latin Original: Linguae Aramaeae nomen à gentis conditore, Aramo nimirum (Gen. X 22) desumptum est, & complectitur, perinde ut Lingua Sclavonica, Bohemican, Polonican, Vandalicam &c. Dialectos plures, ceu sunt: Chaldaica, Syriaca, Samaritana. In 1819–1821 Ulrich Friedrich Kopp published his {{Lang, de, Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit ("Images and Inscriptions of the Past"), in which he established the basis of the paleographical development of the Northwest Semitic scripts.{{cite book , last=Lemaire , first=André , title=An Eye for Form , date=2021-05-25 , publisher=Penn State University Press , isbn=9781575068879 , pages=5 , chapter=A History of Northwest Semitic Epigraphy , doi=10.1515/9781575068879-007 , quote=In his Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit, Ulrich Friedrich Kopp (1819–21) established the basis of the paleographical development of the Northwest Semitic scripts... , access-date=2022-10-05 , chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781575068879-007/html , doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 , via=De Gruyter Kopp criticised Jean-Jacques Barthélemy and other scholars who had characterized all the then-known inscriptions and coins as Phoenician, with "everything left to the Phoenicians and nothing to the Arameans, as if they could not have written at all".{{sfn, Kopp, 1821, p=226-227 (§168–169), ps=: "Irre ich nicht, so hat man die Benennung "phönicische Schrift" bisher etwas zu freygebig gebraucht, den Phöniciern alles gegeben, und den Aramäern nichts gelassen, gleichsam, als ob diese gar nicht hätten schreiben können, oder doch von ihnen nicht ein einziges Denkmal aus ältern Zeiten sich sollte erhalten haben. Selbst Schriften, in welchen sich die aramäische Mund-Art gar nicht verkennen läßt, nennen die Orientalisten phönicisch (§. 195), bloß weil sie noch nicht geahndet haben, daß eine Verschiedenheit vorhanden seyn könne. Ein Haupt-Unterscheidungs-Zeichen – So weit man, ohne auch dasjenige gesehen zu haben, was etwa noch entdeckt werden könnte, vorjetzt durch bloße Induction schließen kann – scheint in den Buchstaben ב, ד, ע und ר zu liegen. Denn so viele phönicische Denkmäler ich auch betrachtet habe; so sind mir doch in keinem einzigen ächt phönicischen diejenigen Gestalten vorgekommen, welche sich oben öffnen (§. 100). Nur bey dem einzigen ע finden sich, wie ich schon erinnert habe, jedoch höchst seltene Ausnahmen, die zuweilen bloß von der Uebereilung des Schreibers herrühren (z.B. im ersten ע der oxforder Inschrift (B.I. S.207). Wir haben sogar oben (§. 159) gesehen, daß selbst noch 153 Jahre nach Christi Geburt, als schon die Schrift in Phönicien sehr ausgeartet war, und in dem ganzen Zeit-Raume vorher, nie ד und ר mit von oben geöffneten Köpfen erscheinen. Dagegen haben diejenigen Denkmäler, auf welchen man sie antrifft, wie ich glaube, auch keinen Anspruch an Pönicier, als Urheber. §. 169 Unter solche gehört vor allen die Inschrift von Carpentras, welche ich hier um so lieber vornehme, als ihre Aechtheit über allen Zweifel erhoben ist... §. 195 Die Schrift darauf nannte man ehemals ägyptisch, welches freylich, weder in Vergleichung mit der ägyptischen Buchstaben-Schrift eine angemessene Benennung, noch der Sprache wegen eine zu wagende Vermuthung war. Schwerlich richtig ist aber auch die bey neuern Gelehrten (Gessenii Gesch. d. hebr. Spr. 139. Bibl. der alt. Literat. VI. 18. Hammer Fund-Grub. V. 277 °°) aufgekommene Benennung "Phönicisch". Ja Hartmann (II. II. 540) nennt sogar unmittelbar nach der ersten malteser diese "eine andere phönicische Inschrift". Schon die Mund-Art, welche nicht phönicisch, sondern aramäisch ist, würde uns vermuthen lassen, daß die Schrift den Aramäern ebenfalls gehöre; wenn nicht in dieser sich zugleich auch Merkmale einer Verschiedenheit von der phönicischen zeigten (s. oben §. 100. 168). Ich habe daher mit gutem Vorbedachte unser Denkmal von Carpentras aus meiner kleinen Sammlung phönicischer Inschriften (B. I. 195) ausgeschlossen. §. 196 Es scheint, als ob zur Zeit des oben (§. 193) mitgetheilten babylonischen Denkmals Aramäer und Phönicier eine und dieselbe Schrift gehabt hätten. Gegen 300 Sahre vor unserer Zeit-Rechnung war aber meiner Vermuthung nach schon eine Trennung eingetreten. Ich sage Vermuthung: denn mein Schluß gründet sich nur auf die einseitige Auslegung folgender Münze, bey welcher man mir vielleicht mehr als einen Einwurf zu machen im Stande ist.." Kopp noted that some of the words on the Carpentras Stele corresponded to the Aramaic in the

Book of Daniel The Book of Daniel is a 2nd-century BC biblical apocalypse with a 6th-century BC setting. It is ostensibly a narrative detailing the experiences and Prophecy, prophetic visions of Daniel, a Jewish Babylonian captivity, exile in Babylon ...

, and in the

Book of Ruth The Book of Ruth (, ''Megillath Ruth'', "the Scroll of Ruth", one of the Five Megillot) is included in the third division, or the Writings ( Ketuvim), of the Hebrew Bible. In most Christian canons it is treated as one of the historical books ...

.{{sfn, Kopp, 1821, p=S. 182–185, ps=: "Es gehört nicht viel dazu, um einzusehen, daß die Mund-Art, welche in dieser Inschrift herrscht, aramäisch sey. Schon de Wörter עבדת קדם ,ברת ,אמרת, u. s . w. verrathen sie. Allein rein Chaldäisch kann man sie nicht nennen; man müßte denn mit O. G. Tychsen zu manchen Vorausseßungen und Uenderungen seine Zuflucht nehmen wollen. ist nimmermehr chaldäisch; sondern entweder äthiopisch hic, hoc loco, oder das hebräische Demonstrativum. Denn man bemerkt auch ben die Orthographie, nach welcher statt gefegt wird. Ich war einmal in Versuchung das Relativum der Zabier darinnen sinden zu wollen, weil ich wirklich gedruckt fand. Als ich aber die Handschrift selbst verglich, say' ich bald, daß es ein Druckfehler, statt war… Oyngeachtet die Endigung nicht gewöhnlich im Chaldäischen ist, so findet sich doch in der Ueberseßung des Buches Ruth (III. 10) dieses Wort grade so geschrieben. Daß dieses Zeit-Wort hier nicht perfectus fuit, wie gewöhnlich, heißen könne, lehrt der Zusammenhang. Es hat aber auch transitive Bedeutung, wie die Wörter-Bücher lehren (Simonis und Gesenius n. 2) und auch das arabische tamam wird für perfecit, complevit gebraucht. Ich habe mir daher um so weniger ein Gewissen daraus gemacht, ihm die transitive Bedeutung hier beyzulegen, als in dieser Anschrift, in welcher und dergleichen an keine Regeln gebundene Wörter vorkommen, es eine Recheit reyn würde, den Sprach-Gebrauch vorschreiben zu wollen. Daß übrigens in das für stehe, siehet man selbst aus dem Chaldäischen der Bibel (Dan. IV. 15. V. 8)."

Josephus Flavius Josephus (; , ; ), born Yosef ben Mattityahu (), was a Roman–Jewish historian and military leader. Best known for writing '' The Jewish War'', he was born in Jerusalem—then part of the Roman province of Judea—to a father of pr ...

and

Strabo Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-si ...

(the latter citing Posidonius) both stated that the "Syrians" called themselves "Arameans".{{sfn, Andrade, 2013, p=7 The

Septuagint The Septuagint ( ), sometimes referred to as the Greek Old Testament or The Translation of the Seventy (), and abbreviated as LXX, is the earliest extant Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible from the original Biblical Hebrew. The full Greek ...

, the earliest extant full copy of the Hebrew Bible, a Greek translation, used the terms ''Syria'' and ''Syrian'' where the

Masoretic Text The Masoretic Text (MT or 𝕸; ) is the authoritative Hebrew and Aramaic text of the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible (''Tanakh'') in Rabbinic Judaism. The Masoretic Text defines the Jewish canon and its precise letter-text, with its vocaliz ...

, the earliest extant Hebrew copy of the Bible, uses the terms ''Aramean'' and ''Aramaic'';{{sfn, Wevers, 2001, pp=237–51{{sfn, Joosten, 2008, pp=93–105{{sfn, Joosten, 2010, pp=53–72 numerous later bibles followed the Septuagint's usage, including the

King James Version The King James Version (KJV), also the King James Bible (KJB) and the Authorized Version (AV), is an Early Modern English Bible translations, Early Modern English translation of the Christianity, Christian Bible for the Church of England, wh ...

.{{cite book, last=Joseph, first=John, title=The Modern Assyrians of the Middle East: A History of Their Encounter with Western Christian Missions, Archaeologists, and Colonial Powers, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=79wj2hj4wKUC&pg=PA10, year=2000, publisher=Brill, isbn=9004116419, pages=9–10, quote=The designations Syria and Syrian were derived from Greek usage long before Christianity. When the Greeks became better acquainted with the Near East, especially after Alexander the Great overthrew the Achaemenian empire in the 4th century B.C., they restricted the name Syria to the lands west of the Euphrates. During the 3rd century B.C., when the Hebrew Bible was translated by Jewish scholars into the Greek Septuagint for the use of the Hellenized Jews of Alexandria, the terms for 'Aramean' and 'Aramaic' in the Hebrew Bible, were translated into 'Syrian' and 'the Syrian tongue' respectively. [Footnote: "The Authorized Version of the Bible continued to use the same terms that the Septuagint had adopted. In 1970, the New English Bible, published by Oxford and Cambridge University presses, and translated by biblical scholars drawn from various British universities, went back to the original Hebrew terms, using Aram and Arameans for Syria and Syrians respectively."] In Palestine itself, according to Noldeke, the Jews and later the Christians there referred to their dialect of Aramaic as Syriac; in Babylon, both Greeks and Persians called the Arameans Syrians. The second-century B.C. Greek historian Posidonius, a native of Syria, noted that 'the people we reekscall Syrians were called by the Syrians themselves Arameans….for the people in Syria are Arameans'." This connection between the names Syrian and Aramaic was discussed in 1835 by Étienne Marc Quatremère. In historical sources, Aramaic language is designated by two distinctive groups of terms, first of them represented by endonymic (native) names, and the other one represented by various exonymic (foreign in origin) names. Native (endonymic) terms for Aramaic language were derived from the same word root as the name of its original speakers, the ancient

Arameans The Arameans, or Aramaeans (; ; , ), were a tribal Semitic people in the ancient Near East, first documented in historical sources from the late 12th century BCE. Their homeland, often referred to as the land of Aram, originally covered c ...

. Endonymic forms were also adopted in some other languages, like ancient

Hebrew Hebrew (; ''ʿÎbrit'') is a Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family. A regional dialect of the Canaanite languages, it was natively spoken by the Israelites and ...

. In the

Torah The Torah ( , "Instruction", "Teaching" or "Law") is the compilation of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, namely the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. The Torah is also known as the Pentateuch () ...

(Hebrew Bible), "Aram" is used as a proper name of several people including descendants of Shem, Nahor, and Jacob.{{cite web , url=http://www.abarim-publications.com/Meaning/Aram.html , title=The name Aram in the Bible , work=Abarim Publications , access-date=10 October 2018 , url-status=dead , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929233320/http://www.fsmitha.com/h1/ch03-hyk2.htm , archive-date=29 September 2018 Ancient Aram, bordering northern Israel and what is now called Syria, is considered the linguistic center of Aramaic, the language of the Arameans who settled the area during the

Bronze Age The Bronze Age () was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of ...

{{circa, 3500 BC. Unlike in Hebrew, designations for Aramaic language in some other ancient languages were mostly exonymic. In

ancient Greek Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek ...

, Aramaic language was most commonly known as the "Syrian language",Nöldeke, 1871, p. 115: "Die Griechen haben den Namen "Aramäer" nie eigentlich gekannt; ausser Posidonius (dem Strabo folgt) nennt ihn uns nur noch ein andrer Orientale, Josephus (Ant. 1, 6, 4). Dass Homer bei den 'Ερεμβοι oder in den Worten eiv 'Αρίμοις an sie dächte, ist sehr unwahrscheinlich. Die Griechen nannten das Volk "Syrer"". in relation to the native (non-Greek) inhabitants of the historical region of Syria. Since the name of Syria itself emerged as a variant of Assyria,{{sfn, Frye, 1992, pp=281–85{{sfn, Frye, 1997, pp=30–36 the biblical Ashur, and Akkadian Ashuru, a complex set of

semantic Semantics is the study of linguistic Meaning (philosophy), meaning. It examines what meaning is, how words get their meaning, and how the meaning of a complex expression depends on its parts. Part of this process involves the distinction betwee ...

phenomena was created, becoming a subject of interest both among ancient writers and modern scholars. The

Koine Greek Koine Greek (, ), also variously known as Hellenistic Greek, common Attic, the Alexandrian dialect, Biblical Greek, Septuagint Greek or New Testament Greek, was the koiné language, common supra-regional form of Greek language, Greek spoken and ...

word {{lang, grc, Ἑβραϊστί (''Hebraïstí'') has been translated as "Aramaic" in some versions of the Christian

New Testament The New Testament (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus, as well as events relating to Christianity in the 1st century, first-century Christianit ...

, as Aramaic was at that time the language commonly spoken by the

Jews Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...

.{{sfn, Köstenberger, 2009, p=350{{sfn, Hamp, 2005, p=4 However, {{lang, grc, Ἑβραϊστί is consistently used in Koine Greek at this time to mean Hebrew and {{lang, grc, Συριστί (''Syristi'') is used to mean Aramaic.{{sfn, Buth, Pierce, 2014, pp=107–109 In Biblical scholarship, the term "Chaldean" was for many years used as a synonym of Aramaic, due to its use in the book of Daniel and subsequent interpretation by

Jerome Jerome (; ; ; – 30 September 420), also known as Jerome of Stridon, was an early Christian presbyter, priest, Confessor of the Faith, confessor, theologian, translator, and historian; he is commonly known as Saint Jerome. He is best known ...

.

Geographic distribution

During the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires,

Arameans The Arameans, or Aramaeans (; ; , ), were a tribal Semitic people in the ancient Near East, first documented in historical sources from the late 12th century BCE. Their homeland, often referred to as the land of Aram, originally covered c ...

began to settle in greater numbers in

Babylonia Babylonia (; , ) was an Ancient history, ancient Akkadian language, Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Kuwait, Syria and Iran). It emerged as a ...

, and later in the heartland of

Assyria Assyria (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , ''māt Aššur'') was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization that existed as a city-state from the 21st century BC to the 14th century BC and eventually expanded into an empire from the 14th century BC t ...

, also known as the "Arbela triangle" ( Assur,

Nineveh Nineveh ( ; , ''URUNI.NU.A, Ninua''; , ''Nīnəwē''; , ''Nīnawā''; , ''Nīnwē''), was an ancient Assyrian city of Upper Mesopotamia, located in the modern-day city of Mosul (itself built out of the Assyrian town of Mepsila) in northern ...

, and Arbela). The influx eventually resulted in the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) adopting an Akkadian-influenced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of its empire.{{sfn, Bae, 2004, pp=1–20 This policy was continued by the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire, and both empires became operationally bilingual in written sources, with Aramaic used alongside Akkadian.{{sfn, Streck, 2012, pp=416–24 The Achaemenid Empire (539–323 BC) continued this tradition, and the extensive influence of these empires led to Aramaic gradually becoming the lingua franca of most of western Asia,

Anatolia Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...

, the

Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...

, and

Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...

.{{sfn, Lipiński, 2000, p={{sfn, Gzella, 2015, p= Beginning with the rise of the

Rashidun Caliphate The Rashidun Caliphate () is a title given for the reigns of first caliphs (lit. "successors") — Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali collectively — believed to Political aspects of Islam, represent the perfect Islam and governance who led the ...

and the

early Muslim conquests The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests (), also known as the Arab conquests, were initiated in the 7th century by Muhammad, the founder of Islam. He established the first Islamic state in Medina, Arabian Peninsula, Arabia that ...

in the late seventh century, Arabic gradually replaced Aramaic as the lingua franca of the

Near East The Near East () is a transcontinental region around the Eastern Mediterranean encompassing the historical Fertile Crescent, the Levant, Anatolia, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and coastal areas of the Arabian Peninsula. The term was invented in the 20th ...

.{{sfn, Weninger, 2012, pp=747–55 However, Aramaic remains a spoken, literary, and liturgical language for local Christians and also some Jews. Aramaic also continues to be spoken by the Assyrians of northern Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, and northwest Iran, with diaspora communities in

Armenia Armenia, officially the Republic of Armenia, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of West Asia. It is a part of the Caucasus region and is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia (country), Georgia to the north and Azerbaijan to ...

,

Georgia Georgia most commonly refers to: * Georgia (country), a country in the South Caucasus * Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the southeastern United States Georgia may also refer to: People and fictional characters * Georgia (name), a list of pe ...

,

Azerbaijan Azerbaijan, officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, is a Boundaries between the continents, transcontinental and landlocked country at the boundary of West Asia and Eastern Europe. It is a part of the South Caucasus region and is bounded by ...

, and southern

Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...

. The Mandaeans also continue to use Classical Mandaic as a liturgical language, although most now speak Arabic as their first language.{{sfn, Häberl, 2012, pp=725–37 There are still also a small number of first-language speakers of Western Aramaic varieties in isolated villages in western Syria. Being in contact with other regional languages, some Neo-Aramaic dialects were often engaged in the mutual exchange of influences, particularly with Arabic,{{sfn, Weninger, 2012, pp=747–55 Iranian,{{sfn, Kapeliuk, 2012, pp=738–47 and Kurdish.{{sfn, Chyet, 1997, pp=283–300 The turbulence of the last two centuries (particularly the Assyrian genocide, also known as ''Seyfo'' "Sword" in Syriac, has seen speakers of first-language and literary Aramaic dispersed throughout the world. However, there are several sizable Assyrian towns in northern Iraq, such as Alqosh, Bakhdida, Bartella, Tesqopa, and Tel Keppe, and numerous small villages, where Aramaic is still the main spoken language, and many large cities in this region also have Suret-speaking communities, particularly

Mosul Mosul ( ; , , ; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of Nineveh Governorate. It is the second largest city in Iraq overall after the capital Baghdad. Situated on the banks of Tigris, the city encloses the ruins of the ...

,

Erbil Erbil (, ; , ), also called Hawler (, ), is the capital and most populated city in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. The city is the capital of the Erbil Governorate. Human settlement at Erbil may be dated back to the 5th millennium BC. At the h ...

,

Kirkuk Kirkuk (; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of the Kirkuk Governorate. The city is home to a diverse population of Kurds, Iraqi Turkmen, Iraqi Turkmens and Arabs. Kirkuk sits on the ruins of the original Kirkuk Cit ...

, Dohuk, and al-Hasakah. In modern Israel, the only native Aramaic-speaking population are the Jews of Kurdistan, although the language is dying out. However, Aramaic is also experiencing a revival among Maronites in Israel in Jish.

Aramaic languages and dialects

Aramaic is often spoken of as a single language but is actually a group of related languages. Some languages differ more from each other than the

Romance languages The Romance languages, also known as the Latin or Neo-Latin languages, are the languages that are Language family, directly descended from Vulgar Latin. They are the only extant subgroup of the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-E ...

do among themselves. Its long history, extensive literature, and use by different religious communities are all factors in the diversification of the language. Some Aramaic dialects are mutually intelligible, whereas others are not, similar to the situation with modern

varieties of Arabic Varieties of Arabic (or dialects or vernaculars) are the linguistic systems that Arabic speakers speak natively. Arabic is a Semitic languages, Semitic language within the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic family that originated in the Arabian P ...

. Some Aramaic languages are known under different names; for example, Syriac is particularly used to describe the Eastern Aramaic variety spoken by Syriac Christian communities in northern Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria, and northwestern Iran, and the Saint Thomas Christians in

Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...

, India. Most dialects can be described as either "Eastern" or "Western", the dividing line being roughly the

Euphrates The Euphrates ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of West Asia. Tigris–Euphrates river system, Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia (). Originati ...

, or slightly west of it. It is also helpful to distinguish modern living languages, or Neo-Aramaics, and those that are still in use as literary or liturgical languages or are only of interest to scholars. Although there are some exceptions to this rule, this classification gives "Old", "Middle", and "Modern" periods alongside "Eastern" and "Western" areas to distinguish between the various languages and dialects that are Aramaic.

Writing system

{{Main, Aramaic alphabet The earliest Aramaic alphabet was based on the

Phoenician alphabet The Phoenician alphabet is an abjad (consonantal alphabet) used across the Mediterranean civilization of Phoenicia for most of the 1st millennium BC. It was one of the first alphabets, attested in Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions fo ...

. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive "square" style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of

Canaan CanaanThe current scholarly edition of the Septuagint, Greek Old Testament spells the word without any accents, cf. Septuaginta : id est Vetus Testamentum graece iuxta LXX interprets. 2. ed. / recogn. et emendavit Robert Hanhart. Stuttgart : D ...

adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the

Hebrew alphabet The Hebrew alphabet (, ), known variously by scholars as the Ktav Ashuri, Jewish script, square script and block script, is a unicase, unicameral abjad script used in the writing of the Hebrew language and other Jewish languages, most notably ...

. This is the writing system used in Biblical Aramaic and other Jewish writing in Aramaic. The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the

Syriac alphabet The Syriac alphabet ( ) is a writing system primarily used to write the Syriac language since the 1st century. It is one of the Semitic languages, Semitic abjads descending from the Aramaic alphabet through the Palmyrene alphabet, and shares sim ...

. A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the Mandaic alphabet, is used by the

Mandaeans Mandaeans (Mandaic language, Mandaic: ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡉࡀ) ( ), also known as Mandaean Sabians ( ) or simply as Sabians ( ), are an ethnoreligious group who are followers of Mandaeism. They believe that John the Baptist was the final and ...

.{{sfn, Häberl, 2012, pp=725–37 In addition to these writing systems, certain derivatives of the Aramaic alphabet were used in ancient times by particular groups: the Nabataean alphabet in

Petra Petra (; "Rock"), originally known to its inhabitants as Raqmu (Nabataean Aramaic, Nabataean: or , *''Raqēmō''), is an ancient city and archaeological site in southern Jordan. Famous for its rock-cut architecture and water conduit systems, P ...

and the Palmyrene alphabet in

Palmyra Palmyra ( ; Palmyrene dialect, Palmyrene: (), romanized: ''Tadmor''; ) is an ancient city in central Syria. It is located in the eastern part of the Levant, and archaeological finds date back to the Neolithic period, and documents first menti ...

. In modern times, Turoyo (see below) has sometimes been written in a

Latin script The Latin script, also known as the Roman script, is a writing system based on the letters of the classical Latin alphabet, derived from a form of the Greek alphabet which was in use in the ancient Greek city of Cumae in Magna Graecia. The Gree ...

.

Periodization

{, border="0" cellpadding="5" style="float:right; background:#ffffd9; margin-left:10px;" , - , style="background:#ffffd9;", ImageSize = width:320 height:700 PlotArea = right:40 top:10 left:40 bottom:10 DateFormat = yyyy TimeAxis = orientation:vertical order:reverse Period = from:-1200 till:2005 AlignBars = early ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:200 start:-1200 Colors = id:canvas value:rgb(1,1,0.85) BackgroundColors = canvas:canvas PlotData = width:15 color:red bar:test from:-1200 till:200 # Old Aramaic PlotData = width:15 color:orange bar:test from:200 till:1200 # Middle Aramaic PlotData = width:15 color:yellow bar:test from:1200 till:2005 # Modern Aramaic PlotData = bar:test at:-1200 mark:(line,white) at:-1200 shift:(10,0) text:12th c. BCE Aramaeans settle in Aram bar:test at:-1000 mark:(line,white) at:-1000 shift:(10,0) text:10th c. BCE early written Aramaic bar:test at:-740 mark:(line,white) at:-740 shift:(10,0) text:740s BCE Aramaic official in Assyria bar:test at:-500 mark:(line,white) at:-500 shift:(10,0) text:c.500 BCE Darius I makes Aramaic official bar:test at:-425 mark:(line,white) at:-425 shift:(10,0) text:5th c. BCE Elephantine papyri composed bar:test at:-330 mark:(line,white) at:-331 shift:(10,0) text:331 BCE Greek ascendancy bar:test at:-246 mark:(line,white) at:-246 shift:(10,0) text:247 BCE Aramaic official in Arsacid Empire bar:test at:-169 mark:(line,white) at:-169 shift:(10,5) text:c. 170 BCE Book of Daniel probably composed bar:test at:-141 mark:(line,white) at:-141 shift:(10,0) text:142 BCE Aramaic official in Hasmonaean Judah bar:test at:-49 mark:(line,white) at:-40 shift:(10,0) text:1st c. BCE Aramaic Palmyra, Petra & Osrhoene bar:test at:45 mark:(line,white) at:45 shift:(10,0) text:1st c. New Testament records some Aramaic bar:test at:135 mark:(line,white) at:135 shift:(10,4) text:135 Galilean Aramaic becomes prominent bar:test at:172 mark:(line,white) at:172 shift:(10,1) text:172 Tatian's Diatessaron produced bar:test at:200 mark:(line,white) at:200 shift:(10,-3) text:3rd c. Targum composition bar:test at:224 mark:(line,white) at:224 shift:(10,-8) text:224 Classical Mandaic emerges bar:test at:306 mark:(line,white) at:306 shift:(10,-1) text:c. 306 Ephrem born, Syriac golden age bar:test at:431 mark:(line,white) at:431 shift:(10,0) text:431 Nestorian schism of Aramaic Christians bar:test at:435 mark:(line,white) at:435 shift:(10,-9) text:c. 435 Peshitta Syriac Bible produced bar:test at:637 mark:(line,white) at:637 shift:(10,0) text:637 Arabic ascendancy bar:test at:700 mark:(line,white) at:700 shift:(10,0) text:700 Talmud completed bar:test at:1258 mark:(line,black) at:1258 shift:(10,0) text:1258 Mongols sack Baghdad bar:test at:1290 mark:(line,black) at:1290 shift:(10,-5) text:13th c. Zohar published in Spain bar:test at:1650 mark:(line,black) at:1650 shift:(10,0) text:17th c. School of Alqosh flourishes bar:test at:1836 mark:(line,black) at:1836 shift:(10,0) text:1836 Assyrian Neo-Aramaic first in print bar:test at:1915 mark:(line,black) at:1915 shift:(10,4) text:1915 Persecution in Turkey bar:test at:1951 mark:(line,black) at:1951 shift:(10,2) text:1951 Aramaic Jews move to Israel bar:test at:1998 mark:(line,black) at:1998 shift:(10,0) text:1998 last speakers of Mlahsô & Bijil die

Periodization In historiography, periodization is the process or study of categorizing the past into discrete, quantified, and named blocks of time for the purpose of study or analysis.Adam Rabinowitz.It's about time: historical periodization and Linked Ancie ...

of historical development of Aramaic language has been the subject of particular interest for scholars, who proposed several types of periodization, based on linguistic, chronological and territorial criteria. Overlapping terminology, used in different periodizations, led to the creation of several polysemic terms, that are used differently among scholars. Terms like: Old Aramaic, Ancient Aramaic, Early Aramaic, Middle Aramaic, Late Aramaic (and some others, like Paleo-Aramaic), were used in various meanings, thus referring (in scope or substance) to different stages in historical development of Aramaic language.{{sfn, Fitzmyer, 1997, pp=57–60{{sfn, Gzella, 2015, pp=47–48{{sfn, Butts, 2019, pp=222–25 Most commonly used types of periodization are those of Klaus Beyer and Joseph Fitzmyer. Periodization of Klaus Beyer (1929–2014):{{sfn, Beyer, 1986, p= * Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to {{circa, 200 AD * Middle Aramaic, from c. 200 AD, to c. 1200 AD * Modern Aramaic, from c. 1200 AD, up to the modern times Periodization of Joseph Fitzmyer (1920–2016):{{sfn, Fitzmyer, 1997, pp=60–63 * Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to regional prominence c. 700 BC * Official Aramaic, from c. 700 BC, to c. 200 BC * Middle Aramaic, from c. 200 BC, to c. 200 AD * Late Aramaic, from c. 200 AD, to c. 700 AD * Modern Aramaic, from c. 700 AD, up to the modern times Recent periodization of Aaron Butts:{{sfn, Butts, 2019, pp=224–25 * Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to c. 538 BC * Achaemenid Aramaic, from c. 538 BC, to c. 333 BC * Middle Aramaic, from c. 333 BC, to c. 200 AD * Late Aramaic, from c. 200 AD, to c. 1200 AD * Neo-Aramaic, from c. 1200 AD, up to the modern times

Old Aramaic

{{Main, Old Aramaic 20131205 Istanbul 067

Aramaic's long history and diverse and widespread use has led to the development of many divergent varieties, which are sometimes considered

dialect A dialect is a Variety (linguistics), variety of language spoken by a particular group of people. This may include dominant and standard language, standardized varieties as well as Vernacular language, vernacular, unwritten, or non-standardize ...

s, though they have become distinct enough over time that they are now sometimes considered separate

language Language is a structured system of communication that consists of grammar and vocabulary. It is the primary means by which humans convey meaning, both in spoken and signed language, signed forms, and may also be conveyed through writing syste ...

s. Therefore, there is not one singular, static Aramaic language; each time and place rather has had its own variation. The more widely spoken Eastern Aramaic languages are largely restricted to Assyrian, Mandean and

Mizrahi Jewish Mizrahi Jews (), also known as ''Mizrahim'' () in plural and ''Mizrahi'' () in singular, and alternatively referred to as Oriental Jews or ''Edot HaMizrach'' (, ), are terms used in Israeli discourse to refer to a grouping of Jews, Jewish c ...

communities in

Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...

, northeastern

Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...

, northwestern

Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...

, and southeastern

Turkey Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...

, whilst the severely endangered Western Neo-Aramaic language is spoken by small Christian and Muslim communities in the Anti-Lebanon mountains, and closely related western varieties of Aramaic persisted in

Mount Lebanon Mount Lebanon (, ; , ; ) is a mountain range in Lebanon. It is about long and averages above in elevation, with its peak at . The range provides a typical alpine climate year-round. Mount Lebanon is well-known for its snow-covered mountains, ...

until as late as the 17th century.{{sfn, Arnold, 2012, pp=685–96 The term "Old Aramaic" is used to describe the varieties of the language from its first known use, until the point roughly marked by the rise of the

Sasanian Empire The Sasanian Empire (), officially Eranshahr ( , "Empire of the Iranian peoples, Iranians"), was an List of monarchs of Iran, Iranian empire that was founded and ruled by the House of Sasan from 224 to 651. Enduring for over four centuries, th ...

(224 AD), dominating the influential, eastern dialect region. As such, the term covers over thirteen centuries of the development of Aramaic. This vast time span includes all Aramaic that is now effectively extinct. Regarding the earliest forms, Beyer suggests that written Aramaic probably dates from the 11th century BC,{{sfn, Beyer, 1986, p=11 as it is established by the 10th century, to which he dates the oldest inscriptions of northern Syria. Heinrichs uses the less controversial date of the 9th century,{{sfn, Heinrichs, 1990, p=x for which there is clear and widespread attestation. The central phase in the development of Old Aramaic was its official use by the

Neo-Assyrian Empire The Neo-Assyrian Empire was the fourth and penultimate stage of ancient Assyrian history. Beginning with the accession of Adad-nirari II in 911 BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire grew to dominate the ancient Near East and parts of South Caucasus, Nort ...

(911–608 BC),

Neo-Babylonian Empire The Neo-Babylonian Empire or Second Babylonian Empire, historically known as the Chaldean Empire, was the last polity ruled by monarchs native to ancient Mesopotamia. Beginning with the coronation of Nabopolassar as the King of Babylon in 626 BC a ...

(620–539 BC), and

Achaemenid Empire The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire, also known as the Persian Empire or First Persian Empire (; , , ), was an Iranian peoples, Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC. Based in modern-day Iran, i ...

(500–330 BC). The period before this, dubbed "Ancient Aramaic", saw the development of the language from being spoken in Aramaean city-states to become a major means of communication in diplomacy and trade throughout

Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...

, the

Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...

, and

Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...

. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, local vernaculars became increasingly prominent, fanning the divergence of an Aramaic

dialect continuum A dialect continuum or dialect chain is a series of Variety (linguistics), language varieties spoken across some geographical area such that neighboring varieties are Mutual intelligibility, mutually intelligible, but the differences accumulat ...

and the development of differing written standards.

Ancient Aramaic

{{see also, Samalian language "Ancient Aramaic" refers to the earliest known period of the language, from its origin until it becomes the lingua franca of the

Fertile Crescent The Fertile Crescent () is a crescent-shaped region in the Middle East, spanning modern-day Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria, together with northern Kuwait, south-eastern Turkey, and western Iran. Some authors also include ...

. It was the language of the Aramean city-states of

Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...

, Hamath, and Arpad.{{sfn, Fales, 2012, pp=555–73 There are inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the 10th century BC. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The alphabet of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on the

Phoenician alphabet The Phoenician alphabet is an abjad (consonantal alphabet) used across the Mediterranean civilization of Phoenicia for most of the 1st millennium BC. It was one of the first alphabets, attested in Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions fo ...

, and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined alphabet, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop from this in the eastern regions of Aram. Due to increasing Aramean migration eastward, the Western periphery of Assyria became bilingual in Akkadian and Aramean at least as early as the mid-9th century BC. As the

Neo-Assyrian Empire The Neo-Assyrian Empire was the fourth and penultimate stage of ancient Assyrian history. Beginning with the accession of Adad-nirari II in 911 BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire grew to dominate the ancient Near East and parts of South Caucasus, Nort ...

conquered Aramean lands west of the

Euphrates The Euphrates ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of West Asia. Tigris–Euphrates river system, Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia (). Originati ...

, Tiglath-Pileser III made Aramaic the Empire's second official language, and it eventually supplanted Akkadian completely. From 700 BC, the language began to spread in all directions, but lost much of its unity. Different dialects emerged in Assyria, Babylonia, the

Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...

and

Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...

. Around 600 BC, Adon, a

Canaan CanaanThe current scholarly edition of the Septuagint, Greek Old Testament spells the word without any accents, cf. Septuaginta : id est Vetus Testamentum graece iuxta LXX interprets. 2. ed. / recogn. et emendavit Robert Hanhart. Stuttgart : D ...

ite king, used Aramaic to write to an Egyptian

Pharaoh Pharaoh (, ; Egyptian language, Egyptian: ''wikt:pr ꜥꜣ, pr ꜥꜣ''; Meroitic language, Meroitic: 𐦲𐦤𐦧, ; Biblical Hebrew: ''Parʿō'') was the title of the monarch of ancient Egypt from the First Dynasty of Egypt, First Dynasty ( ...

.{{sfn, Beyer, 1986, p=14

Imperial Aramaic

{{Main, Imperial Aramaic {{Aramaeans Around 500 BC, following the Achaemenid (Persian) conquest of Mesopotamia under Darius I, Aramaic (as had been used in that region) was adopted by the conquerors as the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed Official Aramaic or

Imperial Aramaic Imperial Aramaic is a linguistic term, coined by modern Aramaic studies, scholars in order to designate a specific historical Variety (linguistics), variety of Aramaic language. The term is polysemic, with two distinctive meanings, wider (socioli ...

,{{sfn, Gzella, 2012a, pp=574–86{{sfn, Folmer, 2012, pp=587–98{{sfn, Gzella, 2012b, pp=598–609 can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did". In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an "official language", noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language. Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Achaemenid territories, suggesting then that the Achaemenid-era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than generally thought. Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect, and the inevitable influence of Persian gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility. For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire (in 330 BC), Imperial Aramaic – or a version thereof near enough for it to be recognisable – would remain an influence on the various native

Iranian languages The Iranian languages, also called the Iranic languages, are a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family that are spoken natively by the Iranian peoples, predominantly in the Iranian Plateau. The Iranian langu ...

. Aramaic script and – as ideograms – Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of the Pahlavi scripts. One of the largest collections of Imperial Aramaic texts is that of the Persepolis Administrative Archives, found at Persepolis, which number about five hundred. Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from

Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...

, and

Elephantine Elephantine ( ; ; ; ''Elephantíne''; , ) is an island on the Nile, forming part of the city of Aswan in Upper Egypt. The archaeological site, archaeological digs on the island became a World Heritage Site in 1979, along with other examples of ...

in particular (see Elephantine papyri). Of them, the best known is the '' Story of Ahikar'', a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical

Book of Proverbs The Book of Proverbs (, ; , ; , "Proverbs (of Solomon)") is a book in the third section (called Ketuvim) of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh)/the Christian Old Testament. It is traditionally ascribed to King Solomon and his students. When translated into ...

. Consensus {{As of, 2022, lc=y regards the Aramaic portion of the Biblical book of Daniel (i.e., 2:4b–7:28) as an example of Imperial (Official) Aramaic.{{sfn, Collins, 1993, pp=710–12 Achaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written. Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language. A group of thirty Aramaic documents from

Bactria Bactria (; Bactrian language, Bactrian: , ), or Bactriana, was an ancient Iranian peoples, Iranian civilization in Central Asia based in the area south of the Oxus River (modern Amu Darya) and north of the mountains of the Hindu Kush, an area ...

have been discovered, and an analysis was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC Achaemenid administration of Bactria and

Sogdia Sogdia () or Sogdiana was an ancient Iranian peoples, Iranian civilization between the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya, and in present-day Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. Sogdiana was also a province of the Achaemen ...

.

Biblical Aramaic

Biblical Aramaic is the Aramaic found in four discrete sections of the

Old Testament The Old Testament (OT) is the first division of the Christian biblical canon, which is based primarily upon the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh, a collection of ancient religious Hebrew and occasionally Aramaic writings by the Isr ...

: * Ezra – documents from the Achaemenid period (5th century BC) concerning the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem. * Daniel – five tales and an apocalyptic vision.{{sfn, Hasel, 1981, pp=211–25 * Jeremiah 10:11 – a single sentence in the middle of a Hebrew text denouncing idolatry. * Genesis – translation of a Hebrew place-name. Biblical Aramaic is a somewhat hybrid dialect. It is theorized that some Biblical Aramaic material originated in both Babylonia and Judaea before the fall of the Achaemenid dynasty. Biblical Aramaic presented various challenges for writers who were engaged in early

Biblical studies Biblical studies is the academic application of a set of diverse disciplines to the study of the Bible, with ''Bible'' referring to the books of the canonical Hebrew Bible in mainstream Jewish usage and the Christian Bible including the can ...

. Since the time of Jerome of Stridon (d. 420), Aramaic of the

Bible The Bible is a collection of religious texts that are central to Christianity and Judaism, and esteemed in other Abrahamic religions such as Islam. The Bible is an anthology (a compilation of texts of a variety of forms) originally writt ...

was named as "Chaldean" (Chaldaic, Chaldee).{{sfn, Gallagher, 2012, pp=123–41 That label remained common in early

Aramaic studies Aramaic studies are scientific studies of the Aramaic languages and literature. As a specific field within Semitic studies, Aramaic studies are closely related to similar disciplines, like Hebraic studies and Arabic studies. As a distinctive ac ...

, and persisted up into the nineteenth century. The "'' Chaldean misnomer''" was eventually abandoned, when modern scholarly analyses showed that Aramaic dialect used in the Hebrew Bible was not related to ancient Chaldeans and their language.{{sfn, Nöldeke, 1871, pp=113–31{{sfn, Kautzsch, 1884a, pp=17–21{{sfn, Kautzsch, 1884b, pp=110–13

Post-Achaemenid Aramaic

The fall of the

Achaemenid Empire The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire, also known as the Persian Empire or First Persian Empire (; , , ), was an Iranian peoples, Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC. Based in modern-day Iran, i ...

({{circa 334–330 BC), and its replacement with the newly created political order, imposed by

Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon (; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip ...

(d. 323 BC) and his

Hellenistic In classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Greek history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC, which was followed by the ascendancy of the R ...

successors, marked an important turning point in the history of Aramaic language. During the early stages of the post-Achaemenid era, public use of Aramaic language was continued, but shared with the newly introduced

Greek language Greek (, ; , ) is an Indo-European languages, Indo-European language, constituting an independent Hellenic languages, Hellenic branch within the Indo-European language family. It is native to Greece, Cyprus, Italy (in Calabria and Salento), south ...

. By the year 300 BC, all of the main Aramaic-speaking regions came under political rule of the newly created

Seleucid Empire The Seleucid Empire ( ) was a Greek state in West Asia during the Hellenistic period. It was founded in 312 BC by the Macedonian general Seleucus I Nicator, following the division of the Macedonian Empire founded by Alexander the Great ...

that promoted Hellenistic culture, and favored

Greek language Greek (, ; , ) is an Indo-European languages, Indo-European language, constituting an independent Hellenic languages, Hellenic branch within the Indo-European language family. It is native to Greece, Cyprus, Italy (in Calabria and Salento), south ...

as the main language of public life and administration. During the 3rd century BC, Greek overtook Aramaic in many spheres of public communication, particularly in highly Hellenized cities throughout the Seleucid domains. However, Aramaic continued to be used, in its post-Achaemenid form, among upper and literate classes of native Aramaic-speaking communities, and also by local authorities (along with the newly introduced Greek). Post-Achaemenid Aramaic, that bears a relatively close resemblance to that of the Achaemenid period, continued to be used up to the 2nd century BC.{{sfn, Gzella, 2015, pp=212–17 By the end of the 2nd century BC, several variants of Post-Achaemenid Aramaic emerged, bearing regional characteristics. One of them was Hasmonaean Aramaic, the official administrative language of Hasmonaean Judaea (142–37 BC), alongside

Hebrew Hebrew (; ''ʿÎbrit'') is a Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family. A regional dialect of the Canaanite languages, it was natively spoken by the Israelites and ...

, which was the language preferred in religious and some other public uses (coinage). It influenced the Biblical Aramaic of the

Qumran Qumran (; ; ') is an archaeological site in the West Bank managed by Israel's Qumran National Park. It is located on a dry marl plateau about from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, about south of the historic city of Jericho, and adjac ...

texts, and was the main language of non-biblical theological texts of that community. The major

Targum A targum (, ''interpretation'', ''translation'', ''version''; plural: targumim) was an originally spoken translation of the Hebrew Bible (also called the ) that a professional translator ( ''mǝṯurgǝmān'') would give in the common language o ...

s, translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, were originally composed in Hasmonaean Aramaic. It also appears in quotations in the

Mishnah The Mishnah or the Mishna (; , from the verb ''šānā'', "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first written collection of the Jewish oral traditions that are known as the Oral Torah. Having been collected in the 3rd century CE, it is ...

and

Tosefta The Tosefta ( "supplement, addition") is a compilation of Jewish Oral Law from the late second century, the period of the Mishnah and the Jewish sages known as the '' Tannaim''. Background Jewish teachings of the Tannaitic period were cha ...

, although smoothed into its later context. It is written quite differently from Achaemenid Aramaic; there is an emphasis on writing as words are pronounced rather than using etymological forms. The use of ''written'' Aramaic in the Achaemenid bureaucracy also precipitated the adoption of Aramaic(-derived) scripts to render a number of Middle Iranian languages. Moreover, many common words, including even pronouns, particles, numerals, and auxiliaries, continued to be written as Aramaic "words" even when writing Middle Iranian languages. In time, in Iranian usage, these Aramaic "words" became disassociated from the Aramaic language and came to be understood as ''signs'' (i.e. logograms), much like the symbol '&' is read as "and" in English and the original Latin ''et'' is now no longer obvious. Under the early 3rd-century BC Parthian Arsacids, whose government used Greek but whose native language was Parthian, the Parthian language and its Aramaic-derived writing system both gained prestige. This in turn also led to the adoption of the name ' pahlavi' (< ''parthawi'', "of the Parthians") for that writing system. The Persian Sassanids, who succeeded the Parthian Arsacids in the mid-3rd century AD, subsequently inherited/adopted the Parthian-mediated Aramaic-derived writing system for their own Middle Iranian ethnolect as well.{{sfn, Beyer, 1986, p=28 That particular Middle Iranian dialect,

Middle Persian Middle Persian, also known by its endonym Pārsīk or Pārsīg ( Inscriptional Pahlavi script: , Manichaean script: , Avestan script: ) in its later form, is a Western Middle Iranian language which became the literary language of the Sasania ...

, i.e. the language of Persia proper, subsequently also became a prestige language. Following the conquest of the Sassanids by the Arabs in the 7th-century, the Aramaic-derived writing system was replaced by the Arabic alphabet in all but Zoroastrian usage, which continued to use the name 'pahlavi' for the Aramaic-derived writing system and went on to create the bulk of all Middle Iranian literature in that writing system. Other regional dialects continued to exist alongside these, often as simple, spoken variants of Aramaic. Early evidence for these

vernacular Vernacular is the ordinary, informal, spoken language, spoken form of language, particularly when perceptual dialectology, perceived as having lower social status or less Prestige (sociolinguistics), prestige than standard language, which is mor ...

dialects is known only through their influence on words and names in a more standard dialect. However, some of those regional dialects became written languages by the 2nd century BC. These dialects reflect a stream of Aramaic that is not directly dependent on Achaemenid Aramaic, and they also show a clear linguistic diversity between eastern and western regions.

Targumic

Babylonian

Targum A targum (, ''interpretation'', ''translation'', ''version''; plural: targumim) was an originally spoken translation of the Hebrew Bible (also called the ) that a professional translator ( ''mǝṯurgǝmān'') would give in the common language o ...

ic is the later post-Achaemenid dialect found in the Targum Onqelos and

Targum Jonathan The Targum Jonathan () is the Aramaic translation of the Nevi'im section of the Hebrew Bible employed in Lower Mesopotamia ("Babylonia"). It is not to be confused with "Targum Pseudo-Jonathan," an Aramaic translation of the Torah. It is often kn ...

, the "official" targums. The original, Hasmonaean targums had reached Babylon sometime in the 2nd or 3rd century AD. They were then reworked according to the contemporary dialect of Babylon to create the language of the standard targums. This combination formed the basis of Babylonian Jewish literature for centuries to follow. Galilean Targumic is similar to Babylonian Targumic. It is the mixing of literary Hasmonaean with the dialect of Galilee. The Hasmonaean targums reached Galilee in the 2nd century AD, and were reworked into this Galilean dialect for local use. The Galilean Targum was not considered an authoritative work by other communities, and documentary evidence shows that its text was amended. From the 11th century AD onwards, once the Babylonian Targum had become normative, the Galilean version became heavily influenced by it.

Babylonian Documentary Aramaic

Babylonian Documentary Aramaic is a dialect in use from the 3rd century AD onwards. It is the dialect of Babylonian private documents, and, from the 12th century, all Jewish private documents are in Aramaic. It is based on Hasmonaean with very few changes. This was perhaps because many of the documents in BDA are legal documents, the language in them had to be sensible throughout the Jewish community from the start, and Hasmonaean was the old standard.

Nabataean

Nabataean Aramaic was the written language of the Arab kingdom of Nabataea, whose capital was

Petra Petra (; "Rock"), originally known to its inhabitants as Raqmu (Nabataean Aramaic, Nabataean: or , *''Raqēmō''), is an ancient city and archaeological site in southern Jordan. Famous for its rock-cut architecture and water conduit systems, P ...

. The kingdom (''c.'' 200 BC – 106 AD) controlled the region to the east of the Jordan River, the Negev, the

Sinai Peninsula The Sinai Peninsula, or simply Sinai ( ; ; ; ), is a peninsula in Egypt, and the only part of the country located in Asia. It is between the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Red Sea to the south, and is a land bridge between Asia and Afri ...

, and the northern Hijaz, and supported a wide-ranging trade network. The Nabataeans used imperial Aramaic for written communications, rather than their native Arabic. Nabataean Aramaic developed from

Imperial Aramaic Imperial Aramaic is a linguistic term, coined by modern Aramaic studies, scholars in order to designate a specific historical Variety (linguistics), variety of Aramaic language. The term is polysemic, with two distinctive meanings, wider (socioli ...

, with some influence from Arabic: "l" is often turned into "n", and there are some Arabic loanwords. Arabic influence on Nabataean Aramaic increased over time. Some Nabataean Aramaic inscriptions date from the early days of the kingdom, but most datable inscriptions are from the first four centuries AD. The language is written in a

cursive Cursive (also known as joined-up writing) is any style of penmanship in which characters are written joined in a flowing manner, generally for the purpose of making writing faster, in contrast to block letters. It varies in functionality and m ...

script that was the precursor to the

Arabic alphabet The Arabic alphabet, or the Arabic abjad, is the Arabic script as specifically codified for writing the Arabic language. It is a unicase, unicameral script written from right-to-left in a cursive style, and includes 28 letters, of which most ...

. After annexation by the Romans in 106 AD, most of Nabataea was subsumed into the province of Arabia Petraea, the Nabataeans turned to Greek for written communications, and the use of Aramaic declined.

Palmyrene

Palmyrene Aramaic is the dialect that was in use in the multicultural city state of

Palmyra Palmyra ( ; Palmyrene dialect, Palmyrene: (), romanized: ''Tadmor''; ) is an ancient city in central Syria. It is located in the eastern part of the Levant, and archaeological finds date back to the Neolithic period, and documents first menti ...

in the Syrian Desert from 44 BC to 274 AD. It was written in a rounded script, which later gave way to cursive Estrangela. Like Nabataean, Palmyrene was influenced by Arabic, but to a much lesser degree.

Eastern dialects

{{Main, Eastern Aramaic languages Mandaic

In the eastern regions (from Mesopotamia to Persia), dialects like Palmyrene Aramaic and Arsacid Aramaic gradually merged with the regional vernacular dialects, thus creating languages with a foot in Achaemenid and a foot in regional Aramaic. In the Kingdom of Osroene, founded in 132 BC and centred in Edessa (Urhay), the regional dialect became the official language: Edessan Aramaic (Urhaya), that later came to be known as Classical Syriac. On the upper reaches of the

Tigris The Tigris ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the eastern of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of the Armenian Highlands through the Syrian Desert, Syrian and Arabia ...

, East Mesopotamian Aramaic flourished, with evidence from the regions of Hatra and Assur. Tatian the Assyrian (or Syrian), the author of the gospel harmony the Diatessaron came from Adiabene (Syr. ''Beth-Hadiab''), and perhaps wrote his work (172 AD) in East Mesopotamian rather than Classical Syriac or Greek. In Babylonia, the regional dialect was used by the Jewish community, Jewish Old Babylonian (from {{circa, 70 AD). This everyday language increasingly came under the influence of Biblical Aramaic and Babylonian Targumic. The written form of Mandaic, the language of

Mandaeism Mandaeism (Mandaic language, Classical Mandaic: ),https://qadaha.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/nhura-dictionary-mandaic-english-mandaic.pdf sometimes also known as Nasoraeanism or Sabianism, is a Gnosticism, Gnostic, Monotheism, ...

, was descended from the Arsacid chancery script.

Western dialects

{{Main, Western Aramaic languages The western regional dialects of Aramaic followed a similar course to those of the east. They are quite distinct from the eastern dialects and Imperial Aramaic. Aramaic came to coexist with Canaanite dialects, eventually completely displacing Phoenician in the first century BC and

Hebrew Hebrew (; ''ʿÎbrit'') is a Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family. A regional dialect of the Canaanite languages, it was natively spoken by the Israelites and ...

around the turn of the fourth century AD. The form of Late Old Western Aramaic used by the Jewish community is best attested, and is usually referred to as Jewish Old Palestinian. Its oldest form is Old East Jordanian, which probably comes from the region of Caesarea Philippi. This is the dialect of the oldest manuscript of the

Book of Enoch The Book of Enoch (also 1 Enoch; Hebrew language, Hebrew: סֵפֶר חֲנוֹךְ, ''Sēfer Ḥănōḵ''; , ) is an Second Temple Judaism, ancient Jewish Apocalyptic literature, apocalyptic religious text, ascribed by tradition to the Patriar ...

(c. 170 BC). The next distinct phase of the language is called Old Judaean lasting into the second century AD. Old Judean literature can be found in various inscriptions and personal letters, preserved quotations in the

Talmud The Talmud (; ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (''halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of Haskalah#Effects, modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the cen ...

and receipts from

Qumran Qumran (; ; ') is an archaeological site in the West Bank managed by Israel's Qumran National Park. It is located on a dry marl plateau about from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, about south of the historic city of Jericho, and adjac ...

.

Josephus Flavius Josephus (; , ; ), born Yosef ben Mattityahu (), was a Roman–Jewish historian and military leader. Best known for writing '' The Jewish War'', he was born in Jerusalem—then part of the Roman province of Judea—to a father of pr ...

' first, non-extant edition of his '' The Jewish War'' was written in Old Judean. The Old East Jordanian dialect continued to be used into the first century AD by pagan communities living to the east of the Jordan. Their dialect is often then called Pagan Old Palestinian, and it was written in a cursive script somewhat similar to that used for Old Syriac. A Christian Old Palestinian dialect may have arisen from the pagan one, and this dialect may be behind some of the Western Aramaic tendencies found in the otherwise eastern Old Syriac gospels (see

Peshitta The Peshitta ( ''or'' ') is the standard Syriac edition of the Bible for Syriac Christian churches and traditions that follow the liturgies of the Syriac Rites. The Peshitta is originally and traditionally written in the Classical Syriac d ...

).

Languages during Jesus' lifetime

{{Further, Language of JesusIt is generally believed by Christian scholars that in the first century, Jews in

Judea Judea or Judaea (; ; , ; ) is a mountainous region of the Levant. Traditionally dominated by the city of Jerusalem, it is now part of Palestine and Israel. The name's usage is historic, having been used in antiquity and still into the pres ...

primarily spoke Aramaic with a decreasing number using

Hebrew Hebrew (; ''ʿÎbrit'') is a Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family. A regional dialect of the Canaanite languages, it was natively spoken by the Israelites and ...

as their first language, though many learned Hebrew as a liturgical language. Additionally,

Koine Greek Koine Greek (, ), also variously known as Hellenistic Greek, common Attic, the Alexandrian dialect, Biblical Greek, Septuagint Greek or New Testament Greek, was the koiné language, common supra-regional form of Greek language, Greek spoken and ...

was the lingua franca of the Near East in trade, among the Hellenized classes (much like French in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries in Europe), and in the Roman administration.

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

, the language of the Roman army and higher levels of administration, had almost no impact on the linguistic landscape. In addition to the formal, literary dialects of Aramaic based on Hasmonean and Babylonian, there were a number of colloquial Aramaic dialects spoken in the southern Levant. Seven Western Aramaic varieties were spoken in the vicinity of Judea in

Jesus Jesus (AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the Jesus in Chris ...

' time. They were probably distinctive yet mutually intelligible. Old Judean was the prominent dialect of

Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...

and Judaea. The region of

Ein Gedi Ein Gedi (, ), also spelled En Gedi, meaning "Spring (hydrology), spring of the goat, kid", is an oasis, an Archaeological site, archeological site and a nature reserve in Israel, located west of the Dead Sea, near Masada and the Qumran Caves. ...

spoke the Southeast Judaean dialect. Samaritan Aramaic was distinct; it ultimately merged � � and �as a

glottal stop The glottal stop or glottal plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in many Speech communication, spoken languages, produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract or, more precisely, the glottis. The symbol in the International Phonetic ...

, only maintaining �in the initial position before the vowel Galilean Aramaic, the dialect of Jesus' home region, is only known from a few place names, the influences on Galilean Targumic, some rabbinic literature, and a few private letters. It seems to have a number of distinctive features, including the collapse of gutturals and the maintenance of

diphthong A diphthong ( ), also known as a gliding vowel or a vowel glide, is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue (and/or other parts of ...

s. In the Transjordan, the various dialects of East Jordanian Aramaic were spoken. In the region of

Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...

and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, Damascene Aramaic was spoken (deduced mostly from Modern Western Aramaic). Finally, as far north as

Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...

, the western dialect of Orontes Aramaic was spoken. The three languages, especially Hebrew and Aramaic, influenced one another through

loanword A loanword (also a loan word, loan-word) is a word at least partly assimilated from one language (the donor language) into another language (the recipient or target language), through the process of borrowing. Borrowing is a metaphorical term t ...

s and semantic loans. Hebrew words entered Jewish Aramaic. Most were mostly technical religious words, but a few were everyday words like {{lang, arc, עץ ''{{transliteration, sem, ʿēṣ'' "wood". Conversely, Aramaic words, such as ''māmmôn'' "wealth" were borrowed into Hebrew, and Hebrew words acquired additional senses from Aramaic. For instance, {{langx, he, ראוי, rāʾûi, seen, links=no borrowed the sense "worthy, seemly" from Aramaic ''{{Transliteration, sem, ḥzî'' "seen, worthy".

New Testament Greek The New Testament was written in a form of Koine Greek, which was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean from the conquests of Alexander the Great (335–323 BC) until the evolution of Byzantine Greek (c. 600). Hellenistic Judaism The ...

preserves some semiticisms, including transliterations of Semitic words. Some are Aramaic,{{sfn, Fitzmyer, 1980, pp=5–21 like ''talitha'' ({{lang, grc, ταλιθα), which represents the Aramaic noun {{lang, arc, טליתא ''{{Transliteration, sem, ṭalīṯā'',{{Bibleverse, Mark, 5:41, KJV and others may be either Hebrew or Aramaic like {{lang, arc, רבוני ''Rabbounei'' ({{lang, grc, Ραββουνει), which means "my master/great one/teacher" in both languages. Other examples: * "Talitha kumi" (טליתא קומי) * "Ephphatha" (אתפתח) * "Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?" (?אלהי, אלהי, למה שבקתני) The 2004 film '' The Passion of the Christ'' used Aramaic for much of its dialogue, specially reconstructed by a scholar, William Fulco, S.J. Where the appropriate words (in first-century Aramaic) were no longer known, he used the Aramaic of Daniel and fourth-century Syriac and Hebrew as the basis for his work.

Middle Aramaic

During the Late Middle Aramaic period, spanning from 300 BCE to 200 CE, Aramaic diverged into its eastern and western branches. During this time, the nature of various Aramaic dialects began to change. The descendants of Imperial Aramaic ceased to be living languages, and the eastern and western regional dialects started to develop significant new literatures. Unlike many dialects of Old Aramaic, much is known about the vocabulary and grammar of Middle Aramaic.

Eastern Middle Aramaic

The dialects of Old Eastern Aramaic continued in ancient

Assyria Assyria (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , ''māt Aššur'') was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization that existed as a city-state from the 21st century BC to the 14th century BC and eventually expanded into an empire from the 14th century BC t ...

,

Babylon Babylon ( ) was an ancient city located on the lower Euphrates river in southern Mesopotamia, within modern-day Hillah, Iraq, about south of modern-day Baghdad. Babylon functioned as the main cultural and political centre of the Akkadian-s ...

, and the

Achaemenid Empire The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire, also known as the Persian Empire or First Persian Empire (; , , ), was an Iranian peoples, Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC. Based in modern-day Iran, i ...

as written languages using various Aramaic scripts. Eastern Middle Aramaic comprises Classical Mandaic, Hatran,

Jewish Babylonian Aramaic Jewish Babylonian Aramaic (Aramaic: ) was the form of Middle Aramaic employed by writers in Lower Mesopotamia between the fourth and eleventh centuries. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian Talmud (which was comp ...

dialects, and Classical Syriac.

Syriac Aramaic

{{Main, Syriac language Estrangela

{{listen, filename=Recording_1648798987707.ogg, title=Avūo·nə đə·Vē·shəmēiā, description=The Lord's Prayer, ''Avūo·nə đə·Vē·shəmēyā'', Reading in Eastern variant of Syriac {{listen, filename=Abunbshmayo.ogg, title=Abun D'Bashmayo, description=The Lord's Prayer, ''Abun D'Bashmayo'', recited in Western variant of Syriac Syriac Aramaic (also "Classical Syriac") is the literary, liturgical, and often spoken language of

Syriac Christianity Syriac Christianity (, ''Mšiḥoyuṯo Suryoyto'' or ''Mšiḥāyūṯā Suryāytā'') is a branch of Eastern Christianity of which formative Christian theology, theological writings and traditional Christian liturgy, liturgies are expressed in ...

. It originated in the first century in the region of

Osroene Osroene or Osrhoene (; ) was an ancient kingdom and region in Upper Mesopotamia. The ''Kingdom of Osroene'', also known as the "Kingdom of Edessa" ( / "Kingdom of Urhay"), according to the name of its capital city (now Urfa, Şanlıurfa, Turkey), ...

, centered in Edessa, but its golden age was the fourth to eighth centuries. This period began with the translation of the Bible into the language: the

Peshitta The Peshitta ( ''or'' ') is the standard Syriac edition of the Bible for Syriac Christian churches and traditions that follow the liturgies of the Syriac Rites. The Peshitta is originally and traditionally written in the Classical Syriac d ...

, and the masterful prose and poetry of

Ephrem the Syrian Ephrem the Syrian (; ), also known as Ephraem the Deacon, Ephrem of Edessa or Aprem of Nisibis, (Syriac: ܡܪܝ ܐܦܪܝܡ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ — ''Mâr Aphrêm Sûryâyâ)'' was a prominent Christian theology, Christian theologian and Christian literat ...

. Classical Syriac became the language of

Eastern Christianity Eastern Christianity comprises Christianity, Christian traditions and Christian denomination, church families that originally developed during Classical antiquity, classical and late antiquity in the Eastern Mediterranean region or locations fu ...

and missionary activity led to the spread of Syriac from Mesopotamia and

Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...

, into

Central Asia Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian language, Pers ...

,

India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...

, and

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...

.{{sfn, Healey, 2012, pp=637–52{{sfn, Briquel-Chatonnet, 2012, pp=652–59

Jewish Babylonian Aramaic

{{Main, Jewish Babylonian Aramaic Jewish Middle Babylonian is the language employed by Jewish writers in Babylonia between the fourth and the eleventh century. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian

Talmud The Talmud (; ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (''halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of Haskalah#Effects, modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the cen ...

(which was completed in the seventh century) and of post-Talmudic

Geonic ''Geonim'' (; ; also Romanization of Hebrew, transliterated Gaonim, singular Gaon) were the presidents of the two great Talmudic Academies in Babylonia, Babylonian Talmudic Academies of Sura Academy , Sura and Pumbedita Academy , Pumbedita, in t ...

literature, which are the most important cultural products of Babylonian Judaism. The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of incantation bowls written in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic.{{sfn, Sokoloff, 2012b, pp=660–70

Mandaic Aramaic

{{Main, Mandaic language Classical Mandaic, used as a liturgical language by the

Mandaeans Mandaeans (Mandaic language, Mandaic: ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡉࡀ) ( ), also known as Mandaean Sabians ( ) or simply as Sabians ( ), are an ethnoreligious group who are followers of Mandaeism. They believe that John the Baptist was the final and ...

of

Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...

and

Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...

, is a sister dialect to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, though it is both linguistically and culturally distinct. It is the language in which the Mandaeans'

gnostic Gnosticism (from Ancient Greek: , romanized: ''gnōstikós'', Koine Greek: �nostiˈkos 'having knowledge') is a collection of religious ideas and systems that coalesced in the late 1st century AD among early Christian sects. These diverse g ...

religious literature was composed. It is characterized by a highly phonetic orthography and does not make use of vowel diacritics.{{sfn, Burtea, 2012, pp=670–85

Western Middle Aramaic

The dialects of Old Western Aramaic continued with Nabataean, Jewish Palestinian (in Hebrew "square script"), Samaritan Aramaic (in the Old Hebrew script), and Christian Palestinian (in Syriac Estrangela script). Of these four, only Jewish Palestinian continued as a written language.{{Clarify, date=March 2010

Samaritan Aramaic

{{Main, Samaritan Aramaic language The Samaritan Aramaic is earliest attested by the documentary tradition of the

Samaritans Samaritans (; ; ; ), are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Hebrews and Israelites of the ancient Near East. They are indigenous to Samaria, a historical region of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah that ...

that can be dated back to the fourth century. Its modern pronunciation is based on the form used in the tenth century.{{sfn, Tal, 2012, p=619–28

Aramaic in Roman Judea

{{Main, Jewish Palestinian Aramaic Kennicott Bible fol 42v

In 135, after the

Bar Kokhba revolt The Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 AD) was a major uprising by the Jews of Judaea (Roman province), Judaea against the Roman Empire, marking the final and most devastating of the Jewish–Roman wars. Led by Simon bar Kokhba, the rebels succeeded ...

, many

Jew Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, religion, and community are highly inte ...

ish leaders, expelled from

Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...

, moved to Galilee. The Galilean dialect thus rose from obscurity to become the standard among Jews in the west. This dialect was spoken not only in Galilee, but also in the surrounding parts. It is the linguistic setting for the

Jerusalem Talmud The Jerusalem Talmud (, often for short) or Palestinian Talmud, also known as the Talmud of the Land of Israel, is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century Jewish oral tradition known as the Mishnah. Naming this version of the Talm ...

(completed in the 5th century), Palestinian

targum A targum (, ''interpretation'', ''translation'', ''version''; plural: targumim) was an originally spoken translation of the Hebrew Bible (also called the ) that a professional translator ( ''mǝṯurgǝmān'') would give in the common language o ...

im (Jewish Aramaic versions of scripture), and

midrash ''Midrash'' (;"midrash"
. ''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''. ; or ''midrashot' ...

im (biblical commentaries and teaching). The standard vowel pointing for the

Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
. '' Dura-Europos Dura-Europos was a Hellenistic, Parthian Empire, Parthian, and Ancient Rome, Roman border city built on an escarpment above the southwestern bank of the Euphrates river. It is located near the village of Al-Salihiyah, Deir ez-Zor Governorate, S ...

are either in Middle East Jordanian or Middle Judaean.

Christian Aramaic in the Levant

{{main, Christian Palestinian Aramaic This was the language of the Christian Melkite (Chalcedonian) community, predominantly of

Jewish Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...

descent, in

Palestine Palestine, officially the State of Palestine, is a country in West Asia. Recognized by International recognition of Palestine, 147 of the UN's 193 member states, it encompasses the Israeli-occupied West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and th ...

, Transjordan and Sinai from the 5th to the 8th century. As a liturgical language, it was used up to the 13th century. It is also been called "Melkite Aramaic", "Syro-Palestinian" and "Palestinian Syriac".{{sfn, Morgenstern, 2012, pp=628–37 The language itself comes from Old Western Aramaic, but its writing conventions were based on the

Aramaic Aramaic (; ) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the southern Levant, Sinai, southeastern Anatolia, and Eastern Arabia, where it has been continually written a ...

dialect of Edessa, and it was heavily influenced by Greek. For example, the name Jesus, Syriac ''īšū‘'', is written ''īsūs'', a transliteration of the Greek form, in Christian Palestinian.{{cite book, author=Emran El-Badawi, title=The Qur'an and the Aramaic Gospel Traditions, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iIhiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA35, year=2013, publisher=Routledge, isbn=9781317929338, page=35, quote=However, what truly distinguishes the CPA Gospels from the Syriac ones is the strong influence that Greek Biblical tradi- tions had upon it. This is evident, for example, in the syntax of the Gospel passages and even in the spelling of proper nouns, both of which duplicate the Greek Gospels. Therefore, unlike Syriac where “Jesus” is spelled īšū‘, in CPA it is spelled īsūs.

Modern Aramaic

{{Main, Neo-Aramaic languages Syriac Dialects EN

As the Western Aramaic dialects of the

Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...

have become nearly extinct in non-liturgical usage, the most prolific speakers of Neo-Aramaic languages in the 21st century are Eastern Aramaic speakers, the most numerous being the Central Neo-Aramaic and Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (NENA) speakers of

Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...

. This includes speakers of the Assyrian (235,000 speakers) and Chaldean (216,000 speakers) varieties of Suret, and Turoyo (112,000 to 450,000 speakers). Having largely lived in remote areas as insulated communities for over a millennium, the remaining speakers of modern Aramaic dialects, such as the Arameans of the Qalamoun Mountains, Assyrians,

Mandaeans Mandaeans (Mandaic language, Mandaic: ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡉࡀ) ( ), also known as Mandaean Sabians ( ) or simply as Sabians ( ), are an ethnoreligious group who are followers of Mandaeism. They believe that John the Baptist was the final and ...

and

Mizrahi Jews Mizrahi Jews (), also known as ''Mizrahim'' () in plural and ''Mizrahi'' () in singular, and alternatively referred to as Oriental Jews or ''Edot HaMizrach'' (, ), are terms used in Israeli discourse to refer to a grouping of Jews, Jewish c ...

, escaped the linguistic pressures experienced by others during the large-scale

language shift Language shift, also known as language transfer, language replacement or language assimilation, is the process whereby a speech community shifts to a different language, usually over an extended period of time. Often, languages that are perceived ...

s that saw the proliferation of other tongues among those who previously did not speak them, most recently the

Arabization Arabization or Arabicization () is a sociology, sociological process of cultural change in which a non-Arab society becomes Arabs, Arab, meaning it either directly adopts or becomes strongly influenced by the Arabic, Arabic language, Arab cultu ...

of the Middle East and North Africa by

Arabs Arabs (, , ; , , ) are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa. A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world. Arabs have been in the Fertile Crescent for thousands of yea ...

beginning with the

early Muslim conquests The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests (), also known as the Arab conquests, were initiated in the 7th century by Muhammad, the founder of Islam. He established the first Islamic state in Medina, Arabian Peninsula, Arabia that ...

of the seventh century.{{sfn, Weninger, 2012, pp=747–55

Modern Eastern Aramaic

{{main, Central Neo-Aramaic, Northeastern Neo-Aramaic, Neo-Mandaic Amen in East Syriac Aramaic language

{{listen, filename=, title=Spoken Turoyo Neo-Aramaic, description=, format= Ogg {{listen, filename=Assyriansample.ogg, title=Spoken Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, description=, format= Ogg Modern Eastern Aramaic exists in a wide variety of dialects and languages.{{sfn, Murre van den Berg, 1999, p= There is significant difference between the Aramaic spoken by Assyrians,

Mizrahi Jews Mizrahi Jews (), also known as ''Mizrahim'' () in plural and ''Mizrahi'' () in singular, and alternatively referred to as Oriental Jews or ''Edot HaMizrach'' (, ), are terms used in Israeli discourse to refer to a grouping of Jews, Jewish c ...

, and Mandaeans, with mutually unintelligible variations within each of these groups. The Christian varieties of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (NENA) are often called "Assyrian", "Chaldean" or "Eastern Syriac", and are spoken by the Assyrians in northern Iraq, northeast Syria, southeast Turkey, northwest Iran, and in the

diaspora A diaspora ( ) is a population that is scattered across regions which are separate from its geographic place of birth, place of origin. The word is used in reference to people who identify with a specific geographic location, but currently resi ...

. However, they also have roots in numerous previously unwritten local Aramaic varieties and, in some cases, even contain Akkadian influences. These varieties are not purely the direct descendants of the language of

Ephrem the Syrian Ephrem the Syrian (; ), also known as Ephraem the Deacon, Ephrem of Edessa or Aprem of Nisibis, (Syriac: ܡܪܝ ܐܦܪܝܡ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ — ''Mâr Aphrêm Sûryâyâ)'' was a prominent Christian theology, Christian theologian and Christian literat ...

, which was Classical Syriac.{{sfn, Khan, 2012, pp=708–24 The Judeo-Aramaic languages are now mostly spoken in

Israel Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in West Asia. It Borders of Israel, shares borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the north-east, Jordan to the east, Egypt to the south-west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Isr ...

, and most are facing extinction. The Jewish varieties that have come from communities that once lived between

Lake Urmia Lake Urmia is an endorheic salt lake in Iran. The lake is located between the provinces of East Azerbaijan and West Azerbaijan in Iran, and west of the southern portion of the Caspian Sea. At its greatest extent, it was the largest lake in th ...

and

Mosul Mosul ( ; , , ; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of Nineveh Governorate. It is the second largest city in Iraq overall after the capital Baghdad. Situated on the banks of Tigris, the city encloses the ruins of the ...

are not all mutually intelligible. In some places, for example Urmia, Christian Assyrians and Mizrahi Jews speak mutually unintelligible varieties of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic in the same place. In others, the

Nineveh Plains Nineveh Plains (, Modern ; ; ) is a region in Nineveh Governorate in Iraq. Located to the north and east of the city Mosul, it is the only Christian-majority region in Iraq and have been a gathering point for Iraqi Christians since 2003. Control o ...

around Mosul for example, the varieties of these two ethnicities are similar enough to allow conversation. Modern Central Neo-Aramaic, being in between Western Neo-Aramaic and Northeastern Neo-Aramaic, is generally represented by Turoyo, the language of the Assyrians/Syriacs of Tur Abdin. A related Neo-Aramaic language, Mlaḥsô, has recently become extinct.{{sfn, Jastrow, 2012, pp=697–707

Mandaeans Mandaeans (Mandaic language, Mandaic: ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡉࡀ) ( ), also known as Mandaean Sabians ( ) or simply as Sabians ( ), are an ethnoreligious group who are followers of Mandaeism. They believe that John the Baptist was the final and ...

living in the

Khuzestan province Khuzestan province () is one of the 31 Provinces of Iran. Located in the southwest of the country, the province borders Iraq and the Persian Gulf, covering an area of . Its capital is the city of Ahvaz. Since 2014, it has been part of Iran's R ...

of Iran and scattered throughout Iraq, speak Neo-Mandaic. It is quite distinct from any other Aramaic variety. Mandaeans number some 50,000–75,000 people, but it is believed Neo-Mandaic may now be spoken fluently by as few as 5,000 people, with other Mandaeans having varying degrees of knowledge.{{sfn, Häberl, 2012, pp=725–37

Modern Western Aramaic

{{Main, Western Neo-Aramaic {{listen, filename=, title=Spoken Western Neo-Aramaic, description=, format= Ogg Very little remains of Western Aramaic. Its only remaining vernacular is Western Neo-Aramaic, which is still spoken in the Aramean villages of Maaloula and Jubb'adin on

Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...

's side of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, as well as by some people who migrated from these villages, to

Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...

and other larger towns of Syria. Bakh'a was completely destroyed during the Syrian civil war and all the survivors fled to other parts of Syria or to Lebanon. All these speakers of modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic as well.{{sfn, Arnold, 2012, pp=685–96 Other Western Aramaic languages, like

Jewish Palestinian Aramaic Jewish Palestinian Aramaic also known as Jewish Western Aramaic was a Western Aramaic language spoken by the Jews during the Classic Era in Judea and the Levant, specifically in Hasmonean, Herodian and Roman Judaea and adjacent lands in the ...

and Samaritan Aramaic, are preserved only in liturgical and literary usage.

Sample texts

Matthew 2, verses 1–4, in Classical Syriac (Eastern accent), Christian Palestinian Aramaic and Suret (Swadaya): {, class="wikitable" , - ! English ( KJV): , Now when Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king, behold, there came wise men from the east to Jerusalem, Saying, Where is he that is born King of the Jews? for we have seen his star in the east, and are come to worship him. When Herod the king had heard these things, he was troubled, and all Jerusalem with him. And when he had gathered all the chief priests and scribes of the people together, he demanded of them where Christ should be born. , - ! Classical Syriac (Eastern accent): , ''Ḵaḏ dēyn eṯīleḏ Īšōʕ b-Ḇēṯlḥem d-Īhūḏā b-yawmay Herodes malkā eṯaw mġōšē min maḏnḥā l-Ōrešlem.'' ''W-Āmrīn: Aykaw malkā d-īhūḏāyē d-eṯīleḏ? Ḥzayn gēr kawkḇēh b-maḏnḥā w-eṯayn l-mesgaḏ lēh.'' ''Šmaʕ dēyn Herodes malkā w-ettzīʕ w-ḵullāh Ōrešlem ʕammēh.'' ''W-ḵanneš ḵulhōn rabbay kāhnē w-sāprē d-ʕammā wa-mšayel-wālhōn d-aykā meṯīleḏ mšīḥā.'' , - ! Christian Palestinian Aramaic: , ''Ḵaḏ eṯileḏ mōro Yesūs b-Beṯlḥem d-Yuḏō b-yawmay d-Herodes malkō w-hō mġušōya min maḏnḥō eṯaw l-Irušlem.'' ''Ōmrin: Hōn hū deyn d-eṯileḏ? Ḥmaynan ger kawkḇeh b-maḏnḥō w-eṯaynan d-nesguḏ leh.'' ''W-ḵaḏ šmaʕ malkō Herodes eṯʕabaḇ w-ḵuloh Irušlem ʕameh.'' ''W-ḵaneš ḵulhun rišay koḥnōya w-soprawi d-qahlo wa-hwo mšayel lhun hōn mšiḥō meṯileḏ.'' , - ! Suret (Swadaya): , ''Min baṯar d-pišleh iliḏe Išo go Beṯlkham d-Ihuḏa b-yomane d-Herodes malka ṯelon mġoše min maḏnkha l-Orešlim.'' ''W-buqrehon: Eykeleh haw d-pišleh iliḏe malka d-ihuḏāye? Sabab khzelan l-kawkhḇeh b-maḏnkha w-telan d-saġdakh eleh.'' ''Iman d-šmayeleh Herodes malka aha pišleh šġhiše w-kulaha Orešlim ʔammeh.'' ''W-qraeleh kuleh gurane d-kahne w-sapre d-ʔamma w-buqrehmennay eyka bit paiš va iliḏe mšikha.'' Matthew 28, verse 16, in Classical Syriac (Eastern accent), Western Neo-Aramaic, Turoyo and Suret (Swadaya): {, class="wikitable" , - ! English ( KJV): , 6Then the eleven disciples went away into Galilee, into a mountain where Jesus had appointed them. , - ! Classical Syriac (Eastern accent) , 6''Talmīḏē dēyn ḥḏaʕesre āzalū l-Glīlā l-ṭūrā aykā d-waʕad ennūn Īšōʕ.'' , - ! Western Neo-Aramaic: , 6''Bes aḥḥadaʕsar tilmit̲ zallun l-Ġalila l-ṭūra ti amerlun maʕleh Yešūʕ.'' , - ! Turoyo: , 6''Wa-ḥḏaḥsar talmiḏe azzinnewa lu Ġlilo lu ṭūro ayko d-moʕadleh Yešū.'' , - ! Suret (Swadaya): , 6''Ina talmiḏe khadissar azzillun l-Glila l-ṭūra eyka d-bit khwaʔda ʔammeh Išo.''

Phonology

{{IPA notice, section Each dialect of Aramaic has its own distinctive pronunciation, and it would not be feasible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a phonological palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. Some modern Aramaic pronunciations lack the series of "emphatic" consonants, and some have borrowed from the inventories of surrounding languages, particularly

Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...

, Azerbaijani language, Azerbaijani, Kurdish languages, Kurdish, Persian, and Turkish language, Turkish.

Vowels

{, class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" , - ! ! Front vowel, Front ! Back vowel, Back , - ! Close vowel, Close , {{IPA link, i , {{IPA link, u , - ! Close-mid vowel, Close-mid , {{IPA link, e , {{IPA link, o , - ! Open-mid vowel, Open-mid , {{IPA link, ɛ , ({{IPA link, ɔ) , - ! Open vowel, Open , {{IPA link, a , ({{IPA link, ɑ) As with most Semitic languages, Aramaic can be thought of as having three basic sets of vowels: * Open ''a''-vowels * Close front ''i''-vowels * Close back ''u''-vowels These vowel groups are relatively stable, but the exact articulation of any individual is most dependent on its consonantal setting. The open vowel is an open near-front unrounded vowel ("short" ''a'', somewhat like the first vowel in the English "batter", {{IPAblink, a). It usually has a back counterpart ("long" ''a'', like the ''a'' in "father", {{IPAblink, ɑ, or even tending to the vowel in "caught", {{IPAblink, ɔ), and a front counterpart ("short" ''e'', like the vowel in "head", {{IPAblink, ɛ). There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects. There is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short ''a'' and short ''e''. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long ''a'' became the ''o'' sound. The open ''e'' and back ''a'' are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters א "alaph" (a

glottal stop The glottal stop or glottal plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in many Speech communication, spoken languages, produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract or, more precisely, the glottis. The symbol in the International Phonetic ...

) or ה "he" (like the English ''h''). The close front vowel is the "long" ''i'' (like the vowel in "need", {{IPA, [i]). It has a slightly more open counterpart, the "long" ''e'', as in the final vowel of "café" ({{IPA, [e]). Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced slightly more open. Thus, the short close ''e'' corresponds with the open ''e'' in some dialects. The close front vowels usually use the consonant י ''y'' as a mater lectionis. The close back vowel is the "long" ''u'' (like the vowel in "school", {{IPA, [u]). It has a more open counterpart, the "long" ''o'', like the vowel in "show" ({{IPA, [o]). There are shorter, and thus more open, counterparts to each of these, with the short close ''o'' sometimes corresponding with the long open ''a''. The close back vowels often use the consonant ו ''w'' to indicate their quality. Two basic

diphthong A diphthong ( ), also known as a gliding vowel or a vowel glide, is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue (and/or other parts of ...

s exist: an open vowel followed by י ''y'' (''ay''), and an open vowel followed by ו ''w'' (''aw''). These were originally full diphthongs, but many dialects have converted them to ''e'' and ''o'' respectively. The so-called "emphatic" consonants (see the next section) cause all vowels to become mid-centralised.

Consonants

{, class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" , - ! rowspan="2" colspan="2" , ! rowspan="2" , Labial consonant, Labial ! rowspan="2" , Dental consonant, Dental ! colspan="2" , Alveolar consonant, Alveolar ! rowspan="2" , Post-alveolar consonant, Post-alv. /
Palatal consonant, Palatal ! rowspan="2" , Velar consonant, Velar ! rowspan="2" , Uvular consonant, Uvular /
Pharyngeal consonant, Pharyngeal ! rowspan="2" , Glottal consonant, Glottal , - ! plain ! Emphatic consonant, emp. , - ! colspan="2" , Nasal consonant, Nasal , {{IPA link, m , , , , {{IPA link, n , , , , , , , , , , , - ! rowspan="2" , Stop consonant, Stop ! Voicelessness, voiceless , {{IPA link, p , , , , {{IPA link, t , , {{IPA link, tˤ , , , , {{IPA link, k , , {{IPA link, q , , {{IPA link, ʔ , - ! Voice (phonetics), voiced , {{IPA link, b , , , , {{IPA link, d , , , , , , {{IPA link, ɡ , , , , , - ! rowspan="2" , Fricative consonant, Fricative ! Voicelessness, voiceless , {{IPA link, f , , {{IPA link, θ , , {{IPA link, s , , {{IPA link, sˤ , , {{IPA link, ʃ , , {{IPA link, x , , {{IPA link, ħ , , {{IPA link, h , - ! Voice (phonetics), voiced , {{IPA link, v , , {{IPA link, ð , , {{IPA link, z , , , , , , {{IPA link, ɣ , , {{IPA link, ʕ , , , - ! colspan="2" , Approximant , , , , , {{IPA link, l , , , , {{IPA link, j , , {{IPA link, w , , , , , - ! colspan="2" , Trill consonant, Trill , , , , , {{IPA link, r , , , , , , , , , , The various alphabets used for writing Aramaic languages have twenty-two letters (all of which are consonants). Some of these letters, though, can stand for two or three different sounds (usually a stop consonant, stop and a fricative consonant, fricative at the same point of articulation). Aramaic classically uses a series of lightly contrasted plosives and fricatives: * Labial set: פּ\פ ''p''/''f'' and בּ\ב ''b''/''v'', * Dental set: תּ\ת ''t''/''θ'' and דּ\ד ''d''/''ð'', * Velar set: כּ\כ ''k''/''x'' and גּ\ג ''ɡ''/''ɣ''. Each member of a certain pair is written with the same letter of the alphabet in most writing systems (that is, ''p'' and ''f'' are written with the same letter), and are near allophones. A distinguishing feature of Aramaic phonology (and that of Semitic languages in general) is the presence of "emphatic" consonants. These are consonants that are pronounced with the root of the tongue retracted, with varying degrees of pharyngealization and Velar consonant, velarization. Using their alphabetic names, these emphatics are: * ח Ḥêṯ, a voiceless pharyngeal fricative, {{IPA, /ħ/, * ט Ṭêṯ, a pharyngealized ''t'', {{IPA, /tˤ/, * ע ʽAyin (or ʽE in some dialects), a pharyngealized

glottal stop The glottal stop or glottal plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in many Speech communication, spoken languages, produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract or, more precisely, the glottis. The symbol in the International Phonetic ...

(sometimes considered to be a Voiced pharyngeal fricative, voiced pharyngeal approximant), {{IPA, [ʕ] or {{IPA, [ʔˤ], * צ Ṣāḏê, a pharyngealized ''s'', {{IPA, /sˤ/, * ק Qôp, a voiceless uvular stop, {{IPA, /q/. {{listen, filename=Aramaic_emphatics.ogg, title=The emphatic consonants of Aramaic, description=, format= Ogg Ancient Aramaic may have had a larger series of emphatics, and some Neo-Aramaic languages definitely do. Not all dialects of Aramaic give these consonants their historic values. Overlapping with the set of emphatics are the "guttural" consonants. They include ח Ḥêṯ and ע ʽAyn from the emphatic set, and add א ʼĀlap̄ (a

glottal stop The glottal stop or glottal plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in many Speech communication, spoken languages, produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract or, more precisely, the glottis. The symbol in the International Phonetic ...

) and ה Hê (as the English "h"). Aramaic classically has a set of four sibilants (ancient Aramaic may have had six): * ס, שׂ {{IPA, /s/ (as in English "sea"), * ז {{IPA, /z/ (as in English "zero"), * שׁ {{IPA, /ʃ/ (as in English "ship"), * צ {{IPA, /sˤ/ (the emphatic Ṣāḏê listed above). In addition to these sets, Aramaic has the nasal consonants מ ''m'' and נ ''n'', and the approximant consonant, approximants ר ''r'' (usually an Dental, alveolar and postalveolar trills, alveolar trill), ל ''l'', י ''y'' and ו ''w''.

Historical sound changes

Six broad features of sound change can be seen as dialect differentials: * Vowel change occurs almost too frequently to document fully, but is a major distinctive feature of different dialects. * Plosive/fricative pair reduction. Originally, Aramaic, like Tiberian vocalization, Tiberian Hebrew, had fricatives as conditioned allophones for each plosive. In the wake of vowel changes, the distinction eventually became phonemic; still later, it was often lost in certain dialects. For example, Turoyo has mostly lost {{IPA, /p/, using {{IPA, /f/ instead, like Arabic; other dialects (for instance, standard Assyrian Neo-Aramaic) have lost {{IPA, /θ/ and {{IPA, /ð/ and replaced them with {{IPA, /t/ and {{IPA, /d/, as with Modern Hebrew. In most dialects of Modern Syriac, {{IPA, /f/ and {{IPA, /v/ are realized as {{IPA, [w] after a vowel. * Loss of emphatics. Some dialects have replaced emphatic consonants with non-emphatic counterparts, while those spoken in the

Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...

often have Ejective consonant, glottalized rather than pharyngealization, pharyngealized emphatics. * Guttural assimilation is the main distinctive feature of Samaritan pronunciation, also found in Samaritan Hebrew: all the gutturals are reduced to a simple glottal stop. Some Modern Aramaic dialects do not pronounce ''h'' in all words (the third person masculine pronoun ''hu'' becomes ''ow''). * Proto-Semitic */θ/ */ð/ are reflected in Aramaic as */t/, */d/, whereas they became sibilants in Hebrew (the number three is שלוש ''šālôš'' in Hebrew but תלת ''tlāṯ'' in Aramaic, the word gold is זהב zahav in Hebrew but דהב dehav{{Cite web, title=Strong's Hebrew: 1722. דְּהַב (dehab) – gold, url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/1722.htm, access-date=2020-07-31, website=biblehub.com in Aramaic). Dental/sibilant shifts are still happening in the modern dialects. * New phonetic inventory. Modern dialects have borrowed sounds from the dominant surrounding languages. The most frequent borrowings are {{IPA, [ʒ] (as the first consonant in "azure"), {{IPA, [d͡ʒ] (as in "jam"), and {{IPA, [t͡ʃ] (as in "church"). The

Syriac alphabet The Syriac alphabet ( ) is a writing system primarily used to write the Syriac language since the 1st century. It is one of the Semitic languages, Semitic abjads descending from the Aramaic alphabet through the Palmyrene alphabet, and shares sim ...

has been adapted for writing these new sounds.

Grammar

As in other Semitic languages, Aramaic morphology (linguistics), morphology (the way words are formed) is based on the consonantal Semitic root, root. The root generally consists of two or three consonants and has a basic meaning, for example, כת״ב ''k-t-b'' has the meaning of 'writing'. This is then modified by the addition of vowels and other consonants to create different nuances of the basic meaning: * כתבה ''kṯāḇâ'', handwriting, inscription, script, book. * כתבי ''kṯāḇê'', books, the Scriptures. * כתובה ''kāṯûḇâ'', secretary, scribe. * כתבת ''kiṯḇeṯ'', I wrote. * אכתב eḵtûḇ'', I shall write.

Nouns and adjectives

Aramaic nouns and adjectives are inflected to show ''gender'', ''number'' and ''state''. Aramaic has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. The feminine absolute singular is often marked by the ending ה- ''-â''. Nouns can be either singular or plural, but an additional "dual" number exists for nouns that usually come in pairs. The dual number gradually disappeared from Aramaic over time and has little influence in Middle and Modern Aramaic. Aramaic nouns and adjectives can exist in one of three states. To a certain extent, these states correspond to the role of articles and cases in the Indo-European languages: # The ''absolute'' state is the basic form of a noun. In early forms of Aramaic, the absolute state expresses indefiniteness, comparable to the English indefinite article a(n) (for example, כתבה ''kṯāḇâ'', "a handwriting"), and can be used in most syntactic roles. However, by the Middle Aramaic period, its use for nouns (but not adjectives) had been widely replaced by the emphatic state. # The ''Status constructus, construct'' state is a form of the noun used to make possessive constructions (for example, כתבת מלכתא ''kṯāḇat malkṯâ'', "the handwriting of the queen"). In the masculine singular, the form of the construct is often the same as the absolute, but it may undergo vowel reduction in longer words. The feminine construct and masculine construct plural are marked by suffixes. Unlike a genitive case, which marks the possessor, the construct state is marked on the possessed. This is mainly due to Aramaic word order: possessed[const.] possessor[abs./emph.] are treated as a speech unit, with the first unit (possessed) employing the construct state to link it to the following word. In Middle Aramaic, the use of the construct state for all but stock phrases (like בר נשא ''bar nāšâ'', "son of man") begins to disappear. # The ''emphatic'' or ''determined'' state is an extended form of the noun that functions similarly to the Article (grammar), definite article. It is marked with a suffix (for example, כתבתא ''kṯāḇtâ'', "the handwriting"). Although its original grammatical function seems to have been to mark definiteness, it is used already in Imperial Aramaic to mark all important nouns, even if they should be considered technically indefinite. This practice developed to the extent that the absolute state became extraordinarily rare in later varieties of Aramaic. Whereas other Northwest Semitic languages, like Hebrew, have the absolute and construct states, the emphatic/determined state is a unique feature to Aramaic. Inflection, Case endings, as in Ugaritic grammar#Case, Ugaritic, probably existed in a very early stage of the language, and glimpses of them can be seen in a few compound proper names. However, as most of those cases were expressed by short final vowels, they were never written, and the few characteristic long vowels of the masculine plural accusative and genitive are not clearly evidenced in inscriptions. Often, the Object (grammar), direct object is marked by a prefixed -ל ''l-'' (the preposition and postposition, preposition "to") if it is definite. Adjectives agree with their nouns in number and gender but agree in state only if used attributively. Predicative adjectives are in the absolute state regardless of the state of their noun (a copula (linguistics), copula may or may not be written). Thus, an attributive adjective to an emphatic noun, as in the phrase "the good king", is written also in the emphatic state מלכא טבא ''malkâ ṭāḇâ''{{sndking[emph.] good[emph.]. In comparison, the predicative adjective, as in the phrase "the king is good", is written in the absolute state מלכא טב ''malkâ ṭāḇ''{{sndking[emph.] good[abs.]. {, class="wikitable" , - ! "good" ! masc. sg. ! fem. sg. ! masc. pl. ! fem. pl. , - ! abs. , rowspan="2" , טב ṭāḇ , טבה ṭāḇâ , טבין ṭāḇîn , טבן ṭāḇān , - ! const. , טבת ṭāḇaṯ , טבי ṭāḇê , טבת ṭāḇāṯ , - ! det./emph. , טבא ṭāḇâ , טבתא ṭāḇtâ , טביא ṭāḇayyâ , טבתא ṭāḇāṯâ The final א- ''-â'' in a number of these suffixes is written with the letter aleph. However, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the letter he (letter), he for the feminine absolute singular. Likewise, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the Hebrew masculine absolute singular suffix ים- ''-îm'' instead of ין- ''-în''. The masculine determined plural suffix, יא- ''-ayyâ'', has an alternative version, ''-ê''. The alternative is sometimes called the "gentilic plural" for its prominent use in ethnonyms (יהודיא ''yəhûḏāyê'', 'the Jews', for example). This alternative plural is written with the letter aleph, and came to be the only plural for nouns and adjectives of this type in Syriac and some other varieties of Aramaic. The masculine construct plural, ''-ê'', is written with yodh. In Syriac and some other variants this ending is

diphthong A diphthong ( ), also known as a gliding vowel or a vowel glide, is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue (and/or other parts of ...

ized to ''-ai''. Possessive phrases in Aramaic can either be made with the construct state or by linking two nouns with the relative particle -[ד[י ''d[î]-''. As the use of the construct state almost disappears from the Middle Aramaic period on, the latter method became the main way of making possessive phrases. For example, the various forms of possessive phrases (for "the handwriting of the queen") are: # כתבת מלכתא kṯāḇaṯ malkṯâ – the oldest construction, also known as סמיכות səmîḵûṯ : the possessed object (כתבה kṯābâ, "handwriting") is in the construct state (כתבת kṯāḇaṯ); the possessor (מלכה malkâ, "queen") is in the emphatic state (מלכתא malkṯâ) # כתבתא דמלכתא kṯāḇtâ d(î)-malkṯâ – both words are in the emphatic state and the relative particle -[ד[י ''d[î]-'' is used to mark the relationship # כתבתה דמלכתא kṯāḇtāh d(î)-malkṯâ – both words are in the emphatic state, and the relative particle is used, but the possessed is given an anticipatory, pronominal ending (כתבתה kṯāḇtā-h, "handwriting-her"; literally, "her writing, that (of) the queen"). In Modern Aramaic, the last form is by far the most common. In Biblical Aramaic, the last form is virtually absent.

Verbs

The Aramaic verb has gradually evolved in time and place, varying between varieties of the language. Verb forms are marked for grammatical person, person (first, second or third), grammatical number, number (singular or plural), grammatical gender, gender (masculine or feminine), grammatical tense, tense (perfect or imperfect), grammatical mood, mood (indicative, imperative, jussive, or infinitive), and voice (grammar), voice (active, reflexive, or passive). Aramaic also employs a system of grammatical conjugation, conjugations, or verbal stems, to mark intensive and extensive developments in the lexical meaning of verbs.

Aspectual tense

Aramaic has two proper grammatical tense, tenses: perfective aspect, perfect and imperfective aspect, imperfect. These were originally grammatical aspect, aspectual, but developed into something more like a preterite and future tense, future. The perfect is Markedness, unmarked, while the imperfect uses various prefix, preformatives that vary according to person, number and gender. In both tenses the third-person singular masculine is the unmarked form from which others are derived by addition of Suffix, afformatives (and preformatives in the imperfect). In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is Classical Syriac. {, class="wikitable" , - ! rowspan="2" , Person & gender ! colspan="2" , Perfect ! colspan="2" , Imperfect , - ! Singular ! Plural ! Singular ! Plural , - ! 3rd m. , כתב kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ , כתבו ↔ כתב(ו)\כתבון kəṯaḇû ↔ kəṯaḇ(w)/kəṯabbûn , יכתוב ↔ נכתוב yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ , יכתבון ↔ נכתבון yiḵtəḇûn ↔ neḵtəḇûn , - ! 3rd f. , כתבת kiṯbaṯ ↔ keṯbaṯ , כתבת ↔ כתב(י)\כתבן kəṯaḇâ ↔ kəṯaḇ(y)/kəṯabbên , תכתב tiḵtuḇ ↔ teḵtoḇ , יכתבן ↔ נכתבן yiḵtəḇān ↔ neḵtəḇān , - ! 2nd m. , כתבת kəṯaḇt ↔ kəṯaḇt , כתבתון kəṯaḇtûn ↔ kəṯaḇton , תכתב tiḵtuḇ ↔ teḵtoḇ , תכתבון tiḵtəḇûn ↔ teḵtəḇûn , - ! 2nd f. , (כתבתי ↔ כתבת(י kəṯaḇtî ↔ kəṯaḇt(y) , כתבתן kəṯaḇtēn ↔ kəṯaḇtên , תכתבין tiḵtuḇîn ↔ teḵtuḇîn , תכתבן tiḵtəḇān ↔ teḵtəḇān , - ! 1st m./f. , כתבת kiṯḇēṯ ↔ keṯḇeṯ , כתבנא ↔ כתבן kəṯaḇnâ ↔ kəṯaḇn , אכתב eḵtuḇ ↔ eḵtoḇ , נכתב niḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ

Conjugations or verbal stems

Like other Semitic languages, Aramaic employs a number of Derived stem, derived verb stems, to extend the lexical coverage of verbs. The basic form of the verb is called the ''ground stem'', or ''G-stem''. Following the tradition of mediaeval Arabic grammarians, it is more often called the Pə‘al פעל (also written Pe‘al), using the form of the Semitic root פע״ל P-‘-L, meaning "to do". This stem carries the basic lexical meaning of the verb. By doubling of the second radical, or root letter, the D-stem or פעל Pa‘‘el is formed. This is often an intensive development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, ''qəṭal'' means "he killed", whereas ''qaṭṭel'' means "he slew". The precise relationship in meaning between the two stems differs for every verb. A preformative, which can be -ה ''ha-'', -א ''a-'', or -ש ''ša-'', creates the C-stem or variously the Hap̄‘el, Ap̄‘el or Šap̄‘el (also spelt הפעל Haph‘el, אפעל Aph‘el, and שפעל Shaph‘el). This is often an extensive or causative development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, טעה ''ṭə‘â'' means "he went astray", whereas אטעי ''aṭ‘î'' means "he deceived". The Šap̄‘el שפעל is the least common variant of the C-stem. Because this variant is standard in Akkadian, it is possible that its use in Aramaic represents loanwords from that language. The difference between the variants הפעל Hap̄‘el and אפעל Ap̄‘el appears to be the gradual dropping of the initial ה ''h'' sound in later Old Aramaic. This is noted by the respelling of the older he (letter), he preformative with א aleph. These three conjugations are supplemented with three further derived stems, produced by the preformative -הת ''hiṯ-'' or -את ''eṯ-''. The loss of the initial ה ''h'' sound occurs similarly to that in the form above. These three derived stems are the Gt-stem, התפעל Hiṯpə‘el or אתפעל Eṯpə‘el (also written Hithpe‘el or Ethpe‘el), the Dt-stem, התפעּל Hiṯpa‘‘al or אתפעּל Eṯpa‘‘al (also written Hithpa‘‘al or Ethpa‘‘al), and the Ct-stem, התהפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al, אתּפעל Ettap̄‘al, השתפעל Hištap̄‘al or אשתפעל Eštap̄‘al (also written Hithhaph‘al, Ettaph‘al, Hishtaph‘al, or Eshtaph‘al). Their meaning is usually reflexive verb, reflexive, but later became passive voice, passive. However, as with other stems, actual meaning differs from verb to verb. Not all verbs use all of these conjugations, and, in some, the G-stem is not used. In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is Classical Syriac. {, class="wikitable" , - ! Stem ! Perfect active ! Imperfect active ! Perfect passive ! Imperfect passive , - ! פעל Pə‘al (G-stem) , כתב kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ , יכתב ↔ נכתב yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ , כתיב kəṯîḇ , , - ! התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpə‘ēl/Eṯpə‘el (Gt-stem) , התכתב ↔ אתכתב hiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ eṯkəṯeḇ , יתכתב ↔ נתכתב yiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ neṯkəṯeḇ , , , - ! פעּל Pa‘‘ēl/Pa‘‘el (D-stem) , כתּב kattēḇ ↔ katteḇ , יכתּב ↔ נכתּב yəḵattēḇ ↔ nəkatteḇ , כֻתּב kuttaḇ , , - ! התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpa‘‘al/Eṯpa‘‘al (Dt-stem) , התכתּב ↔ אתכתּב hiṯkəttēḇ ↔ eṯkətteḇ , יתכתּב ↔ נתכתּב yiṯkəttēḇ ↔ neṯkətteḇ , , , - ! הפעל\אפעל Hap̄‘ēl/Ap̄‘el (C-stem) , הכתב ↔ אכתב haḵtēḇ ↔ aḵteḇ , יהכתב↔ נכתב yəhaḵtēḇ ↔ naḵteḇ , הֻכתב huḵtaḇ , , - ! התהפעל\אתּפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al/Ettap̄‘al (Ct-stem) , התהכתב ↔ אתּכתב hiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ ettaḵtaḇ , יתהכתב ↔ נתּכתב yiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ nettaḵtaḇ , , In Imperial Aramaic, the participle began to be used for a historical present. Perhaps under influence from other languages, Middle Aramaic developed a system of composite tenses (combinations of forms of the verb with pronouns or an auxiliary verb), allowing for narrative that is more vivid. Aramaic syntax usually follows the order verb–subject–object (VSO). Imperial (Persian) Aramaic, however, tended to follow a S-O-V pattern (similar to Akkadian), which was the result of Persian syntactic influence.

References

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Notes

{{notelist

Sources

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Steven, editor2-last=Notley, title=The Language Environment of First Century Judaea Vol. 2, year=2014, location=Leiden-Boston, publisher=Brill, pages=395–421, isbn=9789004264410, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F5QXAwAAQBAJ * {{cite book, last1=Buth, first1=Randall, first2=Chad, last2=Pierce, editor1-first=Randall, editor1-last=Buth, editor2-first=R. 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Chyet, chapter=A Preliminary List of Aramaic Loanwords in Kurdish, title=Humanism, Culture, and Language in the Near East: Studies in Honor of Georg Krotkoff, year=1997, location=Winona Lake, publisher=Eisenbrauns, pages=283–300, isbn=9781575060200, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O-p7mzSiDAEC * {{Cite journal, last=Collins, first=John J., author-link=John J. Collins, title=The Aramaic of Daniel in the Light of Old Aramaic, by Zdravko Stefanovic, journal=Journal of Biblical Literature, year=1993, volume=112, number=4, pages=710–12, doi=10.2307/3267414, jstor=3267414, url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3267414, url-access=subscription * {{Cite book, last=Daniels, first=Peter T., chapter=Aramaic Scripts for Aramaic Languages, title=The World's Writing Systems, year=1996, location=Oxford, publisher=Oxford University Press, pages=499–514, isbn=9780195079937, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA499 * {{Cite book, last=Fales, first=Frederick M., chapter=Old Aramaic, title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, year=2012, location=Berlin-Boston, publisher=Walter de Gruyter, pages=555–73, isbn=9783110251586, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC * {{Cite journal, last=Fitzmyer, first=Joseph A., author-link=Joseph A. 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Frye, title=Reply to John Joseph, journal=Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies, year=1999, volume=13, number=1, pages=69–70, url=http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v13n1/frye.pdf, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711213743/http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v13n1/frye.pdf, archive-date=2020-07-11 * {{Cite book, last=Gallagher, first=Edmon L., author-link=Edmon L. Gallagher, title=Hebrew Scripture in Patristic Biblical Theory: Canon, Language, Text, year=2012, location=Leiden-Boston, publisher=Brill, isbn=9789004228023, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aWkyAQAAQBAJ * {{Cite book, last=Gianto, first=Agustinus, chapter=Lost and Found in the Grammar of First-Millennium Aramaic, title=Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting, year=2008, location=Wiesbaden, publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag, pages=11–25, isbn=9783447057875, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC * {{citation, last=Green, first=Tamara M., title=The City of the Moon God: Religious Traditions of Harran, year=1992, publisher=BRILL, isbn=978-90-04-09513-7. * {{Cite book, last1=Greenfield, first1=Jonas C., author-link=Jonas C. Greenfield, chapter=Aramaic in the Achaemenian Empire, title=The Cambridge History of Iran, year=1985, volume=2, location=Cambridge, publisher=Cambridge University Press, pages=698–713, isbn=9780521200912, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BBbyr932QdYC *{{Cite book, last=Greenfield, first=Jonas C., author-link=Jonas C. Greenfield, chapter=Aramaic and the Jews, editor-last1=Geller, editor-first1=M.C., editor-last2=Greenfield, editor-first2=J.C., editor-last3=Weizman, editor-first3=M.P., title=Studia Aramaica: New Sources and New Approaches, year=1995, location=New York, publisher=Oxford University Press, pages=1–18, isbn=978-0-19-922194-3 * {{Cite book, last=Gzella, first=Holger, chapter=Aramaic in the Parthian Period: The Arsacid Inscriptions, title=Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting, year=2008, location=Wiesbaden, publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag, pages=107–30, isbn=9783447057875, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC * {{Cite book, last=Gzella, first=Holger, chapter=Imperial Aramaic, title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, year=2012a, location=Berlin-Boston, publisher=Walter de Gruyter, pages=574–86, isbn=9783110251586, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC * {{Cite book, last=Gzella, first=Holger, chapter=Late Imperial Aramaic, title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, year=2012b, location=Berlin-Boston, publisher=Walter de Gruyter, pages=598–609, isbn=9783110251586, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC * {{Cite book, last=Gzella, first=Holger, title=A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam, year=2015, location=Leiden-Boston, publisher=Brill, isbn=9789004285101, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y9UuBgAAQBAJ * {{Cite book, last=Gzella, first=Holger, chapter=New Light on Linguistic Diversity in Pre-Achaemenid Aramaic: Wandering Arameans or Language Spread?, title=Wandering Arameans: Arameans Outside Syria: Textual and Archaeological Perspectives, year=2017, location=Wiesbaden, publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag, pages=19–38, chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/34042986 *{{Cite book , first=Holger, last=Gzella, author-link=d:Q59390142, date=2021, title=Aramaic. 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location=Birmingham, publisher=University of Birmingham, isbn=9780704403901, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UJ8OAAAAYAAJ * {{Cite journal, last=Healey, first=John F., title=The Edessan Milieu and the Birth of Syriac, journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies, year=2007, volume=10, number=2, pages=115–27, url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol10/HV10N2Healey.pdf, archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol10/HV10N2Healey.pdf, archive-date=2022-10-09, url-status=live * {{Cite book, last=Healey, first=John F., chapter=Variety in Early Syriac: The Context in Contemporary Aramaic, title=Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting, year=2008, location=Wiesbaden, publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag, pages=221–29, isbn=9783447057875, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC * {{Cite book, last=Healey, first=John F., chapter=Syriac, title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, year=2012, location=Berlin-Boston, publisher=Walter de Gruyter, pages=637–52, isbn=9783110251586, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC * {{Cite book, last=Healey, first=John F., chapter=Arameans and Aramaic in Transition – Western Influences and the Roots of Aramean Christianity, title=Research on Israel and Aram: Autonomy, Independence and Related Issues, year=2019, location=Tübingen, publisher=Mohr Siebeck, pages=433–46, isbn=9783161577192, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39nPxgEACAAJ * {{Cite book, editor-last=Heinrichs, editor-first=Wolfhart, editor-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs, title=Studies in Neo-Aramaic, year=1990, location=Atlanta, publisher=Scholars Press, isbn=9781555404307, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3n0OAAAAYAAJ * {{Cite book, last=Jastrow, first=Otto, chapter=Old Aramaic and Neo-Aramaic: Some Reflections on Language History, title=Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting, year=2008, location=Wiesbaden, publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag, pages=1–10, isbn=9783447057875, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC * {{Cite book, last=Jastrow, first=Otto, chapter=Ṭuroyo and Mlaḥsô, title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, year=2012, location=Berlin-Boston, publisher=Walter de Gruyter, pages=697–707, isbn=9783110251586, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC * {{Cite book, last=Joosten, first=Jan, chapter=The Septuagint as a Source of Information on Egyptian Aramaic in the Hellenistic Period, title=Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting, year=2008, location=Wiesbaden, publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag, pages=93–105, isbn=9783447057875, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC * {{Cite journal, last=Joosten, first=Jan, title=The Aramaic Background of the Seventy: Language, Culture and History, journal=Bulletin of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies, year=2010, volume=43, pages=53–72, url=https://www.academia.edu/33401126 * {{Cite book, last=Kautzsch, first=Emil F., author-link=Emil Friedrich Kautzsch, title=Grammatik des Biblisch-Aramäischen: Mit einer Kritischen Erörterung der aramäischen Wörter im Neuen Testament, year=1884a, location=Leipzig, publisher=Vogel, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OU09AAAAYAAJ * {{Cite journal, last=Kautzsch, first=Emil F., author-link=Emil Friedrich Kautzsch, title=The Aramaic Language, journal=Hebraica, year=1884b, volume=1, number=1–2, pages=98–115, doi=10.1086/368803, jstor=527111, url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/527111, url-access=subscription * {{Cite book, last=Kapeliuk, first=Olga, author-link=Olga Kapeliuk, chapter=Language Contact between Aramaic Dialects and Iranian, title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, year=2012, location=Berlin-Boston, publisher=Walter de Gruyter, pages=738–47, isbn=9783110251586, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC * {{Cite book, last=Khan, first=Geoffrey, author-link=Geoffrey Khan, chapter=Aramaic in the Medieval and Modern Periods, title=Languages of Iraq: Ancient and Modern, year=2007, location=Cambridge, publisher=The British School of Archaeology in Iraq, pages=95–114, chapter-url=http://www.bisi.ac.uk/sites/bisi.localhost/files/languages_of_iraq.pdf, access-date=2021-02-08, archive-date=2019-08-02, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802015917/http://www.bisi.ac.uk/sites/bisi.localhost/files/languages_of_iraq.pdf, url-status=dead * {{Cite book, last=Khan, first=Geoffrey, author-link=Geoffrey Khan, chapter=North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic, title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, year=2012, location=Berlin-Boston, publisher=Walter de Gruyter, pages=708–24, isbn=9783110251586, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC * {{Cite journal, last=Kim, first=Ronald, title=Stammbaum or Continuum? 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of Bible Translation: Communicating God's Word to the World , year= 2009 , publisher= Zondervan , isbn= 978-0310321859 * {{Cite book, last=Lemaire, first=André, author-link=André Lemaire, chapter=Remarks on the Aramaic of Upper Mesopotamia in the Seventh Century B.C., title=Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting, year=2008, location=Wiesbaden, publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag, pages=77–92, isbn=9783447057875, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC * {{Cite book, last=Lipiński, first=Edward, author-link=Edward Lipiński (orientalist), title=The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion, year=2000, location=Leuven, publisher=Peeters Publishers, isbn=9789042908598, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rrMKKtiBBI4C * {{Cite book, last=Lipiński, first=Edward, author-link=Edward Lipiński (orientalist), title=Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar, year=2001, orig-year=1997, edition=2nd, location=Leuven, publisher=Peeters Publishers, isbn=9789042908154, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IiXVqyEkPKcC * {{Cite journal, last=Macuch, first=Rudolf, author-link=Rudolf Macúch, title=Recent Studies in Neo-Aramaic Dialects, journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, year=1990, volume=53, number=2, pages=214–23, doi=10.1017/S0041977X00026045, s2cid=162559782, url=https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X00026045, url-access=subscription * {{Cite book, last=Morgenstern, first=Matthew, chapter=Christian Palestinian Aramaic, title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, year=2012, location=Berlin-Boston, publisher=Walter de Gruyter, pages=628–37, isbn=9783110251586, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC * {{Cite book, last=Murre van den Berg, first=Heleen, author-link=Heleen Murre-van den Berg, title=From a Spoken to a Written Language: The Introduction and Development of Literary Urmia Aramaic in the Nineteenth Century, year=1999, location=Leiden, publisher=Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, isbn=9789062589814, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rh1jAAAAMAAJ * {{Cite book, last=Murre van den Berg, first=Heleen, chapter=Classical Syriac, Neo-Aramaic, and Arabic in the Church of the East and the Chaldean Church between 1500 and 1800, title=Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting, year=2008, location=Wiesbaden, publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag, pages=335–52, isbn=9783447057875, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC * {{Cite book, last=Naby, first=Eden, chapter=From Lingua Franca to Endangered Language: The Legal Aspects of the Preservation of Aramaic in Iraq, title=On the Margins of Nations: Endangered Languages and Linguistic Rights, year=2004, location=Bath, publisher=Foundation for Endangered Languages, pages=197–203, isbn=9780953824861, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UM3BMtn6TmcC * {{Cite journal, last=Nöldeke, first=Theodor, author-link=Theodor Nöldeke, title=Die Namen der aramäischen Nation und Sprache, journal=Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, year=1871, volume=25, number=1–2, pages=113–31, jstor=43366019, url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43366019 * {{Cite book, last=Nöldeke, first=Theodor, author-link=Theodor Nöldeke, chapter=Semitic Languages, title=The Encyclopaedia Britannica, edition=9th, year=1886, volume=21, location=New York, publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons, pages=641–56, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_dAAQAAMAAJ * {{Cite book, last=Nöldeke, first=Theodor, author-link=Theodor Nöldeke, title=Compendious Syriac Grammar, year=1904, edition=1st English, location=London, publisher=Williams & Norgate, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rk06AQAAMAAJ * {{Cite book, last=Peursen, first=Wido van, chapter=Language Variation, Language Development, and the Textual History of the Peshitta, title=Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting, year=2008, location=Wiesbaden, publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag, pages=231–56, isbn=9783447057875, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC * {{Cite book, last1=Prym, first1=Eugen, author-link1=Eugen Prym, last2=Socin, first2=Albert, author-link2=Albert Socin, title=Der neu-aramaeische Dialekt des Ṭûr 'Abdîn, year=1881, location=Göttingen, publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht's Verlag, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=geoOAAAAQAAJ * {{Cite book , title=Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader , first1=Suzanne , last1=Richard , publisher=Eisenbrauns , year=2003 , isbn=9781575060835 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=khR0apPid8gC&q=aramaic+spread+North+Africa&pg=PA69 * {{Cite book, last=Rosenthal, first=Franz, author-link=Franz Rosenthal, year=2006, orig-year=1961, title=A Grammar of Biblical Aramaic, edition=7th expanded, location=Wiesbaden, publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag, isbn=9783447052511, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YI5QiMWNougC{{Dead link, date=January 2024 , bot=InternetArchiveBot , fix-attempted=yes * {{Cite journal, last=Rubin, first=Milka, title=The Language of Creation or the Primordial Language: A Case of Cultural Polemics in Antiquity, journal=Journal of Jewish Studies, year=1998, volume=49, issue=2, pages=306–33, doi=10.18647/2120/JJS-1998, url=https://www.academia.edu/16441972 * {{Cite book, last=Ruzer, first=Serge, chapter=Hebrew versus Aramaic as Jesus' Language: Notes on Early Opinions by Syriac Authors, title=The Language Environment of First Century Judaea, year=2014, location=Leiden-Boston, publisher=Brill, pages=182–205, isbn=9789004264410, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F5QXAwAAQBAJ * {{Cite book, last=Sabar, first=Yona, author-link=Yona Sabar, title=A Jewish Neo-Aramaic Dictionary: Dialects of Amidya, Dihok, Nerwa and Zakho, Northwestern Iraq, year=2002, location=Wiesbaden, publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, isbn=9783447045575, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ygzh_tRZ7NMC * {{Cite book, first=Sawyer, last=John F. A., title=Sacred Languages and Sacred Texts, year=1999, location=London and New York, publisher=Routledge, isbn=9781134801398, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WERD1QLfq9MC * {{Cite book, last=Shepardson, first=Christine, title=Controlling Contested Places: Late Antique Antioch and the Spatial Politics of Religious Controversy, year=2019, location=Oakland, publisher=University of California Press, isbn=9780520303379, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rw6LDwAAQBAJ * {{Cite book, editor-last=Sokoloff, editor-first=Michael, title=Arameans, Aramaic and the Aramaic Literary Tradition, year=1983, location=Tel Aviv, publisher=Bar Ilan University Press, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0oyujgEACAAJ * {{Cite book, last=Sokoloff, first=Michael, title=A Dictionary of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic of the Byzantine Period, year=1990, location=Ramat Gan, publisher=Bar Ilan University Press, isbn=9789652261014, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_IkOAAAAYAAJ * {{Cite book, last=Sokoloff, first=Michael, title=A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic of the Talmudic and Geonic Periods, year=2002, location=Ramat Gan, publisher=Bar Ilan University Press, isbn=9789652262608, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4hdjAAAAMAAJ * {{Cite book, last=Sokoloff, first=Michael, title=A Dictionary of Judean Aramaic, year=2003, location=Ramat Gan, publisher=Bar Ilan University Press, isbn=9789652262615, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfZzQgAACAAJ * {{Cite book, last=Sokoloff, first=Michael, chapter=Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, year=2012a, location=Berlin-Boston, publisher=Walter de Gruyter, pages=610–19, isbn=9783110251586, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC * {{Cite book, last=Sokoloff, first=Michael, chapter=Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, year=2012b, location=Berlin-Boston, publisher=Walter de Gruyter, pages=660–70, isbn=9783110251586, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC * {{Cite book, last=Sokoloff, first=Michael, title=A dictionary of Christian Palestinian Aramaic, year=2014, location=Leuven, publisher=Peeters, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KYUogEACAAJ{{Dead link, date=September 2023 , bot=InternetArchiveBot , fix-attempted=yes * {{Cite book, last=Stefanovic, first=Zdravko, title=The Aramaic of Daniel in the Light of Old Aramaic, year=1992, location=Sheffield, publisher=Sheffield Academic Press, isbn=9780567132543, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8kfr5lrsXCIC * {{Cite book, last=Stevenson, first=William B., title=Grammar of Palestinian Jewish Aramaic, year=1924, location=Oxford, publisher=Clarendon Press, isbn=9781725206175, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzj7DwAAQBAJ * {{Cite book, last=Streck, first=Michael P., chapter=Akkadian and Aramaic Language Contact, title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, year=2012, location=Berlin-Boston, publisher=Walter de Gruyter, pages=416–24, isbn=9783110251586, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC * {{Cite book, last=Tal, first=Abraham, chapter=Samaritan Aramaic, title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, year=2012, location=Berlin-Boston, publisher=Walter de Gruyter, pages=619–28, isbn=9783110251586, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC * {{Cite book, last=Tezel, first=Aziz, title=Comparative Etymological Studies in the Western Neo-Syriac (Ṭūrōyo) Lexicon: With Special Reference to Homonyms, Related Words and Borrowings with Cultural Signification, year=2003, location=Uppsala, publisher=Uppsala University Library, isbn=9789155455552, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y85zQgAACAAJ * {{Cite book, last=Tezel, first=Sina, chapter=Arabic or Ṣūrayt/Ṭūrōyo, title=Arabic and Semitic Linguistics Contextualized: A Festschrift for Jan Retsö, year=2015, location=Wiesbaden, publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag, pages=554–68, chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/13277621 * {{Cite book, last=Tezel, first=Sina, chapter=Neologisms in Ṣūrayt/Ṭūrōyo, title=Neo-Aramaic in Its Linguistic Context, year=2015, location=Piscataway, NJ, publisher=Gorgias Press, pages=100–09, chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/12443985 * {{Cite book, last=Taylor, first=David G. K., chapter=Bilingualism and Diglossia in Late Antique Syria and Mesopotamia, title=Bilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Word, year=2002, location=Oxford, publisher=Oxford University Press, pages=298–331, isbn=9789004264410, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F5QXAwAAQBAJ * {{Cite book, last=Waltisberg, first=Michael, title=Syntax des Ṭuroyo, year=2016, location=Wiesbaden, publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag, isbn=9783447107310, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cPNHvgAACAAJ * {{Cite book, last=Wevers, first=John W., chapter=Aram and Aramaean in the Septuagint, title=The World of the Aramaeans, volume=1, year=2001, location=Sheffield, publisher=Sheffield Academic Press, pages=237–51, isbn=9781841271583, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7WatAwAAQBAJ * {{Cite book, last=Weninger, first=Stefan, chapter=Aramaic-Arabic Language Contact, title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, year=2012, location=Berlin-Boston, publisher=Walter de Gruyter, pages=747–55, isbn=9783110251586, chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC * {{Cite book, last=Yitzhak, first=Frank, title=Grammar for Gemara and Targum Onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, year=2003, location=Jerusalem, publisher=Ariel, isbn=9781583306062, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=My4YBfzqOHQC * {{Cite book, last=Younger, first=Kenneth Lawson, title=A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities, year=2016, location=Atlanta, publisher=SBL Press, isbn=9781628370843, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vpgsDQAAQBAJ {{refend

External links

{{InterWiki, code=arc, language=Syriac {{Incubator, code=aii, language=Assyrian Neo-Aramaic {{Incubator, code=tru, language=Turoyo {{Incubator, code=tmr, language=Jewish Babylonian Aramaic {{Commons category, Aramaic language
Ancient Aramaic Audio Files
Contains audio recordings of scripture.
The Aramaic Language and Its Classification – Efrem Yildiz, Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies
{{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909222746/http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v14n1/e8.pdf , date=2008-09-09

(including editions of

Targum A targum (, ''interpretation'', ''translation'', ''version''; plural: targumim) was an originally spoken translation of the Hebrew Bible (also called the ) that a professional translator ( ''mǝṯurgǝmān'') would give in the common language o ...

s) at the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati
Dictionary of Judeo-Aramaic

{{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511235552/http://www.jewish-languages.org/jewish-aramaic.html , date=2008-05-11 {{Semitic languages , expanded=Northwest {{Assyrian topics {{Ancient Mesopotamia {{Authority control {{DEFAULTSORT:Aramaic Language Aramaic languages, Languages attested from the 10th century BC

History

Name

Geographic distribution

Aramaic languages and dialects

Writing system

Periodization

Old Aramaic

Ancient Aramaic

Imperial Aramaic

Biblical Aramaic

Post-Achaemenid Aramaic

Targumic

Babylonian Documentary Aramaic

Nabataean

Palmyrene

Eastern dialects

Western dialects

Languages during Jesus' lifetime

Middle Aramaic

Eastern Middle Aramaic

Syriac Aramaic

Jewish Babylonian Aramaic

Mandaic Aramaic

Western Middle Aramaic

Samaritan Aramaic

Aramaic in Roman Judea

Christian Aramaic in the Levant

Modern Aramaic

Modern Eastern Aramaic

Modern Western Aramaic

Sample texts

Phonology

Vowels

Consonants

Historical sound changes

Grammar

Nouns and adjectives

Verbs

Aspectual tense

Conjugations or verbal stems

See also

References

Notes

Sources

External links