Ahmed Izzet Pasha (1864 – 31 March 1937

Ottoman Turkish Ottoman Turkish (, ; ) was the standardized register of the Turkish language in the Ottoman Empire (14th to 20th centuries CE). It borrowed extensively, in all aspects, from Arabic and Persian. It was written in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet. ...

: احمد عزت پاشا), known as Ahmet İzzet Furgaç after the Turkish

Surname Law The Surname Law () of the Republic of Turkey is a law adopted on 21 June 1934, requiring all citizens of Turkey to adopt the use of fixed, hereditary surnames. Prior to 1934, Turkish families in the major urban centres had names by which they were ...

of 1934, was a Turkish-Albanian soldier and statesman. He was a general during

World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...

and also one of the last

Grand Viziers Grand vizier (; ; ) was the title of the effective head of government of many sovereign states in the Islamic world. It was first held by officials in the later Abbasid Caliphate. It was then held in the Ottoman Empire, the Mughal Empire, the Soko ...

of the

Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...

(14 October 1918 – 8 November 1918) and its last

Minister of Foreign Affairs In many countries, the ministry of foreign affairs (abbreviated as MFA or MOFA) is the highest government department exclusively or primarily responsible for the state's foreign policy and foreign relations, relations, diplomacy, bilateralism, ...

Early life

Ahmed Izzet was born in Nasliç (Neapoli),

Manastir Vilayet The Vilayet of Manastir () was a first-level administrative division (vilayet) of the Ottoman Empire, created in 1874, dissolved in 1877 and re-established in 1879. The vilayet was occupied during the First Balkan War in 1912 and divided between t ...

, into an

Albanian Albanian may refer to: *Pertaining to Albania in Southeast Europe; in particular: **Albanians, an ethnic group native to the Balkans **Albanian language **Albanian culture **Demographics of Albania, includes other ethnic groups within the country ...

family.W.E.D. Allen and Paul Muratoff, Caucasian Battlefields, A History of Wars on the Turco-Caucasian Border, 1828-1921, 376, n 1. His father, Haydar Bey, was a prominent civil servant of the area and a former governor. He graduated from

Kuleli Military High School Kuleli Military High School was the oldest military high school in Turkey, located in Çengelköy, Istanbul, on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus strait. It was founded on 21 September 1845, by Ottoman Sultan Abdülmecid I. After the 2016 Turkish ...

in 1881, the Harbiye School in 1884, and the General Staff School the following year. From 1887 to 1890 he was educated in strategy and military geography in the

Ottoman Military College The Ottoman Military College or Imperial Military Staff College or Ottoman Army War College ( or ), was a two-year military staff college of the Ottoman Empire. It was located in İstanbul. Its mission was to educate staff officers for the Ott ...

,Harp Akademileri Komutanlığı, ''Harp Akademilerinin 120 Yılı'', İstanbul, 1968, p. 19. while later until 1894 he studied in

Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...

under

Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz Wilhelm Leopold Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz (12 August 1843 – 19 April 1916), also known as ''Goltz Pasha'', was a Prussian field marshal and military writer. Early life and ancestry Goltz was born in Adlig Bielkenfeld, East Prussia (later ...

. After returning home in 1894, he served in various positions in

Istanbul Istanbul is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, largest city in Turkey, constituting the country's economic, cultural, and historical heart. With Demographics of Istanbul, a population over , it is home to 18% of the Demographics ...

Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...

Palestine Palestine, officially the State of Palestine, is a country in West Asia. Recognized by International recognition of Palestine, 147 of the UN's 193 member states, it encompasses the Israeli-occupied West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and th ...

, and

Sofia Sofia is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Bulgaria, largest city of Bulgaria. It is situated in the Sofia Valley at the foot of the Vitosha mountain, in the western part of the country. The city is built west of the Is ...

Military career

During the Greco-Turkish War he played key roles in the planning of the

Battle of Domokos The Battle of Domokos () took place between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Greece. This battle was a part of the Greco-Turkish War (1897). Background After Greece tried to annex the island Crete the Ottoman porte declared war on Greece. T ...

and Çatalca. Though he was promoted to the rank of

Miralay ''Miralay'' or ''Mîr-i alay'' (Gendarmerie: ''Alaybeyi'') was a military rank of the Ottoman Army and Navy. The modern Turkish equivalent is ''Albay'', meaning Colonel. ''Miralay'' is a compound word composed of '' Mir'' (commander) and ''Ala ...

(colonel) after the war, he was arrested and interrogated before being reassigned to

Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...

. Kaiser

Wilhelm II Wilhelm II (Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albert; 27 January 18594 June 1941) was the last German Emperor and King of Prussia from 1888 until Abdication of Wilhelm II, his abdication in 1918, which marked the end of the German Empire as well as th ...

, who praised his abilities while he was in Germany, reconnected with İzzet during his trip to Syria in 1901, and pressured the government to give İzzet a promotion and some medals. He performed important duties in Syria,

Lebanon Lebanon, officially the Republic of Lebanon, is a country in the Levant region of West Asia. Situated at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian Peninsula, it is bordered by Syria to the north and east, Israel to the south ...

and

Hejaz Hejaz is a Historical region, historical region of the Arabian Peninsula that includes the majority of the western region of Saudi Arabia, covering the cities of Mecca, Medina, Jeddah, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia, Tabuk, Yanbu, Taif and Al Bahah, Al-B ...

. In January 1904, he was assigned to suppress the Yemen rebellion as the chief of staff of the

Ottoman army The Military of the Ottoman Empire () was the armed forces of the Ottoman Empire. It was founded in 1299 and dissolved in 1922. Army The Military of the Ottoman Empire can be divided in five main periods. The foundation era covers the years ...

, being stationed there for three and a half years. in March 1905, he was promoted to Mirlivâ ( brigadier general) and in 1907 to Ferik. In 1908 after the

Young Turk Revolution The Young Turk Revolution (July 1908; ) was a constitutionalist revolution in the Ottoman Empire. Revolutionaries belonging to the Internal Committee of Union and Progress, an organization of the Young Turks movement, forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II ...

İzzet became chief of the Ottoman general staff. He was opposed to the military actions of the Ottoman army under

Mahmud Shevket Pasha Mahmud Shevket Pasha (, ; 1856 – 11 June 1913)David Kenneth Fieldhouse: ''Western imperialism in the Middle East 1914-1958''. Oxford University Press, 2006 p.17 was an Ottoman military commander and statesman. During the 31 March Incident ...

against Albanian nationalists during the Albanian revolt of 1910. His strong opposition to Shevket Pasha and von der Goltz led to his dismissal and reappointment to

Yemen Yemen, officially the Republic of Yemen, is a country in West Asia. Located in South Arabia, southern Arabia, it borders Saudi Arabia to Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, the north, Oman to Oman–Yemen border, the northeast, the south-eastern part ...

, to crush another revolt, in February 1911. He was made a member of the

Ottoman Senate The Senate of the Ottoman Empire (, or ; ; lit. "Assembly of Notables"; ) was the upper house of the parliament of the Ottoman Empire, the General Assembly. Its members were appointed notables in the Ottoman government who, along with the elected ...

on 6 July 1911. During his time in high command, he played a leading role in the modernization of the Ottoman army under the supervision of German military advisors. Together with von der Goltz from the German military advisory mission, he prepared war plans in case the Ottoman Empire entered a war in the Balkans and with Russia. He advocated for a defensive war of attrition strategy, and fortified key cities like

Edirne Edirne (; ), historically known as Orestias, Adrianople, is a city in Turkey, in the northwestern part of the Edirne Province, province of Edirne in Eastern Thrace. Situated from the Greek and from the Bulgarian borders, Edirne was the second c ...

and Yanya. When he returned from Yemen on 17 November 1912, he was approached by Mehmed Talaat and Hacı Adil (Arda) to be Grand Vizier after a Unionist putsch. İzzet turned down the offer, and the CUP went ahead with their putsch on 23 January 1913. Shevket was elevated to the premiership instead but was subsequently assassinated 6 months later. In his place, İzzet was appointed

War Minister A ministry of defence or defense (see spelling differences), also known as a department of defence or defense, is the part of a government responsible for matters of defence and military forces, found in states where the government is divided ...

in the

Said Halim Pasha Mehmed Said Halim Pasha (; ; 18 or 28 January 1865 or 19 February 1864 – 6 December 1921) was a writer and statesman who served as the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire from 1913 to 1917. He was one of the perpetrators of the Armenian genocide ...

cabinet. Towards the end of the

Balkan Wars The Balkan Wars were two conflicts that took place in the Balkans, Balkan states in 1912 and 1913. In the First Balkan War, the four Balkan states of Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg), Greece, Kingdom of Serbia, Serbia, Kingdom of Montenegro, M ...

, he served in the

Army of Thrace The Army of Thrace () was a field army of the Hellenic Army in 1920–1922. It was created out of the National Defence Army Corps on 3 June 1920, and proceeded to occupy Eastern Thrace, defeating the local Ottoman forces led by Djafer Tayyar. Fol ...

and was deputy commander in chief. İzzet Pasha resigned from the War Ministry in January 1914 when he refused to implement army reforms demanded by the CUP. Ismail Enver took his place with much protest by İzzet, due to his junior rank. When

Ismail Qemali Ismail Qemali, or Ismail Kemal, (; 16 January 184426 January 1919), was an Albanian politician and statesman who is regarded as the founder of modern Independent Albania, Albania. He served as the first Prime Minister of Albania, prime minister o ...

and

Esad Pasha Toptani Essad Toptani (1863/1875 – 13 June 1920) was an Albanian politician who served as the third prime minister of Albania from 1914 to 1916. He previously established the Republic of Central Albania based in Durrës. An Ottoman army officer, he ...

proposed that İzzet Pasha be installed as Prince of

Albania Albania ( ; or ), officially the Republic of Albania (), is a country in Southeast Europe. It is located in the Balkans, on the Adriatic Sea, Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea, and shares land borders with Montenegro to ...

, he refused. He was a fierce opponent of entering

, and did not serve in the first two years of the conflict. In 1916, he was appointed commander of the Second Army which fought in the

Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...

alongside the Third Army, and suffered defeat against the advancing Russians. In 1917, he was appointed to command the Caucasus Army Group, which comprised the

Second The second (symbol: s) is a unit of time derived from the division of the day first into 24 hours, then to 60 minutes, and finally to 60 seconds each (24 × 60 × 60 = 86400). The current and formal definition in the International System of U ...

and Third Armies. He also served as Aide-de-camp of Sultan

Mehmed VI Mehmed VI Vahideddin ( ''Meḥmed-i sâdis'' or ''Vaḥîdü'd-Dîn''; or /; 14 January 1861 – 16 May 1926), also known as ''Şahbaba'' () among the Osmanoğlu family, was the last sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the penultimate Ottoman Cal ...

during the war.

Grand Vizierate

During the end of the war, he was called upon to lead the government that signed the

Armistice of Mudros The Armistice of Mudros () ended hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between Ottoman Turkey and the Allies of World War I. It was signed on 30 October 1918 by the Ottoman Minister of Marine Affairs Rauf Bey and British Admiral Somerset ...

on behalf of the Ottoman Empire, thus putting an end to the First World War for the Ottomans (he was also promoted to

marshal Marshal is a term used in several official titles in various branches of society. As marshals became trusted members of the courts of Middle Ages, Medieval Europe, the title grew in reputation. During the last few centuries, it has been used fo ...

). He was Talaat Pasha's and also Mustafa Kemal Pasha's (Atatürk) preferred candidate for a post-war government. His government consisted mainly of the anti-war faction of the CUP, including figures such as Mehmed Cavid, Rauf (Orbay), and Fethi (Okyar). It was predicted in the

press Press may refer to: Media * Publisher * News media * Printing press, commonly called "the press" * Press TV, an Iranian television network Newspapers United States * ''The Press'', a former name of ''The Press-Enterprise'', Riverside, California ...

that Kemal Pasha was to be War Minister, but Izzet chose not to put him there, instead he himself also served concurrently as War Minister and

Foreign Minister In many countries, the ministry of foreign affairs (abbreviated as MFA or MOFA) is the highest government department exclusively or primarily responsible for the state's foreign policy and relations, diplomacy, bilateral, and multilateral r ...

. The government did not have any minorities represented in cabinet, though he recalled offering some ministries to two well respected Greek and Armenian bureaucrats. The government received a vote on confidence on 19 October 1918, with the program which described the war-time CUP's governments and its policies without criticism, and wrote of the " deportation affair" as something "compelled by the exigencies of the war." Nevertheless, the new government understood that the empire's fate would be decided in the upcoming

Paris Peace Conference Agreements and declarations resulting from meetings in Paris include: Listed by name Paris Accords may refer to: * Paris Accords, the agreements reached at the end of the London and Paris Conferences in 1954 concerning the post-war status of Germ ...

, and had to tangibly appear amenablely distant from the war-time CUP government. On the issue of the fate of non-Turkish minorities, which was described as a "great torment" suffered by the "children of the homeland", plans were announced to return the property, possessions, and provide compensation. Also discussed were new electoral laws to increase minority participation in government, the affirmation of Wilsonian principle of national self-determination, and autonomy for the Arab provinces. İzzet Pasha issued a proclamation allowing deportees the

right to return The right of return is a principle in international law which guarantees everyone's right of return to, or re-entry to, their country of citizenship. The right of return is part of the broader human rights concept of freedom of movement and is al ...

to their homes. Before his resignation he endorsed plans to form dozens of commissions that would return or compensate the losses of homes and businesses to Ottoman Greek and Armenian deportees. However these commissions often resulted in a returned property being inaccurately appraised, already looted, or occupied by resettled

muhacir The Muhacirs are estimated to be millions of Ottoman Muslim citizens and their descendants born after the onset of the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. Muhacirs are primarily consist of Turks but also Albanian, Bosniaks, Circassians, Cri ...

s. Local officials also complicated the process of return by refusing service. By 1920, 335,000 Ottoman Greek and Armenians returned to their homes, according to Ottoman press. He was dismissed on 8 November 1918. Afterwards, he was criticized for allowing all three of the

Three Pashas The Three Pashas, also known as the Young Turk triumvirate or CUP triumvirate, consisted of Mehmed Talaat Pasha, the Grand Vizier (prime minister) and Minister of the Interior; Ismail Enver Pasha, the Minister of War and Commander-in-Chief to ...

to escape abroad on the night of 2–3 November before they could be put on trial in the

Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919–20 Turkish may refer to: * Something related to Turkey ** Turkish language *** Turkish alphabet ** Turkish people, a Turkic ethnic group and nation *** Turkish citizen, a citizen of Turkey *** Turkish communities in the former Ottoman Empire * The w ...

for crimes including atrocities against the Armenians of the Empire. While most of the allies' concerns were heeded in his short ministry, he resisted prosecuting and delivering justice to the Unionists, and in his memoirs, wrote of them in positive terms. This reverence for the CUP even included the blocking of investigations of the Unionists, direct interventions for the safe passages of Special Organization members out of the capital, and the destruction of incriminating documents and archives. His naval minister and representative at Mudros,

Rauf Orbay Hüseyin Rauf Orbay (27 July 1881 – 16 July 1964) was a Turkish naval officer, statesman and diplomat of Abkhaz origin. During the Italo–Turkish and Balkan Wars he was known as the Hero of '' Hamidiye'' for his exploits as captain of the e ...

, noted that " nverPasha's protection is the duty of the government. I am personally obliged." and that they would never acquiesce to the demands of the Entente powers to prosecute Unionists. İzzet Pasha let Talat know the following: "As long as I am in the cabinet, I will never turn you over to the enemy. But who knows how long I will remain in the cabinet?" İzzet spent much of his 25-day premiership bedridden with the

Spanish flu The 1918–1920 flu pandemic, also known as the Great Influenza epidemic or by the common misnomer Spanish flu, was an exceptionally deadly global influenza pandemic caused by the H1N1 subtype of the influenza A virus. The earliest docum ...

Turkish War of Independence

Ahmed İzzet Pasha came back into government as War Minister in

Damat Ferid Pasha " Damat" Mehmed Adil Ferid Pasha ( ;‎ 1853 – 6 October 1923), known simply as Damat Ferid Pasha, was an Ottoman liberal statesman, who held the office of Grand Vizier, the ''de facto'' prime minister of the Ottoman Empire, during two ...

's cabinet. According to himself, he took important steps to reorganize Ottoman armies and prepare them for renewed combat. Under Grand Vizier

Ali Rıza Pasha Ali Rıza Pasha (1860–1932) was an Ottoman military officer and statesman, who was one of the last Grand Viziers of the Ottoman Empire, under the reign of the last Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI, between 14 October 1919 and 2 March 1920.İsmail Hâm ...

he became a sort of unofficial ambassador for the Ottoman government to the

Nationalist Movement The Nationalist Movement is a Mississippi-founded white nationalist organization with headquarters in Georgia that advocates what it calls a "pro-majority" position. It has been called white supremacist by the Associated Press and Anti-Defamati ...

, then based in

Sivas Sivas is a city in central Turkey. It is the seat of Sivas Province and Sivas District.İl Beledi ...

organized under the

Committee of Representation Committee of Representation () was the executive branch of Kemalism, Turkish nationalists before the opening of Grand National Assembly of Turkey, Turkish Grand Assembly in the 1919–1920 period. Background After the Ottoman Empire was defeated ...

. On 5 December 1920 he accompanied Salih Pasha (now former Grand Vizier) to meet with Mustafa Kemal in

Bilecik Bilecik is a city in northwestern Anatolia, Turkey. It is the seat of Bilecik Province and Bilecik District.Treaty of Sèvres The Treaty of Sèvres () was a 1920 treaty signed between some of the Allies of World War I and the Ottoman Empire, but not ratified. The treaty would have required the cession of large parts of Ottoman territory to France, the United Kingdom, ...

. After the conference, Mustafa Kemal did not allow the two to return to Istanbul, and detained them in Ankara for three months. He was eventually allowed to return to Istanbul in March 1921, where upon İzzet Pasha became Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Tevfik Pasha cabinet. He remained in this position until the dissolution of the Ottoman government on 4 November 1922, making him the last Ottoman foreign minister. İzzet's acceptance of the job meant he was harshly criticized by Kemal in his famous 1927 speech, because he promised Kemal that he would not serve in an Istanbul cabinet while in Ankara. İzzet Pasha was accused of "preserving his support for the caliph until the end of his life."

Republic

After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and the subsequent loss of the title of

pasha Pasha (; ; ) was a high rank in the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman political and military system, typically granted to governors, generals, dignitary, dignitaries, and others. ''Pasha'' was also one of the highest titles in the 20th-century Kingdom of ...

after the establishment of the

Turkish Republic Turkish Republic may refer to: * Turkey, archaically the "Turkish Republic" * Northern Cyprus Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a ''de facto'' state that comprises the northeastern portion of the ...

, Ahmed İzzet adopted the surname ''Furgaç'' in 1934. He lived on a pension, though in 1934, he was appointed to the board of directors of the Istanbul Electricity Company, which provided him with "a certain amount of peace of mind." He died in his home in Moda, Istanbul on 31 March 1937. He was buried in the

Karacaahmet Cemetery The Karacaahmet Cemetery () is a 700-year-old historic cemetery located in Üsküdar, on the Asian side of Istanbul. Karacaahmet cemetery is the largest and second oldest in Istanbul at , and the largest burial ground in Turkey by number of interr ...

Legacy

Ahmed İzzet Pasha's decisions during the

Caucasus campaign The Caucasus campaign comprised armed conflicts between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire, later including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, the Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus, the German Empire, the Central Caspian Dict ...

have also been criticized and are regarded as one of the factors of its failure, while his subsequent high reputation in

Turkey Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...

has been attributed to his successful activity during the

Turkish War of Independence , strength1 = May 1919: 35,000November 1920: 86,000Turkish General Staff, ''Türk İstiklal Harbinde Batı Cephesi'', Edition II, Part 2, Ankara 1999, p. 225August 1922: 271,000Celâl Erikan, Rıdvan Akın: ''Kurtuluş Savaşı tarih ...

Personality

According to

Ali Fuat Cebesoy Ali Fuat Cebesoy (23 September 1882 – 10 January 1968) was a Turkish military officer who served in the Ottoman Army and then in the Turkish army and politician. Early life Ali Fuat was born on 23 September 1882 to father Ismail Fazil Pas ...

, İzzet Pasha was highly knowledgeable on military sciences, strategy, philosophy, literature. He knew in addition to his native

Turkish Turkish may refer to: * Something related to Turkey ** Turkish language *** Turkish alphabet ** Turkish people, a Turkic ethnic group and nation *** Turkish citizen, a citizen of Turkey *** Turkish communities in the former Ottoman Empire * The w ...

, he knew

German German(s) may refer to: * Germany, the country of the Germans and German things **Germania (Roman era) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...

French French may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France ** French people, a nation and ethnic group ** French cuisine, cooking traditions and practices Arts and media * The French (band), ...

Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...

and

Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...

. He valued his modesty.''Son Sadrazamlar,'' IV.2020.

References

Citations

Bibliography

* *

External links

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Ahmed Izzet Pasha 1864 births 1937 deaths People from Manastir vilayet Ottoman Military Academy alumni Ottoman Military College alumni 20th-century grand viziers of the Ottoman Empire Field marshals of the Ottoman Empire Ottoman military personnel of the Balkan Wars Ottoman military personnel of World War I Albanian grand viziers of the Ottoman Empire Turkish people of Albanian descent Albanian people from the Ottoman Empire Albanian Pashas Ethnic Albanian military personnel Ministers of foreign affairs of the Ottoman Empire Commanders Grand Cross of the Order of Vasa People of the Turkish War of Independence 20th-century Albanian people