Single-cell protein
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Single-cell proteins (SCP) or microbial proteins refer to edible unicellular
microorganism A microorganism, or microbe,, ''mikros'', "small") and ''organism'' from the el, ὀργανισμός, ''organismós'', "organism"). It is usually written as a single word but is sometimes hyphenated (''micro-organism''), especially in olde ...
s. The
biomass Biomass is plant-based material used as a fuel for heat or electricity production. It can be in the form of wood, wood residues, energy crops, agricultural residues, and waste from industry, farms, and households. Some people use the terms bi ...
or protein extract from pure or mixed cultures of
algae Algae (; singular alga ) is an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. It is a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades. Included organisms range from unicellular mic ...
,
yeasts Yeasts are eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms classified as members of the fungus kingdom. The first yeast originated hundreds of millions of years ago, and at least 1,500 species are currently recognized. They are estimated to constitut ...
,
fungi A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately from ...
or
bacteria Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria were among ...
may be used as an ingredient or a substitute for protein-rich foods, and is suitable for human consumption or as animal feeds. Industrial agriculture is marked by a high
water footprint A water footprint shows the extent of water use in relation to consumption by people. The water footprint of an individual, community, or business is defined as the total volume of fresh water used to produce the goods and services consumed by th ...
, high land use, biodiversity destruction, general
environmental degradation Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment (biophysical), environment through depletion of resources such as quality of air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; an ...
and contributes to
climate change In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to E ...
by emission of a third of all
greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas (GHG or GhG) is a gas that Absorption (electromagnetic radiation), absorbs and Emission (electromagnetic radiation), emits radiant energy within the thermal infrared range, causing the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse ...
es; production of SCP does not necessarily exhibit any of these serious drawbacks. As of today, SCP is commonly grown on agricultural waste products, and as such inherits the
ecological footprint The ecological footprint is a method promoted by the Global Footprint Network to measure human demand on natural capital, i.e. the quantity of nature it takes to support people or an economy. It tracks this demand through an ecological accounti ...
and water footprint of industrial agriculture. However, SCP may also be produced entirely independent of agricultural waste products through
autotroph An autotroph or primary producer is an organism that produces complex organic compounds (such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) using carbon from simple substances such as carbon dioxide,Morris, J. et al. (2019). "Biology: How Life Works", ...
ic growth. Thanks to the high diversity of microbial metabolism, autotrophic SCP provides several different modes of growth, versatile options of nutrients recycling, and a substantially increased efficiency compared to crops. A 2021 publication showed that photovoltaic-driven microbial protein production could use 10 times less land for an equivalent amount of protein compared to soybean cultivation. With the
world population In demographics, the world population is the total number of humans currently living. It was estimated by the United Nations to have exceeded 8 billion in November 2022. It took over 200,000 years of human prehistory and history for the ...
reaching 9 billion by 2050, there is strong evidence that agriculture will not be able to meet demand and that there is serious risk of food shortage. Autotrophic SCP represents options of fail-safe mass food-production which can produce food reliably even under harsh climate conditions.


History

In 1781, processes for preparing highly concentrated forms of yeast were established. Research on Single Cell Protein Technology started a century ago when
Max Delbrück Max Ludwig Henning Delbrück (; September 4, 1906 – March 9, 1981) was a German–American biophysicist who participated in launching the molecular biology research program in the late 1930s. He stimulated physical science, physical scientist ...
and his colleagues found out the high value of surplus brewer’s yeast as a feeding supplement for animals. During World War I and World War II, yeast-SCP was employed on a large scale in Germany to counteract food shortages during the war. Inventions for SCP production often represented milestones for biotechnology in general: for example, in 1919, Sak in Denmark and Hayduck in Germany invented a method named, “Zulaufverfahren”, (
fed-batch Fed-batch culture is, in the broadest sense, defined as an operational technique in biotechnological processes where one or more nutrients (substrates) are fed (supplied) to the bioreactor during cultivation and in which the product(s) remain in ...
) in which sugar solution was fed continuously to an aerated suspension of yeast instead of adding yeast to diluted sugar solution once (
batch Batch may refer to: Food and drink * Batch (alcohol), an alcoholic fruit beverage * Batch loaf, a type of bread popular in Ireland * A dialect term for a bread roll used in North Warwickshire, Nuneaton and Coventry, as well as on the Wirra ...
). In post war period, the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)french: link=no, Organisation des Nations unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture; it, Organizzazione delle Nazioni Unite per l'Alimentazione e l'Agricoltura is an intern ...
(FAO) emphasized on hunger and malnutrition problems of the world in 1960 and introduced the concept of protein gap, showing that 25% of the world population had a deficiency of protein intake in their diet. It was also feared that agricultural production would fail to meet the increasing demands of food by humanity. By the mid 60’s, almost quarter of a million tons of food yeast were being produced in different parts of the world and Soviet Union alone produced some 900,000 tons by 1970 of food and fodder yeast. In the 1960s, researchers at British Petroleum developed what they called "proteins-from-oil process": a technology for producing single-cell protein by yeast fed by waxy n-paraffins, a byproduct of oil refineries. Initial research work was done by
Alfred Champagnat Alfred may refer to: Arts and entertainment *'' Alfred J. Kwak'', Dutch-German-Japanese anime television series * ''Alfred'' (Arne opera), a 1740 masque by Thomas Arne * ''Alfred'' (Dvořák), an 1870 opera by Antonín Dvořák *"Alfred (Interl ...
at BP's Lavera Oil Refinery in France; a small pilot plant there started operations in March 1963, and the same construction of the second pilot plant, at Grangemouth Oil Refinery in Britain, was authorized. The term SCP was coined in 1966 by
Carroll L. Wilson Carroll L. Wilson (September 21, 1910 – January 12, 1983; aged 72) was a Professor of Management at the Sloan School and the first Mitsui Professor in Problems of Contemporary Technology at MIT The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MI ...
of
MIT The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a private land-grant research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Established in 1861, MIT has played a key role in the development of modern technology and science, and is one of the m ...
. The "food from oil" idea became quite popular by the 1970s, with Champagnat being awarded the
UNESCO Science Prize The UNESCO Science Prize is a biennial scientific prize awarded by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to "a person or group of persons for an outstanding contribution they have made to the technological d ...
in 1976, (May have moved to http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001111/111158E.pdf ) and paraffin-fed yeast facilities being built in a number of countries. The primary use of the product was as poultry and cattle feed. The
Soviets Soviet people ( rus, сове́тский наро́д, r=sovyétsky naród), or citizens of the USSR ( rus, гра́ждане СССР, grázhdanye SSSR), was an umbrella demonym for the population of the Soviet Union. Nationality policy in th ...
were particularly enthusiastic, opening large "BVK" (''belkovo-vitaminny kontsentrat'', i.e., "protein-vitamin concentrate") plants next to their oil refineries in Kstovo (1973) and
Kirishi Kirishi (russian: Ки́риши, ) is a town and the administrative center of Kirishsky District in Leningrad Oblast, Russia, located on the right bank of the Volkhov River, southeast of St. Petersburg. Population: It was previously kno ...
(1974).KIRISHI: A GREEN SUCCESS STORY?
(Johnson's Russia List, Dec. 19, 2002)
The Soviet Ministry of Microbiological Industry had eight plants of this kind by 1989. However, due to concerns of toxicity of alkanes in SCP and pressured by the environmentalist movements, the government decided to close them down, or convert to some other microbiological processes.
Quorn Quorn is a brand of meat substitute products, or the company that makes them. Quorn originated in the UK and is sold primarily in Europe, but is available in 14 countries. The brand is owned by parent company Monde Nissin. Quorn is sold as b ...
is a range of vegetarian and vegan meat-substitutes made from ''
Fusarium venenatum ''Fusarium venenatum'' is a microfungus of the genus ''Fusarium'' that has a high protein content. One of its strains is used commercially for the production of the single cell protein mycoprotein Quorn. ''Fusarium venenatum'' was discover ...
''
mycoprotein Mycoprotein (lit. "fungus protein") is a form of single-cell protein, also known as fungal protein, derived from fungi for human consumption. The only commercial mycoprotein is marketed under the brand name Quorn, currently sold in 17 countries. ...
, sold in Europe and North America. Another type of single cell protein-based meat analogue (which does not use fungi however but rather bacteria) is
Calysta Calysta is a multinational biotechnology firm based in San Mateo, California. The company develops industrial processes that utilize microorganisms to convert methane into protein for seafood, livestock feed and other food ingredients. It oper ...
. Other producers are Unibio (Denmark) Circe Biotechnologie (Austria) and String Bio (India).


Production process

Single-cell proteins develop when
microbes A microorganism, or microbe,, ''mikros'', "small") and ''organism'' from the el, ὀργανισμός, ''organismós'', "organism"). It is usually written as a single word but is sometimes hyphenated (''micro-organism''), especially in olde ...
ferment waste materials (including wood, straw, cannery, and food-processing wastes, residues from alcohol production, hydrocarbons, or human and animal excreta). With 'electric food' processes the inputs are electricity, and trace minerals and chemicals such as fertiliser. The problem with extracting single-cell proteins from the wastes is the dilution and cost. They are found in very low concentrations, usually less than 5%. Engineers have developed ways to increase the concentrations including centrifugation, flotation, precipitation, coagulation, and filtration, or the use of semi-permeable membranes. The single-cell protein must be dehydrated to approximately 10% moisture content and/or acidified to aid in storage and prevent spoilage. The methods to increase the concentrations to adequate levels and the de-watering process require equipment that is expensive and not always suitable for small-scale operations. It is economically prudent to feed the product locally and soon after it is produced.


Microorganisms

Microbes employed include: * ''
Yeast Yeasts are eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms classified as members of the fungus kingdom. The first yeast originated hundreds of millions of years ago, and at least 1,500 species are currently recognized. They are estimated to constitut ...
'' ** ''
Saccharomyces cerevisiae ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' () (brewer's yeast or baker's yeast) is a species of yeast (single-celled fungus microorganisms). The species has been instrumental in winemaking, baking, and brewing since ancient times. It is believed to have been o ...
'' ** ''
Pichia pastoris ''Pichia pastoris'' is a species of methylotrophic yeast. It was found in the 1960s, with its feature of using methanol as a source of carbon and energy. After years of study, ''P. pastoris'' was widely used in biochemical research and biotech ...
'' ** ''
Candida utilis Torula (''Cyberlindnera jadinii'') is a species of yeast. Use Torula, in its inactive form (usually labeled as torula yeast), is widely used as a flavoring in processed foods and pet foods. It is often grown on wood liquor, a byproduct of paper ...
'' ** ''Torulopsis corallina'' ** ''
Geotrichum candidum ''Geotrichum candidum'' is a fungus which is a member of the human microbiome, notably associated with skin, sputum, and faeces where it occurs in 25–30% of specimens. It is common in soil and has been isolated from soil collected around the w ...
'' *
Fungi A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately from ...
(
Mycoprotein Mycoprotein (lit. "fungus protein") is a form of single-cell protein, also known as fungal protein, derived from fungi for human consumption. The only commercial mycoprotein is marketed under the brand name Quorn, currently sold in 17 countries. ...
) ** ''
Aspergillus oryzae ''Aspergillus oryzae'', also known as , is a filamentous fungus (a mold) used in East Asia to saccharify rice, sweet potato, and barley in the making of alcoholic beverages such as ''sake'' and '' shōchū'', and also to ferment soybeans for m ...
'' ** ''
Fusarium venenatum ''Fusarium venenatum'' is a microfungus of the genus ''Fusarium'' that has a high protein content. One of its strains is used commercially for the production of the single cell protein mycoprotein Quorn. ''Fusarium venenatum'' was discover ...
'' ** ''
Sclerotium rolfsii ''Athelia rolfsii'' is a corticioid fungus in the family Atheliaceae. It is a facultative plant pathogen and is the causal agent of "southern blight" disease in crops. Taxonomy The species was first described in 1911 by Italian mycologist P ...
'' ** ''
Polyporus ''Polyporus'' is a genus of poroid fungi in the family Polyporaceae. Taxonomy Italian botanist Pier Antonio Micheli introduced the genus in 1729 to include 14 species featuring fruit bodies with centrally-placed stipes, and pores on the under ...
'' ** ''
Trichoderma ''Trichoderma'' is a genus of fungi in the family Hypocreaceae that is present in all soils, where they are the most prevalent culturable fungi. Many species in this genus can be characterized as opportunistic avirulent plant symbionts. This ref ...
'' ** ''Scytalidium acidophilum'' *
Bacteria Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria were among ...
** ''
Rhodobacter capsulatus ''Rhodobacter capsulatus'' is a species of purple bacteria, a group of bacteria that can obtain energy through photosynthesis. Its name is derived from the Latin adjective "capsulatus" ("with a chest", "encapsulated"), itself derived Latin noun " ...
'' **''Methylophilus methylotrophus'' **''Metylococcus capsulatus'' *
Algae Algae (; singular alga ) is an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. It is a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades. Included organisms range from unicellular mic ...
**
Spirulina (dietary supplement) Spirulina is a biomass of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) that can be consumed by humans and animals. The three species are '' Arthrospira platensis'', ''A. fusiformis'', and ''A. maxima''. Cultivated worldwide, ''Arthrospira'' is used as a di ...
** ''
Chlorella ''Chlorella'' is a genus of about thirteen species of single-celled green algae belonging to the division Chlorophyta. The cells are spherical in shape, about 2 to 10 μm in diameter, and are without flagella. Their chloroplasts contain the ...
''


Properties

Large-scale production of microbial biomass has many advantages over the traditional methods for producing proteins for food or feed. # Microorganisms have a much higher growth rate (algae: 2–6 hours, yeast: 1–3 hours, bacteria: 0.5–2 hours). This also allows selection for strains with high yield and good nutritional composition more quickly and easily compared to breeding. # Whereas large parts of crops, such as stems, leaves and roots, are not edible, single-cell microorganisms can be used entirely. Whereas parts of the edible fraction of crops are indigestible, many microorganisms are digestible at a much higher fraction. # Microorganisms usually have a much higher protein content of 30–70% in the dry mass than vegetables or grains. The amino acid profiles of many SCP microorganisms often have excellent nutritional quality, comparable to hen's eggs. # Some microorganisms can build vitamins and nutrients which eukaryotic organisms such as plants cannot produce or not produce in significant amounts, including vitamin B12. # Microorganisms can utilize a broad spectrum of raw materials as carbon sources including alkanes, methanol, methane, ethanol and sugars. What was considered "waste product" often can be reclaimed as nutrients and support growth of edible microorganisms. # Like plants, autotrophic microorganisms are capable of growing on CO2. Some of them, such as bacteria with the Wood–Ljungdahl pathway or the reductive TCA can fix with efficiencies ranging from 2-3 times to 10 times more efficiently than plants, when also considering the effects of
photoinhibition Photoinhibition is light-induced reduction in the photosynthetic capacity of a plant, alga, or cyanobacterium. Photosystem II (PSII) is more sensitive to light than the rest of the photosynthetic machinery, and most researchers define the term ...
. # Some bacteria, such as several homoacetogenic clostridia, are capable of performing
syngas fermentation Syngas fermentation, also known as synthesis gas fermentation, is a microbial process. In this process, a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide, known as syngas, is used as carbon and energy sources, and then converted into fuel ...
. This means they can metabolize
synthesis gas Syngas, or synthesis gas, is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, in various ratios. The gas often contains some carbon dioxide and methane. It is principly used for producing ammonia or methanol. Syngas is combustible and can be used as ...
, a gas mixture of CO, H2 and CO2 that can be made by gasification of residual intractable biowastes such as lignocellulose. # Some bacteria are diazotrophic, i.e. they can fix N2 from the air and are thus independent of chemical N-fertilizer, whose production, utilization and degradation causes tremendous harm to the environment, deteriorates public health, and fosters climate change. # Many bacteria can utilize H2 for energy supply, using enzymes called
hydrogenase A hydrogenase is an enzyme that catalyses the reversible oxidation of molecular hydrogen (H2), as shown below: Hydrogen uptake () is coupled to the reduction of electron acceptors such as oxygen, nitrate, sulfate, carbon dioxide (), and fumarat ...
s. Whereas hydrogenases are normally highly O2-sensitive, some bacteria are capable of performing O2-dependent respiration of H2. This feature allows autotrophic bacteria to grow on CO2 without light at a fast growth rate. Since H2 can be made efficiently by
water electrolysis Electrolysis of water, also known as electrochemical water splitting, is the process of using electricity to decompose water into oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis. Hydrogen gas released in this way can be used as hydrogen fuel, or remi ...
, in a manner of speaking, those bacteria can be "powered by electricity". # Microbial biomass production is independent of seasonal and climatic variations, and can easily be shielded from extreme weather events that are expected to cause crop failures with the ongoing
climate-change In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate variability and change, Climate change in a broader sense also includes ...
. Light-independent microorganisms such as yeasts can continue to grow at night. # Cultivation of microorganisms generally has a much lower water footprint than agricultural food production. Whereas the global average blue-green water footprint (irrigation, surface, ground and rain water) of crops reaches about 1800 liters per kg crop due to evaporation, transpiration, drainage and runoff, closed bioreactors producing SCP exhibits none of these causes. # Cultivation of microorganisms does not require fertile soil and therefore does not compete with agriculture. Thanks to the low water requirements, SCP cultivation can even be done in dry climates with infertile soil and may provide a means of fail-safe food supply in arid countries. # Photosynthetic microorganisms can reach a higher solar-energy-conversion efficiency than plants, because in photobioreactors supply of water, CO2 and a balanced light distribution can be tightly controlled. # Unlike agricultural products which are processed towards a desired quality, it is easier with microorganisms to direct production towards a desired quality. Instead of extracting amino acids from soy beans and throwing away half of the plant body in the process, microorganisms can be genetically modified to overproduce or even secrete a particular amino acid. However, in order to keep a good consumer acceptance, it is usually easier to obtain similar results by screening for microorganisms which already have the desired trait or train them via selective adaptation. Although SCP shows very attractive features as a nutrient for humans, however there are some problems that deter its adoption on global basis: * Fast growing microorganisms such as bacteria and yeast have a high concentration of
nucleic acid Nucleic acids are biopolymers, macromolecules, essential to all known forms of life. They are composed of nucleotides, which are the monomers made of three components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. The two main cl ...
, notably RNA. Levels must be limited in the diets of
monogastric A monogastric organism has a simple single-chambered stomach (one stomach). Examples of monogastric herbivores are horses and rabbits. Examples of monogastric omnivores include humans, pigs, hamsters and rats. Furthermore, there are monogastric ...
animals to <50 g per day. Ingestion of
purine Purine is a heterocyclic compound, heterocyclic aromatic organic compound that consists of two rings (pyrimidine and imidazole) fused together. It is water-soluble. Purine also gives its name to the wider class of molecules, purines, which includ ...
compounds arising from
RNA Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation and expression of genes. RNA and deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) are nucleic acids. Along with lipids, proteins, and carbohydra ...
breakdown leads to increased
plasma Plasma or plasm may refer to: Science * Plasma (physics), one of the four fundamental states of matter * Plasma (mineral), a green translucent silica mineral * Quark–gluon plasma, a state of matter in quantum chromodynamics Biology * Blood pla ...
levels of
uric acid Uric acid is a heterocyclic compound of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen with the formula C5H4N4O3. It forms ions and salts known as urates and acid urates, such as ammonium acid urate. Uric acid is a product of the metabolic breakdown of ...
, which can cause
gout Gout ( ) is a form of inflammatory arthritis characterized by recurrent attacks of a red, tender, hot and swollen joint, caused by deposition of monosodium urate monohydrate crystals. Pain typically comes on rapidly, reaching maximal intensit ...
and
kidney stones Kidney stone disease, also known as nephrolithiasis or urolithiasis, is a crystallopathy where a solid piece of material (kidney stone) develops in the urinary tract. Kidney stones typically form in the kidney and leave the body in the urine s ...
. Uric acid can be converted to
allantoin Allantoin is a chemical compound with formula C4H6N4O3. It is also called 5-ureidohydantoin or glyoxyldiureide. It is a diureide of glyoxylic acid. Allantoin is a major metabolic intermediate in most organisms including animals, plants and bacter ...
, which is excreted in urine. Nucleic acid removal is not necessary from animal feeds but is from human foods. A temperature hold at 64 °C inactivates fungal
protease A protease (also called a peptidase, proteinase, or proteolytic enzyme) is an enzyme that catalyzes (increases reaction rate or "speeds up") proteolysis, breaking down proteins into smaller polypeptides or single amino acids, and spurring the ...
s . However, this problem can be remediated. One common method consists in a heat treatment which kills the cells, inactivates proteases and allows endogenous
RNase Ribonuclease (commonly abbreviated RNase) is a type of nuclease that catalyzes the degradation of RNA into smaller components. Ribonucleases can be divided into endoribonucleases and exoribonucleases, and comprise several sub-classes within t ...
s to hydrolyse RNA with release of
nucleotide Nucleotides are organic molecules consisting of a nucleoside and a phosphate. They serve as monomeric units of the nucleic acid polymers – deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), both of which are essential biomolecules wi ...
s from cell to culture broth. * Similar to plant cells, the cell wall of some microorganisms such as algae and yeast contains indigestible components, such as cellulose. The cells of some kind of SCP should be broken up in order to liberate the cell interior and allow complete digestion. * Some kind of SCP exhibits unpleasant color and flavors. * Depending on the kind of SCP and the cultivation conditions, care must be taken to prevent and control contamination by other microorganisms because contaminants may produce toxins such as
mycotoxins A mycotoxin (from the Greek μύκης , "fungus" and τοξίνη , "toxin") is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by organisms of kingdom Fungi and is capable of causing disease and death in both humans and other animals. The term 'mycotoxin' ...
or cyanotoxins. An interesting approach to address this problem was proposed with the fungus ''Scytalidium acidophilum'' which grows at a pH as low as 1, outside the tolerance of most microorganisms. This allows it to grow on acid-hydrolysed paper waste at low-cost. * Some yeast and fungal proteins are deficient in
methionine Methionine (symbol Met or M) () is an essential amino acid in humans. As the precursor of other amino acids such as cysteine and taurine, versatile compounds such as SAM-e, and the important antioxidant glutathione, methionine plays a critical ro ...
.


See also

*
Solein Solar Foods is a Finnish food-tech startup that is pilot testing a technology that uses electricity to produce hydrogen which is combined with carbon dioxide, water, vitamins and minerals to feed and grow a microbial biomass that can be used as ed ...
: a single cell protein made by Solar Foods Ltd. * Kiverdi, IncKiverdi Uses NASA Technology To Make Protein, Fish Food, and Palm Oil from CO2
/ref>Kiverdi: about
/ref> * Unibio, Calysta, Circe Biotechnologie, White Dog Labs *
Purple bacteria Purple bacteria or purple photosynthetic bacteria are Gram-negative proteobacteria that are phototrophic, capable of producing their own food via photosynthesis. They are pigmented with bacteriochlorophyll ''a'' or ''b'', together with various ...
: a type of single-cell protein * Kyanos * NovoNutrients * Deep Branch Biotechnology * Fermentative hydrogen production *
Hydrogenotroph Hydrogenotrophs are organisms that are able to metabolize molecular hydrogen as a source of energy. An example of hydrogenotrophy is performed by carbon dioxide-reducing organismsStams, J.M., and Plugge, C.M. (2010) The microbiology of methanogen ...
s


References

{{Authority control Meat substitutes Biochemical engineering Biotechnology