Ancient Roman Furniture

Ancient furniture was made from many different materials, including reeds, wood, stone, metals, straws, and ivory. It could also be decorated in many different ways. Sometimes furniture would be covered with upholstery, upholstery being padding, springs, webbing, and
leather. Features which would mark the top of furniture, called finials, were common. To decorate furniture, contrasting pieces would be inserted into depressions in the furniture. This practice is called inlaying.

It was common for ancient furniture to have religious or symbolic purposes. The Incans had chacmools which were dedicated to sacrifice. Similarly, in Dilmun they had sacrificial altars. In many civilizations, the furniture depended on wealth. Sometimes certain types of furniture could only be used by the upper-class citizens. For example, in Egypt, thrones could only be used by the rich. Sometimes the way the furniture was decorated depended on wealth. For example, in Mesopotamia tables would be decorated with expensive metals, chairs would be padded with felt, rushes, and upholstery. Some chairs had metal inlays.

Mesopotamia

Sumeria

Materials

Most Sumerian furniture was constructed out of wood, reeds, and other perishable materials. Sumerian records mention many kinds of wood. One example is a type of wood named Halub wood. It is described as a kind of wood used to make beds, bedframes, furniture legs, chairs, foot-stools, baskets, containers, drinking vessels, and other prestigious goods. Timber, a wood which would have been imported from Lebanon, was used for carpentry. Timber and Halub wood were not the only kinds of wood the Sumerians used. Some other types of wood were ''kusabku,'' ''Sulum Meluhi'' wood, and date palm. ''Kusakbu'' wood, which was either teak or mangrove wood, could be used for inlaying thrones with lapis lazuli. ''Sulum Meluhi'' wood may have been ebony. However, no ebony has been found at archaeological sites. Another possibility is rosewood imported from Harrapa. Date palm was imported from Meluhha. The source of date palm is a contentious topic. Because date palm grew in southern Mesopotamia, they may have not import date palm from a foreign country. Instead, it is possible that they imported a material similar to date palm. Bamboo or sugarcane from Magan was used by Sumerians. They described it as "reeds bundled together to look like wood." More kinds of wood used by the Sumerians included palmwood, wicker wood, hardwood. Kinds of wood were not the only materials in Sumeria. Felt, rushes, leather, skin, and wool were used to make materials such as padding and rugs. Metals such as bronze, copper, silver, and gold had many uses in Sumeria. They could be used for inlaying. Sometimes metals would be used to make rings for furniture legs.

Chairs

Beds, stools, and chairs made of palmwood or woven reeds were used in Sumeria. Wealthy citizens would have chairs padded with felt, rushes, and leather upholstery. The most expensive chairs were inlaid with bronze, copper, silver, and gold. In Akkad, the finest furniture would be inlaid or overlaid with panels and ornaments of metals, gemstones, ivory, faience. Chairs would also have brightly colored wooden and ivory finials depicting arms and bull's heads. Sometimes these finials would be cast-bronze or carved-bone. Oftentimes the chairs would have bronze panels that had images of griffins and winged deities carved into them. The Royal Standard of Ur showcases the king of Ur on a low-back chair with animal legs. The seats depicted on the standard were likely made of Rush and Cane. During this period of Sumerian history chairs were not used by the majority of people. Most people simply sat on the floor. Low-backed chairs with curved or flat seats and turned legs were incredibly common in the Akkadian Empire.

Beds

Although there were beds in Sumeria, most people slept on the floor rather than beds. The Sumerian bed was a wooden bed on a wooden frame. The bed frame was a tall head-board decorated with pictures of birds and flowers. Sometimes the bed's leg would be inlaid with precious metals and shaped to look like animal's paws. Some Akkadian beds had ox-hoof feet. The upper class in Sumeria would use leather, cloth strips, carefully woven reeds to form the sleeping platform. Wealthy Mesopotamians had beds with wooden frames and mattresses stuffed with cloth, goat's hair, wool, or linen. The marriage bed was an important kind of bed in Sumeria. It was where couples engaged in sexual intercourse after a marriage. If the bride did not get pregnant, the marriage could be invalidated.

Mats

People would cover their floors with mats woven from reeds, skin rugs, and woolen hangings. During the early parts of Sumerian history, reed mats would be fastened to sticks and stuck into the ground or houses. Sometimes reed-mats were used to make houses. The roofs of certain houses would be flat mud spread out over mats. These mats would be supported by cross beams. Another way of supporting these huts was to tie bundles of reeds together and bend the top inwards. These bundles would serve as arches. Some food would have been sprayed over mats. For example, one Sumerian text explains that a person should spread cooked mash over reed mats. Other Sumerian texts talk about covering chariots in reed mats. Mats could have also been used to cover skeletons.

Household furniture

It was uncommon for most houses to have a lot of furniture as most furniture was reserved for the wealthy. The majority of furniture in Sumeria was made of wicker wood. Storage chests were common. Chests could be made from reed or wood. Some were elaborately carved. Stools, tables, and reed mats were also common. Tables were used to hold meals or belongings. Wealthy Mesopotamians would decorate their tables with metals. Aside from chests and tables people would use baskets made of reed, wicker wood, or straw; and bins made of sun-dried clay, palmwood, or reeds for storage. Sumerians would have household vessels made of clay, stone copper, and bronze. Braziers burning animal dung were used to heat homes. People would light their houses by placing a wick made of reed or wool in sesame seed oil then lighting it. Statues would usually be hidden inside houses to ward off evil spirits. In Mesopotamian art, gods would often be depicted sitting on mountains or heaps of produce. Some gods could be depicted as sitting on stools. These stools might represent temples or the god's seat on Earth. In ancient Sumeria doors would be made out of wood or red ox-hide. A variety of furniture dedicated to relaxing existed in ancient Mesopotamia. Some ancient art depicts people lounging on sofas. The legs of the sofas had iron panels that depicted women and lions. In Mesopotamia bathrooms would have had bathtubs, stools, jars, mirrors, and large water pitchers occasionally with a pottery dipper. Rich Sumerians would have toilets and proper drainage systems.

Archaeology

Because of the perishable materials common throughout Sumerian furniture, archaeological evidence for Mesopotamian furniture is limited. The few sources we have consists of artifacts the Assyrians gained from their conquests. From the Assyrian records we learn that Mesopotamian furniture was similar to Egyptian furniture. Although, it was heavier and had more curves then Egyptian furniture. Another source for Sumerian furniture was depictions from the city of Ur.

Babylonia

There are few sources for Babylonian furniture. As the Babylonians did not put any furniture in tombs, aside from a few drinking vessels and some jewelry, few examples of Babylonian furniture survive. There are also few surviving artistic depictions of Babylonian furniture, aside from a few seals and terracottas. Thus our main sources for Babylonian furniture are textual. One Babylonian text mentions large and small chests, as well as 60 different types of chairs. Each chair was of a different usage and materials. The source mentions the footstool, claiming that it is "for bathing, portable, for the worker, for the barber, for the road, for the seal cutter, for the metal-worker, for the potter." The text also mentions foot-rests and beds. Beds are described as "to sit on, to lie on, of reeds, with oxen-feet, with goat's hair, stuffed with wool, stuffed with goat hair, of Sumerian type," and "of Akkadian type" Babylonian wills often mention important pieces of furniture, such as chests to store textiles, clothing, beds, chairs and stools.

The few artistic depictions we have of Babylonian furniture showcase a variety of chairs and miniature models of beds. These chairs would often have their legs carved in the shape of claws, paws, or oxen-feet. Chairs from the Old and Middle Babylonian period with curved backs are depicted in reliefs from the late third millennium BCE. Some plaques from the reign of Gudea showcase chairs with sloped backs. The beds would have been made of clay and had rectangular bed frames. It is common for these artistic depictions of beds to show a couple in the act of sexual intercourse.

Babylonian tables would be covered or inlaid with ivory. Depictions from the Neo-Babylonian Period display eating scenes, with tables and chairs being used together. These tables also became more elaborate during this period. Some household items include vessels for oil, wine, beer, and honey. Other household items include ladders, bowls, bowls, mortars, pestles, reed-mats, cushions, tables, chairs, grindstones, ovens, and furnaces. Reeds and palm branches were common materials used to make cheap everyday products such as mats, screens, boxes, containers, baskets, and colanders. Clay was a much more common material. It was used to make plates, jars, jugs, storage, and cooking tools. Metal, especially copper, was used to make cooking pots, mortars, and iron implements in mills

The Babylonians were highly specialized in carpentry and "cabinet-making": they would export furniture to the Assyrians and other civilizations. The most elaborate pieces were found in temples.

Assyria

In ancient Assyria plaques would be used as furniture. The ancient Assyrians had carved ivory pieces. They were used to make fan handles, boxes, and furniture inlays. The furniture would commonly depict flowers. There was a wide variety of Assyrian chairs. Some chairs had backs and arms, some resembled a footstool. Sometimes Assyrian chairs would be placed so high a footstool was required to sit on them. Chairs and footstool would be furnished with cushions covered in tapestries. Wealthier Assyrians would also furnish their couches and bed frames with tapestries. Poorer Assyrians would have a single mattress instead of a bed. Assyrian tables had four legs, often these legs would be inlaid with ivory. Other metals could be inlaid into chairs and sofas. Households would also have bronze tripods for the purpose of holding vases of wine and water. Some vases were made of terracota, these vases could also be glazed with a blue vitrified substance resembling vases used by the Egyptians. The tripods used to hold these vases had feet shaped to resemble oxen or clinched hands.

Egypt

Chairs

Old Kingdom

Tombs dating back to the First Dynasty have wooden furniture. This furniture is usually decorated with basketry motifs, ivory inlays, hippopotamus and elephant ivories, and it was finely carved in the shape of bull legs. The base of each leg, terminated in a ribbed cylinder design to protect the foot of the support. Furniture legs were finished with the pedestal feet.

The chair developed from the stool in the second dynasty. A stele found in a tomb from this time period depicts Prince Nisuheqet sitting on a chair. The chair has a high back made of plain sawn boards.KILLEN, GEOFFREY. ''Ancient Egyptian Furniture Volume I: 4000 – 1300 BC''. 2nd ed., vol. 1, Oxbow Books, 2017. Suggesting that the earliest chairs were used by the wealthy. Egyptian chairs likely continued to be status symbols. In another tomb, this time from the third dynasty, more depictions of chairs are found.

King Khafre's chair is shown to imitate animal parts. This design feature is not unique to Old Kingdom furniture, it existed in even Predynastic times. However, the innovation of using animal hooves as a decoration for furniture is new to the Fourth Dynasty. This decoration could have been fashioned from ivory. Animal legs were usually supported on a small cone-shaped pedestal.

In the Old Kingdom, a system of leather straps would have been used to build the seats of chairs. This type of design appeared throughout the chairs during other periods of Egyptian chairs.

Middle Kingdom

In the Middle Kingdom of Egypt chairs were still straight legged with cushioned backs and upholstered vertical backs. During this period, chairs became more stylized. The legs of these chairs were animal-shaped; however, instead of bovine shaped, they were slender and gazelle shaped or lion shaped. The joints were no jointed and tied together with leather. Instead, they were glued and dwelled. Chairs in this period were now designed to be shaped like the human back. The backs of chairs were carved from wooden blocks or angled battens. Steles dating back to the Middle Kingdom showcase chairs elevated on small platforms and deeply recessed back supports with a center supporting a strut. Inlays or paintwork simulating animal skins may have been used to decorate chairs.

Another Middle Kingdom chair, called the Anderson chair, has an ornament made of alternating light and dark wood on its back. Circular inlays on the back of the chair and bones on the top rail are also present. Like other Egyptian chairs, the legs were carved to appear like a lion's legs. The feet were carved on horizontally lined spools and wide tenons that are fastened with pegs and mortised joints are used on the chair. The chair was shaped through downwards sloping and conclave curving to conform to the lumbar area in the back. The outer back consists of three straight splats and seven vertical strips both of which mortised at the top and bottom. Mortises, along with wide tenons, were used to make the joints of this chair.

New Kingdom

Eighteenth Dynasty

Much of the old Egyptian furniture which still survives to this day has only survived due to the ancient Egyptians beliefs about the afterlife. Furniture would be placed in tombs, and a result would survive to the modern day. However, much of this furniture is from the New Kingdom of Egypt, and specifically the 18th Dynasty. Chairs from the eighteenth dynasty of Egypt had legs made out of a square sectioned wood. The tenons on the side rail passed through the top of each leg at top right angles. The rails, combined with curved braces pegged into the chair would hold up the back of the chair. The joints would have wedged to give the frame rigidity. The webbing of the sting passes through holes drilled into the chair. A vertical bridle joint connected to the legs springs off two vertical back legs. The legs of the chairs would be made in the style of animals. Some legs were of oxen, Amenhotep III is depicted as being seated on a low-back lion legged chair. Sometimes the back support of the chairs would be added through an upright cut into a piece of wood. The top rail of the back support would be held together by upright extensions. Beneath these extensions would lie a frame of the back support which would enclose vertical panels.

Another open back chair has finely carved legs shaped like a lion. The back legs of this chair are not extended like the previous chair; however, an additional vertical element is jointed to the seat above and the back legs. Seven inclined boards are used to ouch or ''klinē'', in metal and reconstructed woconstruct the back panels of the chair. Between each of these boards thinner stringing strips of alternatively colored wood. The outer strips are miter in the corners and the panels are framed with horizontal strips of wood. A single elbowed bracket and a pin joint are used to hold the seat together. The elbow bracket is made of a light colored wood with dark veneers, which were cut to fit the shape of the wood. They were then attached to the side rails and the back support by dowels.

A different kind of open back chair was found at Lahun. Each joint was glued and held together by two dowels. Although a single dowel was used to mortise, tenoned, and dwell the seats to the side rail. A hole would be drilled through the joints allowing string to pass through it, strengthening the seat frame. Mortise and tenons on the would be used to attach the chairs back panel. The chairs back panel was constructed out of vertical panels of wood placed into frame. The outer frame was mortised and tenoned together. Horizontal joints would be used to joint together the bottom rail and vertical rail of the frame. In the Metropolitan Museum of Art an ancient Egyptian chair is preserved. This chair is constructed out of buxus and acaia wood. The seat is supported by lion shaped legs on a drum. Many opposing colored wood panels and strips were used to make the back of the chair. On another frame of wood placed above this symbols of the god Bes were carved. A similar chair has been preserved by the National Museum of Scotland; however, the seat of this chair is supported by four round-top legs which are transfixed at right angles by the seat rails.

In a tomb belonging to Senenmut's mother Hatnofer a chair made of boxwood and ebony has been found. The seat of the chair was made of string mesh composed of triple stands of linen cords interwoven into a herring bone pattern. Its legs are carved to look like lion legs. Mortise and tenon joints were used to hold the chair together. An openwork design of the god Bes also appears on the chair. It is flanked by symbols of Isis and Osiris made of ebony. This chair did not belong to Senenmut, it belonged to his mother Hatnofer. Another chair, of a similar type to Hatnofer's chair, had a wooden back frame with no marquetry that enclosed five vertical slats. A dark reddish hardwood was used to build this chair. This chair was once veneered with strips of ebony and ivory. Lion shaped legs were used to support the chair.

Double cove chairs were rare in ancient Egypt. One example, likely paid for through tributes or commerce, has legs fashioned like lions and ivory claws. The "shoes" were made of ivory, gold, and gilded bronze. It is set upon gilded bronze drums. This was done to elevate the user, both literally and metaphorically. Ebony, which was rare and valuable in ancient Egypt was used to make the chair. Four wooden stretchers would be docked between the lion legs with dowels. This would be reinforced with gilded bronze. Dowels from each stretcher extended to the seat of the chair. Thus reinforcing it.

File:Reniseneb's Chair.png, Renseneb's Chair
File:Hatnefer's Chair.png, Hatnofer's Chair
File:Depiction on the back of a chair.png, A depiction on the back of Hatnofer's chair. The amulets are on the sides. The pillars on the ends.
File:Egyptian Bed or Chair Legs.png, Egyptian Bed or Chair Legs from the New Kingdom. The left one is of a bull, the right is of another animal.
File:Egyptian Armchair With a cushion hanging over its back.png, Egyptian Armchair with a cushion hanging over its back
File:A lion-legged Egyptian Chair.png, A lion legged Egyptian chair
File:Chair with box seat and vulture arm.png, Chair with a box seat and a vulture arm
File:Ancient Egyptian Chair.png, An Egyptian chair, one of the oldest in the world
File:Amenhotep III sitting in a Lion legged chair.png, Amenhotep III sitting in a Lion legged chair. (1411-1375 BCE).

= Chairs from the Tomb of Tutankhamen

=
The chairs from Tutankhamen's tomb were highly decorated with imported ebony and ivory inlay. They were also made for ceremonial purposes. Funerary paraphernalia was common amongst these chairs.

A child's chair with lion legs fashioned from wood and sat upon drums carved from bronze plates beaten around wooden plates was found in the Tomb of Tutankhamen. The entire frame of this chair was gessoed. Three vertical members were used to support the back rest. A hawk with partially open wings holding a cartouche of the kings name is depicted on the panel.
Another chair found in the Tomb of Tutankhamen was likely made of cedar wood and it had feline legs placed on a drum covered in gold sheet and set upon bronze pads. The claws of the chair are inlaid with ivory. Three gold capped dowels, along with a mortise and tenon would be used to pin the legs to the seat. Two cartouches, each being of the Pharaohs name are on the sides of this symbol. Three carved panels jointed into both the bottom and the top rails are used to make the openwork carving on the chair. Images of the god Heh holding an ankh and palm stems. Some of these are the heads of dowels connected to the elements.

A golden chair from Tutankhamen's tomb has no double cove seat, and it is covered in gold sheet. While the drum is covered in bronze. Part of the Pschent is depicted on the chair. It is made of silver and depicted on wood. Turquoise colored glass is used to inlay the claws. Decorative Lower Egyptian papyrus flowers and Upper Egyptian lilly ornaments are beneath the seat. A sing depicting the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt is also present on the underside of the chair. Both of the legs have lion's heads as a capital. A single golden sheet would have been beaten and worked around a wooden core. The eyes would have been inlaid inside of this. This resembles a uraeus cobra wearing the Pschent supporting a cartouche of the kings name.

Stools

Stools did not come into being in Egypt until the 18th Dynasty. Still, the majority of people did not have chairs, so stools were most people's only option for comfortable seating. This resulting in stools becoming one of the most common kinds of furniture. They were usually made with four legs, a slightly curved seat, and latticework bracing. The most simple ones were made of three legs with a solid, flat, wooden slab seat. Another type of folding stool had crossed legs and a leather fabric seat. This stool used goose and duck heads to form the lower end of the seat. It is likely this kind of stool was used for personal travel. Three small 18th Dynasty stools have plaited rush seats and short sturdy legs. Such stools, despite being six inches high and a foot square, were employed as seats rather than footstools. Other 18th Dynasty chairs had four slender cylindrical legs with waisted lower parts decorated with bands of incised rings. Light horizontal stretchers found within the legs indicate that all parts of the stool were the same in the three primary dimensions. This chair was made of a dark heavy hardwood, likely tamarisk, and a light softwood, possibly pine. The rushwork seats were made of string mesh and leather. Ceremonial stools would be blocks of stone or wood. If the stool was made out of wood it would have a flint seat. Footstools were made of wood. The Royal Footstool had enemies of Egypt painted on the footstool, so that way the pharaoh could symbolically crush them. Stools used by the upper-class would have upward sweeping corners and woven leather seats, with a padded cushion on top.

Beds

Most Egyptians did not use beds as only the wealthy had access to them. Ancient beds found in the tombs of Tutankhamen and Hetepheres tended to resemble that of an animal, usually a bull. The beds sloped up towards the head, and down towards the foot. To prevent the sleeper from falling off the bed, there was a wooden footboard. Wood or ivory headrests were used instead of pillows. It is possible that the headrests served ceremonial purposes. They may have been used exclusively for the heads of dead pharaohs. To upholster the beds, leather and fabrics were used to support the mattress; Egyptians would weave leather strips into the open holes of the bed frame. Royal beds would often be gilded and richly decorated. Beds were constructed out of wood and had a simple framework that was supported by four legs. A plaited flax cord was lashed to the side of the framework. The flax cords were used in weaving together opposite sides of the framework to form an elastic surface for the user. Also found inside of the tomb of Hetepheres, was a royal canopy. This royal canopy was encased in gold, and from it hung curtains. Either for privacy or to keep out insects.

Other beds consisted of a simple frame standing on short legs, with a network of lacing to support a mattress pad of folded linen. A typical bed sloped down from head to foot, ending in a vertical footboard. The frame had a series of holes drilled to accommodate the cross lacing that provided the sleeping surface.

Another kind of bed was called a box-bed. These structures were built into the wall and were painted with images of Bes and Taweret demonstrating a fertility function. Some box-beds contain limestone headrests, and a fragment of a female statue. This indicates that the box-bed may have been used for sexual purposes. Another theory is that these beds were used for childbirth. However, this is unlikely, as the beds would not be suitable for the way childbirth was practiced in ancient Egypt. In Egypt, the mother would squat whilst giving birth, this was impossible in this bad.

Tables

Tables were rare in ancient Egypt. The earliest Egyptian tables were carved from stone and made with very low projections to keep the table surface off the ground. Later, in the Old Kingdom, tables would develop longer legs and be braced with a stretcher between them. The most common tables were either round, square, or oblong. Round tables were usually made of a circular flat summit which was supported by a single leg in the center. Some had three legs, and large tables had four legs. Sometimes a figure of a man, usually representative of a captive, was used to support the table instead of a leg. Tables were made of wood, willow, or wicker. Although some were made of metal or stone. They were used for games and dining. A game called Mehen would be played on a one legend table carved or inlaid into the shape of a snake. The Egyptians also had offering tables made of stone which would be placed in home shrines or tombs. Lightweight tables could be made of reeds. Most Egyptians did not have access to tables, instead stands were commonly used.

Materials

Wood

Wood was a common material used in furniture production despite its scarcity. The woods native to Egypt were incredibly rare and of inferior quality to woods imported from elsewhere. The most common types of wood were sycamore, elm, date palm, poplar, turkey oak, spruce, olive wood, walnut, oak, sidr, ash, cypress, acacia, box, chestnut and tamarisk. Maple, beech, and cherry were also used. However, their usage was far more limited than the other woods. Carob, figs, doum palm