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Metal (pavement)
A gravel road is a type of unpaved road surfaced with gravel that has been brought to the site from a quarry or stream bed. Gravel roads are common in less-developed nations, and also in the rural areas of developed nations such as Canada and the United States. In New Zealand, and other Commonwealth countries, they may be known as metal roads. They may be referred to as "dirt roads" in common speech, but that term is used more for unimproved roads with no surface material added. If well constructed and maintained, a gravel road is an all-weather road. Characteristics Construction Compared to sealed roads, which require large machinery to work and pour concrete or to lay and smooth a bitumen-based surface, gravel roads are easy and cheap to build. However, compared to dirt roads, all-weather gravel highways are quite expensive to build, as they require front loaders, dump trucks, graders, and roadrollers to provide a base course of compacted earth or other material, s ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Roadrollers
A road roller (sometimes called a roller-compactor, or just roller) is a compactor-type engineering vehicle used to compact soil, gravel, concrete, or asphalt in the construction of roads and foundations. Similar rollers are used also at landfills or in agriculture. Road rollers are frequently referred to as steamrollers, regardless of their method of propulsion. History The first road rollers were horse-drawn, and were probably borrowed farm implements'' (see Roller)''. Since the effectiveness of a roller depends to a large extent on its weight, self-powered vehicles replaced horse-drawn rollers from the mid-19th century. The first such vehicles were steam rollers. Single-cylinder steam rollers were generally used for base compaction and run with high engine revs with low gearing to promote bounce and vibration from the crankshaft through to the rolls in much the same way as a vibrating roller. The double cylinder or compound steam rollers became popular from a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Subbase (pavement)
In highway engineering, subbase is the layer of aggregate material laid on the subgrade, on which the base course layer is located. It may be omitted when there will be only foot traffic on the pavement, but it is necessary for surfaces used by vehicles. Subbase is often the main load-bearing layer of the pavement. Its role is to spread the load evenly over the subgrade. The materials used may be either unbound granular, or cement-bound. The quality of subbase is very important for the useful life of the road and can outlive the life of the surface, which can be scraped off and, after checking that the subbase is still in good condition, a new layer can be applied. Unbound granular materials are usually crushed stone, crushed slag or concrete, or slate. Cement-bound materials come in multiple types. Mass concrete is used where exceptional loads are expected, with thickness usually , and optional reinforcement with steel mesh or polymer fibers. Other cement bound materi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Clay
Clay is a type of fine-grained natural soil material containing clay minerals (hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g. kaolinite, ). Most pure clay minerals are white or light-coloured, but natural clays show a variety of colours from impurities, such as a reddish or brownish colour from small amounts of iron oxide. Clays develop plasticity (physics), plasticity when wet but can be hardened through Pottery#Firing, firing. Clay is the longest-known ceramic material. Prehistoric humans discovered the useful properties of clay and used it for making pottery. Some of the earliest pottery shards have been radiocarbon dating, dated to around 14,000 BCE, and Clay tablet, clay tablets were the first known writing medium. Clay is used in many modern industrial processes, such as paper making, cement production, and chemical filtration, filtering. Between one-half and two-thirds of the world's population live or work in buildings made with clay, often baked into brick, as an essenti ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Silt
Silt is granular material of a size between sand and clay and composed mostly of broken grains of quartz. Silt may occur as a soil (often mixed with sand or clay) or as sediment mixed in suspension (chemistry), suspension with water. Silt usually has a floury feel when dry, and lacks Plasticity (physics), plasticity when wet. Silt can also be felt by the tongue as granular when placed on the front teeth (even when mixed with clay particles). Silt is a common material, making up 45% of average modern mud. It is found in many river deltas and as wind-deposited accumulations, particularly in central Asia, north China, and North America. It is produced in both very hot climates (through such processes as collisions of quartz grains in dust storms) and very cold climates (through such processes as glacial grinding of quartz grains.) Loess is soil rich in silt which makes up some of the most fertile agricultural land on Earth. However, silt is very vulnerable to erosion, and it has poo ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Sand
Sand is a granular material composed of finely divided mineral particles. Sand has various compositions but is usually defined by its grain size. Sand grains are smaller than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type; i.e., a soil containing more than 85 percent sand-sized particles by mass. The composition of sand varies, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz. Calcium carbonate is the second most common type of sand. One such example of this is aragonite, which has been created over the past 500million years by various forms of life, such as coral and shellfish. It is the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years, as in the Caribbean. Somewhat more rarely, sand may be composed ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Crushed Stone
Crushed stone or angular rock is a form of construction aggregate, typically produced by mining a suitable rock deposit and breaking the removed rock down to the desired size using crushers. It is distinct from naturally occurring gravel, which is produced by natural processes of weathering and erosion and typically has a more rounded shape. Use * Angular crushed stone is the key material for macadam road construction, which depends on the interlocking of the individual stones' angular faces for its strength. * As riprap * As railroad track ballast * As filter stone. * As composite material (with a binder) in concrete, tarmac, and asphalt concrete. * In landscaping as a groundcover, walkway and driveway pavement, and infill for permeable pavers. As a mineral groundcover its benefits include erosion control, water conservation, weed suppression, and aesthetics. It is often seen used in rock gardens and cactus gardens. Background Crushed stone is a major basic ra ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Windrow
A windrow is a row of cut (mown) hay or small grain crop. It is allowed to dry before being baled, combined, or rolled. For hay, the windrow is often formed by a hay rake, which rakes hay that has been cut by a mowing machine or by scythe into a row, or it may naturally form as the hay is mown. For small grain crops which are to be harvested, the windrow is formed by a swather which both cuts the crop and forms the windrow. By analogy, the term may also be applied to a row of any other material such as snow, earth or materials for collection. * Snow windrows are created by snow plows when clearing roads of snow; where this blocks driveways the windrow may require removal. Snow windrowed to the centre of the street can be removed by a snow blower and truck. In preparing a pond or lake for ice cutting, the snow on top of the ice, which slows freezing, might be scraped off and windrowed. * Earth windrows may be formed by graders when grading earthworks or dirt roads * ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Geotextile
Geotextiles are versatile permeable fabrics that, when used in conjunction with soil, can effectively perform multiple functions, including separation, filtration, reinforcement, protection, and drainage. Typically crafted from polypropylene or polyester, geotextile fabrics are available in two primary forms: woven, which resembles traditional mail bag sacking, and nonwoven, which resembles felt. Geotextile composites have been introduced and products such as geogrids and meshes have been developed. Geotextiles are durable and are able to soften a fall. Overall, these materials are referred to as geosynthetics and each configuration—geonets, geosynthetic clay liners, geogrids, geotextile tubes, and others—can yield benefits in geotechnical engineering, geotechnical and environmental engineering design. History Geotextiles were originally intended to be a substitute for granular soil filters. Geotextiles can also be referred to as ''filter fabrics''. In the 1950s, R.J. Barr ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Washboarding
Washboarding or corrugation is the formation of periodic, transverse ripples in the surface of Gravel road, gravel and Dirt road, dirt roads. Washboarding occurs in dry, granular road material with repeated traffic, traveling at speeds above . Washboarding creates an uncomfortable ride for the occupants of traversing vehicles and hazardous driving conditions for vehicles that travel too fast to maintain traction and control. Mechanism Washboarding or corrugation of roads comprises a series of ripples, which occur with the passage of wheels rolling over unpaved roads at speeds sufficient to cause bouncing of the wheel on the initially unrippled surface and take on the appearance of a Washboard (laundry), laundry washboard. Most studies of washboarding pertain to granular materials, including sand and gravel. However, other work suggests that the phenomenon may occur in material which has some binding of particles, e.g. clay-like soils. Highway department experts in the mid-19 ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Cellular Confinement
Cellular confinement systems (CCS)—also known as geocells—are widely used in construction for erosion control, Mechanically stabilized earth, soil stabilization on flat ground and steep slopes, channel (geography), channel protection, and structural reinforcement for structural load, load support and earth retention. Typical cellular confinement systems are geosynthetics made with Ultrasonic welding, ultrasonically welded high-density polyethylene (HDPE) strips or novel polymeric alloy (NPA)—and expanded on-site to form a honeycomb-like structure—and filled with sand, soil, rock (geology), rock, gravel or concrete. History of cellular confinement Research and development of cellular confinement systems (CCS) began with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in 1975 to devise a method for building tactical roads over soft ground. Engineers found that sand-confinement systems performed better than conventional crushed stone sections and they could provide an expedient construc ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Embankment (transportation)
An embankment is a raised wall, bank or mound made of earth or stones, that are used to hold back water or carry a roadway. A road, Rail tracks, railway line, or canal is normally raised onto an embankment made of compacted soil (typically clay or rock-based) to avoid a change in level required by the terrain, the alternatives being either to have an unacceptable change in level or detour to follow a contour. A cutting (transportation), cutting is used for the same purpose where the land is originally higher than required. Materials Embankments are often constructed using material obtained from a cutting. Embankments need to be constructed using non-aerated and waterproofed, compacted (or entirely non-porous) material to provide adequate support to the formation and a long-term level surface with stability. An example material for road embankment building is sand-bentonite mixture often used as a protective to protect underground utility cables and pipelines. Intersection of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
