Amitābha Buddha

Amitābha (, "Measureless" or "Limitless" Light), also known as Amituofo in Chinese, Amida in Japanese and Öpakmé in Tibetan, is one of the main Buddhas of Mahayana Buddhism and the most widely venerated Buddhist figure in East Asian Buddhism.阿彌陀 Amitâbha
Digital Dictionary of Buddhism Amitābha is also known by the name Amitāyus ("Measureless Life").

Amitābha is the main figure in two influential Indian Buddhist Mahayana Scriptures: the '' Sutra of Measureless Life'' and the '' Amitābha Sūtra''. According to the ''Sutra of Measureless Life'', Amitābha established a pure land of perfect peace and happiness, called Sukhāvatī ("Blissful"), where beings who mindfully remember him with faith may be reborn and then quickly attain enlightenment. The pure land is the result of a set of vows Amitābha made long ago. As his name means Limitless Light, Amitābha's light is said to radiate throughout the cosmos and shine on all beings. Because of this, Amitābha is often depicted radiating light, a symbol for his wisdom.Williams (2008), p. 240. As per the name Amitāyus, this Buddha is also associated with infinite life, since his lifespan is said to be immeasurable. Amitābha's measureless life is seen as being related to his infinite compassion.

Amitābha devotion is particularly prominent in East Asian Buddhism, where the practice of mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha (known as ''nianfo'' in Chinese, ''nembutsu'' in Japanese) is seen as a path to liberation open to everyone. Amitābha is also the principal Buddha in Pure Land Buddhism, which is a tradition focused on attaining birth in the pure land by relying on the power of Amitābha (also known as "Other Power") and faithfully reciting Amitabha's name. Amitābha is also a major deity in Tibetan Buddhism. where he is associated with pure land practices, as well as phowa (the transference of consciousness at the time of death).

The names Amitāyus and Amitābha (in various Chinese transliterations and translations) are used interchangeably in East Asian Buddhism. In Tibetan Buddhism however, Amitāyus is distinguished from Amitābha, and they are depicted differently in Himalayan art. Amitāyus is also known as a Buddha of long life in Tibetan Buddhism. In East Asian Buddhism, Amitābha is most often depicted as part of a triad with the two bodhisattvas Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta. In Tibetan Buddhism, the triad includes Avalokiteśvara and Vajrapani (or Padmasambhava) instead.

Indian Mahayana sources

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Origin of the Amida Triad（阿弥陀三尊）in Gandhāra.
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In the ''Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtras''

The most influential Amitābha focused Mahayana sutras are two sutras known by the Sanskrit title ''Sukhāvatī-vyūha'' (''Blissful Array,'' or the ''Array of Sukhāvatī'')''.'' These two are the '' Short Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'' (also known as the ''Amitābha Sutra'') and the ''Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'' (also known as the ''Sutra of Infinite Life''). These sutras are the main Indian Mahayana sources for the teachings on Amitābha and his pure land. In these sutras, Amitābha is a transcendent and immortal Buddha who resides in a pure buddhafield that he created. This pure land is located billions of worlds away in the western direction and all beings can attain rebirth there, where they can swiftly become Buddhas themselves.

According to the '' Sūtra of Limitless Life'', eons ago, Amitābha was a bodhisattva monk named Dharmākara. In some versions of the sūtra, Dharmākara is described as a former king who, having come into contact with Buddhist teachings through the buddha Lokeśvararāja, renounced his throne and became a monk. For five eons ( kalpas), Dharmākara contemplated all the qualities of all the pure buddhafields (realms created a Buddha existing outside of ordinary reality) throughout the cosmos. He then resolved to become a Buddha and to create the best of all pure buddha-fields possessed of many supreme qualities.Williams (2008), pp. 240-242Jones (2021), pp. 4-6.

The sutra then recounts how Dharmākara made a series of bodhisattva vows (''praṇidhāna''), pledging that unless these vows were fulfilled, he would not attain Buddhahood. Different versions of the text list varying numbers of these vows (the most common sutra contains forty eight vows), which serves as the foundation for Pure Land doctrine. These solemn resolutions set out the type of pure land Dharmākara aspired to create, the conditions under which beings might be born into that world, and what kind of beings they would be. After many eons of bodhisattva practice, Dharmākara became Amitābha Buddha (his enlightenment having occurred ten kalpas ago). Since he now presides over the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī ("Utmost Bliss") in the western direction, it is understood that his vows were indeed fulfilled.

Among these " past vows", Dharmākara ensured that all beings born in his land would never fall into lower realms, and would possess golden divine bodies with many superpowers. He also vowed that they would be firmly established on the path to Buddhahood and could enjoy profound peace, happiness and an unlimited lifespan there. Amitābha’s name would be glorified by countless Buddhas, and those who sincerely place their trust in him and wish to be reborn in his Pure Land can attain birth there.

The central aspect of these vows is the ones which discuss how to attain birth in the pure land. In Pure Land Buddhism, one of the most influential passages has been the eighteenth vow, which states:

If, when I attain Buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten directions who sincerely and joyfully entrust themselves to me, desire to be born in my land, and think of me even ten times should not be born there, may I not attain perfect enlightenment. Excluded however, are those who commit the five grave offenses and abuse the Right Dharma.

This vow is also called the "original" or "fundamental" vow in East Asian Pure Land Buddhism, indicating its special status in this tradition. This vow, along with some other passages, made it possible to argue that all kinds of people would attain birth in the pure land, even very wicked, deluded and defiled persons.Jones (2021), p. 7. Barring that one did not commit the five grave acts (patricide, matricide, the murder of an arhat, harming a Buddha, causing schism in the sangha), this scripture seems to open up the possibility of birth in the pure land to everyone who faithfully thinks of the Amitābha even just ten times. A modified version of this universalist teaching (which even removes the exclusion of beings who commit the five grave acts) would become a central doctrine of Pure Land Buddhism and remains part of its lasting appeal.

The sutra also explains how, at the moment of death, Amitābha, will appear to those who have aspired to be born in Sukhāvatī. Bodhisattvas who arrive in Sukhāvatī enter the state of non-retrogression (from which there is no falling back into lower states of rebirth), and the state of "one more birth," meaning they require only one additional lifetime before attaining Buddhahood. Once in Sukhāvatī, all beings can also easily visit other pure lands to make offerings to innumerable Buddhas. In Sukhāvatī, beings are born asexually, appearing fully formed upon lotus flowers in Amitābha’s presence. Some lotuses remain closed, signifying individuals who still harbor doubts about Amitābha. Such beings remain enclosed for 500 years, experiencing their lotus as a palace, yet deprived of the Buddha’s presence. Eventually, as they dispel their doubts, they emerge from this period of purification and witness the splendor of Amitābha.

Both versions of the ''Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'' provide various descriptions which may have served as a guide for meditating on Amitābha within his Pure Land. According to the sutras, those aspiring to be reborn there should cultivate bodhicitta, listen to Amitābha’s name, contemplate him, pray for rebirth in his land, and accumulate merit as a basis for their future birth. Given these conditions, rebirth in Sukhāvatī and eventual enlightenment are significantly more accessible than striving for Buddhahood under the harsh conditions of this world, which is Amitābha Buddha's ultimate intent for creating the pure land. This teaching about an easily accessible afterlife made Amitābha a popular Buddha in Gandhara, from where it spread Central Asia and East Asia.

Regarding the ''Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'', this text primarily describes the various features of Sukhāvatī and further clarifies the methods of attaining rebirth there. It describes, for example, how the birds and trees of Sukhāvatī, themselves manifestations of Amitābha, continuously sing song of the Dharma. According to this sūtra, rebirth in Sukhāvatī is achieved by sincerely holding Amitābha’s name in mind with undistracted focus for one to seven days—an application of the ancient meditation known as ''buddhānusmṛti'' (recollection of the Buddha).

The nature of Amitābha

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The The Amitāyus Sutra, Larger ''Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'' describes the Buddha Amitābha as having a body that radiates limitless light throughout the ten directions. The sutra states:

The majestic radiance of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life is exalted and supreme; the radiance of other Buddhas cannot compare with it. Some Buddhas’ light shines upon a hundred Buddha-lands, and other Buddhas’ light shines upon a thousand Buddha-lands. Briefly stated, the light of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life illuminates all the Buddha-lands.....Sentient beings who encounter this light have the three defilements swept away, and they become soft and gentle in body and mind. They leap and dance with joy, and the good mind arises in them. When those suffering pain and travail in the three evil realms see this light, they all find respite and become free of afflictions. After their lives have ended, they will all gain emancipation. The light of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life is resplendent and brilliantly illuminates the lands of the Buddhas throughout the ten quarters; there is no place where it is not heard. It is not I alone who praise this light now; all Buddhas, sravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas together praise it just as I do.

In the Larger ''Sukhāvatīvyūha,'' Shakyamuni also describes the Buddha Amitābha's light as inconceivable and ultimate indescribable, saying that he "could never describe it completely", even if he spent eons trying.

Regarding the lifespan of Amitābha, the Larger ''Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'' states that it is "everlasting and beyond reckoning", totally beyond any calculation or thought.

Both ''Sukhāvatīvyūha'' sūtras also proclaim Buddha Amitābha's special status, by stating that he is praised and revered by all the Buddhas of the ten quarters and that all Buddhas teach their retinues about birth in Amitābha's Pure Land.

References in other sutras

Amitābha is also mentioned in numerous other Buddhist sources. Kenneth Tanaka notes that "Thirty one Sanskrit texts and over one hundred Chinese and Tibetan translations refer to Amitābha* and/or Sukhavati.*"Tanaka, Kenneth K. 1990. ''The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist Doctrine: Ching-ying Hui-yüanʼs Commentary on the Visualization Sutra,'' p. 12. Albany: State University of New York Press.The earliest Buddhist sutra mentioning Amitābha is the translation into Chinese of the '' Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra'' (般舟三昧經; ''Bozhōu Sānmèi Jīng'') by the Kushan monk . This text has been dated to between the 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE by modern buddhologists and may have been translated from the Gandhari language (a fragment of which was discovered in 2018). Other important Mahayana texts which mention Amitabha and his pure land of Sukhavati include the '' Ajitasena Sutra'', the ''Lotus Sutra'', the '' Nirvana Sutra'', the '' Mahāmegha Sutra,'' and the '' Samādhirāja Sūtra.Schopen, Gregory. "The Inscription on the Kuṣān Image of Amitābha and the Character of Early Mahāyāna in India". Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 10 (1987): 99–137'' There are also several Indian ''Dhāraṇī sutras'' (sutras focused on specific magical chants) which are focused on Amitābha including various editions of the '' Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dhāraṇī,'' as well as the ''Sūtra of the Dhāraṇī of the King of the Sound of Amitābha’s Drum,'' the ''Anantamukhanirhāra-dhāraṇī'' and the ''Fundamental Dhāraṇī of Immeasurable Life Tathagata'' (T.930)''.''

Jeff Wilson writes that over a fifth of the sutras in the Taishō Tripiṭaka reference Amitābha, but three sutras in particular have become seen as canonical in East Asian Buddhism: the two ''Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtras'' discussed above and the '' Amitāyus Contemplation Sūtra.'' The ''Contemplation Sūtra'' is believed to have been translated into Chinese by Kalayāśas in the early fifth century and belongs to a group of texts focused on the visualization of Buddhas.Williams (2008), pp. 242-243 Unlike other Pure Land sūtras, the ''Contemplation Sūtra'' emphasizes meditative practices to have a vision of Amitābha, including thirteen stages of visualization. These include meditating on the setting sun, pure water turning into beryl, and eventually visualizing the entire Pure Land with its jeweled pavilions, lotus throne, Amitāyus (Amitābha), and his attendant Bodhisattvas, Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta.file:Welcoming descent of Amida Buddha and twenty-five bodhisattvas.jpg, A scroll depicting the "Welcoming Descent" (Ch: laiying, Jp: raigo) of Amida Buddha and Twenty-five Bodhisattvas coming to guide a dying person to the pure land, 1668, Japan, Edo period. Metropolitan Museum of Art, MET.The sūtra also explains that even those guilty of the five gravest transgressions may, just before death, encounter a virtuous teacher who instructs them in the Buddha’s Dharma. If such a person sincerely calls upon Amitāyus’ name ten times, their accumulated negative karma will be purified, and they will be reborn within a lotus bud in Sukhāvatī. After twelve eons, the lotus will bloom, and the individual will behold Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta, who will preach the Dharma and inspire them to cultivate bodhicitta. This sūtra became a cornerstone of the Pure Land tradition, as it offers hope to all people. Its emphasis on salvation through Amitābha’s boundless compassion extends even to the most evil individuals.

In Mahayana treatises

Some Mahāyāna treatises mention Amitābha. The '' Dasabhumikavibhāsā'' (十住毘婆沙論, T.1521), which is traditionally ascribed to Nāgārjuna and survives only in a Chinese translation by Kumārajīva (344-413), teaches the "easy" practice of maintaining constant mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha as a way to attain birth in the pure land.Jones 2019, pp. 25, 37. The authorship of this text has been disputed by some scholars, including Akira Hirakawa.

Vasubandhu (fl. 4th to 5th century CE) is traditionally credited with composing the ''Discourse on the Pure Land'' (T.1524), a commentary on the ''Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra,'' which only survives in Chinese translation by the Indian translator Bodhiruci (6th century). This work outlines a five-part practice that may have functioned as a visualization meditation.Jones 2019, p. 37. Amitābha and his pure are also briefly discussed by Vasubandhu's brother Asanga in his ''Mahāyānasaṃgraha.''

The author of the ''Ratnagotravibhāga'' concludes the text with the following dedication to Amitāyus: "By the merit I have acquired through ritingthis reatise may all living beings come to perceive the Lord Amitāyus* endowed with infinite light."

History and archeology

280px, Gandharan sculpture depicting “Amitabha preaching in Sukhavati,” 2nd century CE, from the site of Muhammad Nari (present-day northwestern Pakistan). Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh">Pakistan.html" ;"title="Muhammad Nari (present-day northwestern Pakistan">Muhammad Nari (present-day northwestern Pakistan). Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh.
According to Kenneth Tanaka, Amitābha Buddha emerged as a central figure in the Gandharan Buddhism of the first century CE.Tanaka (1990''),'' pp. 3-4. Marchman, Kendall R. ''Huaigan and the Growth of Pure Land Buddhism During the Tang Era'', pp. 39-44. Phd Diss. 2015. Numerous Amitābha Buddhist art, Buddha images have been discovered in the Greater Gandhāra region (in modern Pakistan and Afghanistan) from about the first century CE onwards during the Kushan era (30–375 CE). This, along with evidence which suggests that the two main Pure Land sutras were written in the Gandhari language, indicates that Amitābha rose to prominence in Gandharan Buddhism (and in the greater Kushana Empire) during the first century CE.

Regarding the main historical source of the figure of Amitābha, some Western scholars have proposed possible influences on Buddhism from Zoroastrian deities (Ahura Mazda or Zurvan) or from Brahmanical deities or concepts (such as the sun god Surya or the immortality nectar Amritā). Japanese scholars like Kōtatsu Fujita meanwhile tend to place the origin of Amitābha Buddha squarely within Buddhist tradition.Tanaka (1990''),'' p. 8. 330x330px, A painting of Amitabha discovered at Dunhuang Other scholars, especially Japanese authors, cite various passages from earlier Buddhist sources which mention Shakyamuni Buddha radiating light rays and which state that his lifespan is immeasurable. Such ideas seem to have been most common in the early Buddhist Mahāsāṃghika tradition, who promoted the docetic idea that the Buddha was ultimately a transcendent (lokottara) being who nevertheless manifested a magical body on earth.Pas, Julian F. (1995). ''Visions of Sukhavati: Shan-Tao's Commentary on the Kuan Wu-liang- Shou-Fo Ching'', pp. 14-16. Albany, State University of New York Press, One of their sutras is cited by Vasumitra (in a passage that was translated three times by different Chinese figures) as stating that "the form body (''rupakaya''), supernatural power (''prabhāva'') and lifespan (''ayus'') of a Buddha is unlimited (''ananta'')."Willemen, Charles; Tsukamoto Keisho (2004).
Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable, The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines
', pp. 97-101. Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Julian Pas also notes that, in the version translated by Kumārajīva, Vasumitra's passage speaks of the limitless light of the Buddha ("kuan-ming-wu-liang"), which could be a translation of ''abha amita.''

Another Mahāsāṃghika (Lokottaravāda) source, the '' Mahāvastu,'' states: "the purity of the Buddha is so great that the worship of the Exalted One is sufficient for the attainment of Nirvāna" and "from the Buddha’s smile, there radiate beams which illuminate all buddhafields." Pas sees the Mahāsāṃghika as promoting a kind of Buddhist bhakti (devotional) movement. These connections with early Mahāsāṃghika doctrines indicate the possibility that Amitābha may have initially signified the limitless lifespan and radiance of the Buddha, pointing to the transcendent dimensions of the historical Buddha Shakyamuni. Since the Mahāsāṃghika school was also active in the northwest of India and as far north as Bamiyan (Afghanistan), Pas argues that they are a likely source for the ideas that influenced the rise of the devotional cultus of Amitābha in northwest India, Gandhara, and Bactria.Pas, Julian F. (1995). ''Visions of Sukhavati: Shan-Tao's Commentary on the Kuan Wu-liang- Shou-Fo Ching'', pp. 26-30. Albany, State University of New York Press,

The first known epigraphic evidence for Amitābha is the bottom part of a statue found in Govindnagar, Pakistan and now located at Government Museum, Mathura. The statue is dated to "the 26th year of the reign of " i.e., 104 CE. It is a work of Kushan art, made during the Kushan Empire (30–375 CE), and was dedicated to "Amitābha Buddha" by a family of merchants.

Gregory Schopen translates the inscription as follows:

The 26th year of the Great King Huveṣka, the 2nd month, the 26th day. On this day by Nāgarakṣita, the (father) of the trader (Sax-caka), the grandson of the merchant Balakatta, the (son of Buddhapila), an image of the Blessed One, the Buddha Amitābha was set up for the worship of all buddhas. Through this root of merit (may) all living things (obtain) the unexcelled knowledge of a buddha.

Another early epigraphic mention of Amitabha (c. 610 CE) is found in Patan (Lalitpur). It is a verse which states: "I praise Amitabha, the best, dispeller of illusion by the light of great prajña. The light, victor who lives in Sukhavati with Lokesvara, the destroyer of the fear arising in the world, bearer of the lotus, and Mahasthamaprapta, the affectionate-hearted one." One of the last Indian sculptures of Amitābha can be found in the trademark black stone of the Pala Empire (c. 750–1161 CE), which was the last Buddhist empire of India.

The appearance of sculptural remains dating to the end of the second century suggests that Amitābha was becoming popular in the first and second centuries CE in Gandhara and Central Asia. Apart from the Gandhara region, not much evidence has been found for extensive Amitabha worship in the rest of the Indian subcontinent before the 8th century. During the 8th century, the Chinese monk Cimin Huiri visited India and learned about Pure Land Amitabha devotion there.

From its initial home in Greater Gandhāra, Amitābha worship and its images quickly spread via the Silk road to Central Asian kingdoms like Khotan, and then to China as well as Southeast Asian regions like Indonesia. The earliest dated Amitābha image in China is from the Longmen Grottoes and is dated to 519 CE. During the Sui Dynasty (581–618) and the succeding Tang dynasty, China saw a growth in the creation of Amitabha images and paintings. Some exemplary Amitabha art from this period can be found in Dunhuang.

In East Asian Buddhism

Chinese Buddhism

Amitābha is one of the most important Buddhas in Chinese Buddhism. Some of the earliest evidence for Amitābha devotion is found in the works of Zhi Dun (314–366), a Neo-Daoist convert to Buddhism. The Chinese translations of Kumārajīva (344–413 CE), Buddhabhadra (359–429 CE), and others introduced the main Pure Land Sutras to Chinese Buddhists.

In China, "Buddha recollection" (Skt: buddhānusmṛti, Ch: nianfo) based on Amitābha became the central practice of Pure Land Buddhism, a tradition which developed gradually through the writings and teachings of several key Chinese monks that lived from the Northern Wei (386–534) period to the Tang dynasty (618 to 907). Key figures in this tradition include Tanluan (476–554), Daochuo (562–645), Shandao (613–681), Huaigan (c. 7th century) and Fazhao (746–838). These Pure Land masters promoted and defended the view that any type of person could reach Amitābha's Pure Land (and immediately attain the state of non-retrogression) through relatively easy and accessible practices like reciting or chanting Amitābha's name. They argued that this practice was effective due to Amitābha's compassionate Other Power, which was the dominant cause for one's birth in the pure land (where one could attain Buddhahood much more swiftly and easily). This made Amitābha centered Pure Land Buddhism a very popular practice among laypeople and commoners who did not have the time for extensive meditation or other Buddhist practices.

Regarding the nature of Amitābha Buddha himself, Pure Land masters like Daochuo and Shandao argued that Amitābha was a ''saṃbhogakāya'' (self-enjoyment body) Buddha. This view ran counter to the previously popular idea which saw Amitābha as a ''nirmāṇakāya'' (transformation body) Buddha, like Shakyamuni Buddha.Cheung, Tak-ching Neky. and 張德貞. �
A comparative study of the pure land teachings of Shandao (613-681) and Shinran (1173-1262).”
(2001).

A ''saṃbhogakāya'' is a divine body associated with more transcendent Buddhas which are beyond the triple world and have unlimited lifespans. A ''nirmāṇakāya'' meanwhile is a form body which is more contingent and human-like (though still supramundane), and also has a limited lifespan and manifests a nirvana which appears as death or cessation. As such, saṃbhogakāyas have a higher ontological status in the classic Mahayana schema of the triple body (trikaya). Some Indian Mahayana works state that saṃbhogakāyas are only visible and accessible to bodhisattvas who have entered the bodhisattva stages. In spite of this, Shandao and other Pure Land masters affirmed that Amitābha and his pure land were a saṃbhogakāya ''and'' also that it was accessible to all kinds of beings. According to Shandao, this is only possible because of the great compassionate Other Power of Amitābha Buddha.Cheung, Tak-ching Neky. and 張德貞. �
A comparative study of the pure land teachings of Shandao (613-681) and Shinran (1173-1262).”
(2001).

Amitābha devotion also became an important current within other Chinese Buddhist traditions, like the Tiantai, Sanlun, and Vinaya schools. During the Song dynasty (960–1279), Tiantai monks such as Shengchang, Ciyun Zunshi, and Siming Zhili, founded Pure Land societies which focused on the recitation of Amitābha's name.Jones (2019), p. 110. Later eras saw further doctrinal refinements of Chinese Amitābha devotion, with the writings of scholars like Yuan Hongdao (1568–1610) and Ouyi Zhixu (1599–1655).Jones (2019), p. 68, 87.Williams (2008)'','' p. 253. During the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), scholars of the Huayan school like Peng Shaosheng (1740–1796) also adopted and wrote on Amitābha devotion, identifying Amitābha Buddha with Vairocana, the cosmic Buddha of the '' Avatamsaka Sutra''.

The recitation of Amitābha's name is a widespread practice among contemporary Chinese Buddhists (and other Buddhists in the East Asian mainland).Jones (2021), pp. 96-107 This practice known as ''nianfo'' () in Chinese and ''nembutsu'' in Japanese and entails the recitation or chanting (melodic or monotone) of the phrase 南無阿彌陀佛 (Mandarin: Nāmó Āmítuófó) which means "Homage to Amitābha Buddha". Aside from being a popular chant and meditation, this phrase is also seen as auspicious and is reproduced in many ways including calligraphy scrolls, public inscriptions, charms, amulets, altarpieces and electronic devices.

Japanese Buddhism

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Amitābha also became a central figure for Buddhism in Japan">Japanese Buddhism