Organization of the Luftwaffe (1933–1945)

Between 1933 and 1945, the organization of the Luftwaffe underwent several changes. Originally, the German military high command, for their air warfare forces, decided to use an organizational structure similar to the army and navy, treating the aviation branch as a strategic weapon of war. Later on, during the period of rapid rearmament, the Luftwaffe was organized more in a geographical fashion.

Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles (1919), Germany was prohibited from having an air force, with the former German Empire's '' Luftstreitkräfte'' disbandment in 1920. German pilots were secretly trained for military aviation, first in the Soviet Union during the late 1920s, and then in Germany in the early 1930s. In Germany, the training was done under the guise of the German Air Sports Association (german: Deutscher Luftsportverband (DLV)) at the Central Commercial Pilots School (german: Zentrale der Verkehrs Fliegerschule (ZVF)).

Following its 15 May 1933 formation in secret, the formation of the German air arm was openly announced in February 1935, with Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring as its Commander-in-Chief (german: Oberbefehlshaber der Luftwaffe), in blatant defiance of the Versailles Treaty. Initial plans were for long-term growth of the Luftwaffe over a period of five years with the intention of using the Luftwaffe as a strategic force. These plans were changed several times, especially after the June 1936 death of Walter Wever and the succession of Ernst Udet. The focus and role of the Luftwaffe became one of ground support for the German Army during its Lightning War (german: Blitzkrieg) campaigns. Göring, using his political capital, was able to get significant resources allocated to the Luftwaffe, more so than the army (german: Heer) or the navy (german: Kriegsmarine); all three forces existing within the combined ''Wehrmacht'' German armed forces of the Reich. This made the Luftwaffe one of the most powerful air forces in Europe during its initial years. Partly due to its ground support role, the Luftwaffe was reorganized in a fashion similar to the army units, with one unit controlling a specific area. Each Luftwaffe unit was self-contained and had complete control over all aspects of Luftwaffe forces in that area.

Before becoming head of the Luftwaffe, Göring was Interior Minister of Prussia. In this position he had formed his own army, starting from a 400 men police department to regiment size. When Göring took over the Luftwaffe, he brought the regiment along with him to the Luftwaffe and created his own ground forces in the form of Luftwaffe Field Divisions and Paratrooper Regiments (german: Fallschirmjäger) under the Luftwaffe. He eventually included a tank regiment ( Fallschirm-Panzer Division), ''Flak'' units and a signals regiment (german: Luftnachrichten Regiment) under the Luftwaffe umbrella.

Formation and expansion

During the 1930s and 1940s, air power had not matured enough to be considered a dominant weapon of war. Unlike the other two forces, air power did not have past experience to draw upon. This resulted in the air force having to learn from experience rather than the classroom. There were no cohesive ideas for the organization of a structured, modern air force. One train of thought subordinated the air force to the army in support of land operations and to the navy for maritime tasks. It would be staffed by soldiers or sailors trained to fly.Lepage, (2009) p. 16

The second theory envisioned a centralized, well organized air force to be used as a weapon of war, like the army and navy. German aviators from World War I, followed this thought process. Since they had the backing of the German political leadership, this is how the Luftwaffe was originally conceived and formed. Following the tradition of putting a soldier in charge of the army and a sailor in charge of the navy, an aviator was designated to lead the Luftwaffe: ''Reichsmarschall'' Hermann Göring, also the cabinet minister for aviation. Göring formed a Luftwaffe High Command (german: Oberkommando der Luftwaffe) for operational management.

Within the German air force leadership, the general opinion was that the Luftwaffe was a tactical rather than a strategic air force. Hence, in order to support the various army groups, the Luftwaffe was organized in similar fashion to the army. Its units had a flexible composition with sub-units being added or removed when necessary. These sub-units tended to be semi-autonomous and highly mobile. This offered the flexibility required to support the ground units.Lepage, (2009) p. 17

From the start of the Spanish Civil War, the Luftwaffe was in action continuously without the time for rest or training. Multiple political acts and the consequent need for a show of strength forced the Luftwaffe to be in a perpetual state of readiness. This did not allow time for organizational strategy. Göring complicated the hierarchy by bringing the paratrooper (german: Fallschirmjäger) and Flak corps (anti-aircraft units) under his command. Due to his political differences with the army leadership, he raised his own police force as Prussian Minister of the Interior. This later became the Paratroop Tank Corps (german: Fallschirmjägerpanzerkorps).Buell, Griess, Bradley and Dice, (2002) p. 14Ruffner, (1990) pp. 3–4

By September 1939, the Luftwaffe had a total of 4,000 aircraft and 400,000 personnel. This strength had grown to 1,700,000 by 1941. In total, 571,000 of these were in anti-aircraft units and another 18 percent were in the signals branch. Only 36 percent or 588,000 comprised aircrew, but this also included the aircraft maintenance personnel. When the war ended on 8 May 1945, more than 97,000 air-crew would be reported dead, wounded or missing.

Organizational levels

All aspects of aviation including the Luftwaffe, came under the control of the ''Reichsluftfahrtministerium'' (RLM), the Reich Air Ministry. Since the Luftwaffe was one of the three armed forces, it came under the Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces from a military command point of view (german: Oberkommando der Wehrmacht) (OKW).United States War Dept., (1995) p. 15

Göring was the cabinet minister of aviation (german: Reichsminister der Luftfahrt) during most of this period. He also served as the Commander in Chief of the Luftwaffe (german: Oberbefehlshaber der Luftwaffe). As a cabinet minister, he was responsible for civil aviation and all aspects of aircraft manufacturing and supply. Operationally, the Luftwaffe command was shared by the Inspector of Combat Flight (german: General der Kampfflieger) and the Inspector of Fighters (german: General der Jagdflieger) along with the Secretary of State for Aviation.United States War Dept., (1995) p. 591

The German air force was divided into three operational branches:
* Flying Troops
* Anti-Aircraft Artillery
* Air Signal Troops

These three branches were further divided into sub-branches such as Paratroops, air engineering, air medical corps and air-crew. Since the Luftwaffe was organized in a geographical fashion rather than on a strategic functional basis, it had an independent administrative as well as an operational command structures. Each geographical area had its own supply and maintenance corps. For this reason, any aviation units moving within that geographical area did not need to carry its own maintenance staff. This allowed for a great deal of mobility within the Luftwaffe.

Strategic

Strategically, all three German military forces were part of a single service called, "The Defensive Power" (german: Die Wehrmacht; from german: wehren(Verb), to defend; and german: die Macht, the Power, Might) controlled by the ' (OKW); the head of the OKW was part of the Cabinet. Within the OKW, each service was headed by its own operational command:
* Commander in Chief of the Army (german: Oberkommando des Heeres)
* Commander in Chief of the Air Force (german: Oberkommando der Luftwaffe)
* Commander in Chief of the Navy (german: Oberkommando der Marine)

The top levels of control of the Luftwaffe resided with the RLM, the German Air Ministry and its operational branch, the '' Oberkommando der Luftwaffe'' (OKL), or Air Force High Command. These institutions together were responsible for the direction of research, production and overall maintenance of aircraft.Frieser and Greenwood, (2005) p. 14

As head of the Luftwaffe, Göring was responsible for the overall war effort and for the resources sent to a particular region. As a cabinet minister, he was able to get significant resources and personnel allocated to the Luftwaffe compared to other branches of the armed forces. In 1945, close to the end of the war, Robert Ritter von Greim replaced Göring as Commander in Chief.Lepage, (2009) pp. 2, 16

Operational

The OKL, as the operational branch of the RLM, had complete control over unit movements, formation and personnel transfers. It had a strength of 25,000 personnel in 1939. On an operational level, the Luftwaffe was divided into air fleets (german: Luftflotten), not entirely unlike the nearly contemporary United States Army Air Corps and (after late June 1941) USAAF numbered air forces. Each air fleet was responsible for a particular geographic region. They were self-contained units equipped with all types of aircraft and their own supply elements, maintenance staff, administration and legal departments.Stedman and Chappell, (2002) p. 5

At the start of the war the Luftwaffe had four ''Luftflotten'', each responsible for roughly a quarter of Germany. As the war progressed, three more were created as the areas under German rule expanded. Luftflotte 5 was created in 1940 to direct operations in Norway and Denmark. Luftflotte 6 was created on 6 May 1943 from Luftwaffenkommando Ost in Central Russia to direct operations on the central Russian front. The last Luftflotte created was Luftflotte Reich on 5 February 1944 and was to direct operation in Germany.

Each ''Luftflotte'' in turn was divided into many air districts (german: Luftgaue) and air corps (german: Fliegerkorps). The commander of each ''Luftflotte'' was responsible for all fighter as well as support operations within that region. A fighter leader (german: Jagdführer) (Jafü) was responsible for fighter operations within that region and reported to the commander. The purpose of a ''Luftgau'' was to provide administrative and logistical support to each airfield, whereas the ''Fliegerkorps'' controlled all operational matters. The ''Luftgau'' headquarters command consisted of one ''Generalmajor'' and a staff of 50 to 100 officers. Each ''Fliegerkorps'' would have a number of smaller units under its command.

Tactical

Each ''Geschwader'' within the ''Fliegerkorps'' was roughly the size of an RAF wing or USAAF group, with about 90 to 120 aircraft under its command. These numbers varied as sub-units were added or removed. Each ''geschwader'' had a particular task (such as fighter, bomber, or transport duties) and were mostly equipped with aircraft appropriate to that task. Other types of aircraft were also sometimes attached.Stedman and Chappell, (2002) pp. 5, 6 A ''Geschwader'' was commanded by a ''Geschwaderkommodore'', with the rank of either a Major, lieutenant colonel (german: Oberstleutnant) or colonel (german: Oberst). The unit also had other staff officers with administrative duties such as the german: adjutant), technical and operations officers. These were usually (although not always), experienced aircrew still flying on operations. Other specialist staff were navigation, signals and intelligence personnel.

A ''Gruppe'' (plural ''Gruppen'') was the basic autonomous unit in the ''Luftwaffe''. It had no exact equivalent in the Allied forces, since it was smaller than a USAAF group or an RAF wing, but was also larger than an Allied squadron. A ''Gruppe'' was usually commanded by a ''Major'' or ''Hauptmann''.
Each ''Staffel'' (plural ''Staffeln'') usually had nine to 12 aircraft and was commanded by a ''Hauptmann'' or ''Oberleutnant'' . As such it was slightly smaller than a British, Soviet or US squadron. (The assumption that a ''Staffel'' was the exact equivalent of a squadron sometimes caused Western Allied leaders to overestimate German air power.)

Specialized, independent ''Gruppen'' or ''Staffeln'' sometimes sat below the level of a ''Fliegerkorps''.
A ''Schwarm'' (plural ''Schwärme''; literally "swarm"), consisted of four to six aircraft within a ''Staffel''. A bomber ''Schwarm'' (at full strength, six aircraft) was divided into a ''Kette'' ("chain") of three aircraft. As such, a bomber ''Schwarm'' was equivalent to a flight in the Western Allied air forces. A ''Kette'' was also the term used for a "v" formation.Lepage, (2009) p. 19Weal, (2006) p. 30
A fighter ''Schwarm'' (four aircraft) was divided into two ' (singular: ''Rotte'', "pack") of two aircraft, equivalent to a pair in the English-speaking world. As such a fighter ''Schwarm'' was equivalent to a section/element in the Western Allied air forces. The term ''Rotte'' was also used for a formation of two aircraft: the smallest tactical unit, consisting of a leader and a wingman. A german: Stabschwarm ("staff ''schwarm''") was attached to each ''Geschwader''.Stedman and Chappell, (2002) pp. 6–7

Strategic level: ''Oberkommando der Luftwaffe''

The OKW was the highest in the military command structure. It was responsible for the co-ordinated effort of the three military arms. It was headed by Wilhelm Keitel after he took over from war minister Werner von Blomberg in 1938. Since the head of the Luftwaffe, Göring, was also a cabinet minister, any Luftwaffe operational orders would come from Hitler to him, who would pass them on to Luftwaffe leaders, bypassing the OKW.

On 5 February 1944, through the efforts of Günther Korten and Karl Koller, the Luftwaffe High Command (german: Oberkommando der Luftwaffe) (OKL), was formed. Colonel General (german: italic=yes, Generaloberst) Hans Jeschonnek was appointed Chief of Staff of the OKL. This created a military command out of the all encompassing Reich Air Ministry (RLM), controlling all aspects of aviation. The OKL covered general as well as operational staff of the Luftwaffe. The following parts of the Luftwaffe were under its command:
* The General Staff
* Operational Staff
* Weapons Inspectorates
* Inspector of Fighters (german: General der Jagdflieger)
* Supply and equipment
* A Signals DivisionCaldwell and Muller, (2007) p. 145

The other components, such as armament and aircraft manufacturing remained under the control of the RLM.

The OKL was led by the Chief of the General Staff. It was strategically divided into eight directorates (german: Abteilungen) numbered consecutively. The directorates were:
* Operations Directorate
* Organization Directorate
* Training Directorate
* Troop Movement Directorate
* Intelligence Directorate
* Equipment and Supply Directorate
* Historical Archives Directorate
* Personnel Management Directorate

There were also 17 Inspectorates (german: Luftwaffen Inspektion):
* ''Luftwaffen Inspektion'' 1 – Reconnaissance
* ''Luftwaffen Inspektion'' 2 – Bombers and Dive Bombers ( General der Kampfflieger)
* ''Luftwaffen Inspektion'' 3 – Fighter, Destroyer, Ground Support and Weaponry ( General der Jagdflieger)
* ''Luftwaffen Inspektion'' 5 – Air safety and equipment
* ''Luftwaffen Inspektion'' 6 – Motor vehicles
* ''Luftwaffen Inspektion'' 7 – Signal communications (General der Nachrichtentruppe)
* ''Luftwaffen Inspektion'' 8 – Naval aircraft (Disbanded in 1942)
* ''Luftwaffen Inspektion'' 9 – Pilot training schools
* ''Luftwaffen Inspektion'' 10 – Troop service and training
* ''Luftwaffen Inspektion'' 11 – Parachute and air-landing forces
* ''Luftwaffen Inspektion'' 12 – Navigation
* ''Luftwaffen Inspektion'' 13 – Air Defense (Under the control of the Secretary of State for Aviation)
* ''Luftwaffen Inspektion'' 14 – Medical
* ''Luftwaffen Inspektion'' 15 – Air Defense zones
* ''Luftwaffen Inspektion'' 16 – Air sea rescue services under the umbrella of Sea Rescue Service german: Seenotdienst.
* ''Luftwaffen Inspektion'' 17 – Construction troops and prisoners of war (Under the control of the Secretary of State for Aviation)
* ''Luftwaffen Inspektion'' 18 – Luftwaffe field unitsUnited States War Department, (1995) pp. 37, 188

Operational level

Six ''Luftkreise'' (Air Service Commands) were established on 1 April 1934. These were each the size of an Air Corps and were basic territorial units of the Luftwaffe following its geographical organization. Their headquarters were as given in the table:Mitcham, (2007-a) p. 12

In addition, Luftkreis VII was established on 12 October 1937 with its headquarters at Braunschweig, and is shown incorporated into the above-mentioned table

Each ''Luftkreis'' was led by a ''Höherer Fliegerkommandeur'' (Senior Air Commander) in charge of all aviation units within its area. These included, two or three ''Luftgaukommandos'' (administrative commands), a signals command, a medical battalion and a procurement and supply group. Their area of operations also included civilian airfields and Civil Air Defense. The following year, all the replacement battalions in that area also came under their control. In 1936, these were extended to regiment size or ''Fliegerersatzregimente''. From 1935 to 1936, Flak units in the area also came under their command.

Hermann Göring and Erhard Milch appointed retired army lieutenant generals to lead each ''Luftkreis''. These were , and Leonhard Kaupisch. They were promoted to '' General der Flieger''. A retired navy officer, Konrad Zander, was similarly promoted and put in charge of ''Luftkreis'' VI supporting the naval units. Two Luftwaffe officers, Colonel Hugo Sperrle and Major General were put in charge of the remaining two ''Luftkreise'' without being promoted.

Operationally, the Luftwaffe organization underwent changes in July 1938. ''Luftkreise'' were consolidated into three Luftwaffengruppenkommandos (Airforce Group Commands). As a result, on 1 August 1938, ''Luftwaffenkommando Ostpreußen'' (Airforce Command East Prussia) replaced ''Luftkreis'' 1. This change also rendered the three digit ''Geschwader'' identifiers meaningless. From 1 November 1938, ''Geschwader'' identifiers were changed universally. The third digit of the Unit Identifier was replaced with the same digit as its parent ''Luftwaffengruppenkommando''. For example, all units under ''Luftwaffengruppenkommando 1'' (headquartered in Berlin), had the third digit of their identifiers replaced with a '1'. For units under ''Luftwaffengruppenkommando Ostpreußen'', the third digit was replaced with a zero.Weal, (2003) p. 10

By the end of April 1939, another ''Luftwaffengruppenkommando'' was added. All four ''Luftwaffengruppenkommando'' were renamed ''Luftflotte'' (Air Fleets). Geschwader under each ''Luftflotte'', were re-numbered sequentially. Each ''Luftflotte'' received a batch of 25. For example, ''Luftflotte 1'' Geschwader were numbered 0–25, ''Luftflotte 2'' Geschwader became 26–50 and so on.

''Luftgaue''

Within the Air Ministry, for administration purposes, the Luftwaffe was organized into ''Luftgaue'' (Air Districts), based on the army's ''Wehrkreis'' ("military districts"). A ''Luftgau'' was responsible for all administrative activities, such as training, administration, maintenance, air defense, signals, recruitment and reserve personnel.

The ''Generalmajor'' leading the ''Luftgau-kommando'' of each ''Luftgau'' reported to the Air Ministry.

Those ''Luftgaue'' established within Germany were numbered non-consecutively with Roman numerals.United States War Dept., (1995) p. 597

* Luftgau I (Königsberg)
* Luftgau II (Stettin)
* Luftgau III (Berlin)
* Luftgau IV (Dresden)
* Luftgau V (Stuttgart)
* Luftgau VI (Münster)
* Luftgau VII (Munich)
* Luftgau VIII ( Breslau)
* Luftgau IX (Weimar)
* Luftgau X (Hamburg)
* Luftgau XI (Hanover)
* Luftgau XII (Giessen/Wiesbaden)
* Luftgau XIII (Nuremberg)
* Luftgau XIV (Koblenz)
* Luftgau XVII (Vienna)(area Ostmark and Protectorate Bohemia and Moravia

''Luftgaue'' were also established as required in occupied Europe and were named after their location:
*''Luftgau Belgien-Nordfrankreich'' was headquartered in Brussels and responsible for Belgium and northern France.
*''Luftgau Charkow''
*''Luftgau Finnland''
*''Luftgau Holland''
*''Luftgau Kiew''
*''Luftgau Moskau''
*''Luftgau Norwegen''
*''Luftgau Ostland''
*''Luftgau Petersburg''
*''Luftgau Rostow''
*''Luftgau Süd''
*''Luftgau Westfrankreich''

''Feldluftgaue'' were established directly behind the actual frontline.
*''Feldluftgau'' XXV
*''Feldluftgau'' XXVI
*''Feldluftgau'' XXVII
*''Feldluftgau'' XXVIII
*''Feldluftgau'' XXIX
*''Feldluftgau'' XXX

Each ''Luftgau'' had its own section for the following matters:
* Operations
* Adjutant
* Legal
* Administration
* Signals
* Supply
* Restricted flying areas

These sections were numbered in Arabic numerals followed by a ''Luftgau'' designator. For example, section 3 of ''Luftgau VI'' would be designated '3/VI'. Flying units used the services of a ''Luftgau through'' ''Flughafenbereichkommandanturen'' (Airfield Regional Commands). Each ''Luftgau'' usually had five such commands. Each regional command was divided into five or more ''Einsatzhafenkommandanturen'' (Operational Airfield Commands). The operational commands were located at the airfields where it serviced the flying units.

''Luftflotte''

Operationally under the OKL, all Luftwaffe units were organized into ''Luftflotte'', which were equivalent to an army group. Its size and number of subordinated units, was flexible and changed depending on need. The ''Luftflotten'' were created according to the geographical area. As the Wehrmacht occupied new territories, new ''Luftflotten'' were created. Each ''Luftflotte'', had an adjutant or staff officer assisting the commanding officer. Although a ''Luftflotte'' could be moved from one area to another by the RLM, the ''Luftflotte'' had absolute control over all aspects of aviation in that area, including ground operations. This also included legal, administration, signals and supply work. They were essentially divided into operational or administrative commands. The signal services consisted of three ''Luft-Nachrichtenregimenter'' (signals regiments) in a ''Luftflotte''. There was also a ''Fliegerabwehrkanone'' ( Flak) unit.United States War Dept., (1995) p. 592

''Fliegerkorps'' and ''Fliegerdivision''

A ''Luftflotte'' was operationally divided into one or more ''Fliegerkorps'' ("Air Corps") of varying size, depending on its area of operations. They were responsible for all operational matters such as deployment, air traffic, ordnance and maintenance. A ''Fliegerkorps'' could potentially be loaned out to another ''Luftflotte'' depending on the nature of the operation. There were a total of 13 ''Fliegerkorps''.United States War Dept., (1995) p. 594

Similar to the ''Luftflotte'', each ''Fliegerkorps'' had its own geographical area of operations. It consisted of several Geschwader along with Reconnaissance ''Gruppen'' (Groups). The Geschwader could be either fighter or bomber units. Depending on the nature or purpose of the ''Fliegerkorps'', it would have only bomber or fighter units. Similar to the ''Luftflotte'', a ''Fliegerkorps'' also had an adjutant as well as other departments. However, it did depend on the parent ''Luftflotte'' for administrative and supply purposes. The ''Fliegerkorps'' were numbered consecutively in Roman numerals. During the initial organization of the ''Luftwaffe'', it was divided into ''Fliegerdivisionen''. However, during later reorganizations, most of these were replaced by the ''Fliegerkorps''. Some remained in operation on the Eastern Front.Lepage, (2009) p. 18

A ''Jagdkorps'' was a more specialized version of a ''Fliegerkorps'' with limited responsibility to fighter command only. A ''Jagd-Division'' was subordinated to a ''Jagdkorps'' but specialized in fighter operations. Jagd-Divisionen (fighter divisions) were active at one point or other during this period. Together the fighter force of Luftwaffe was also called Jagdwaffe.

The Luftwaffe also had specialist units of varying sizes for testing new aircraft as well as captured Allied machines – these units could be as small as a ''Staffel'', or as large as a ''Gruppe''. It was initially unnumbered and simply called the ''Lehrdivision'' (Instruction Division) but in later years several '' Erprobungskommando'' units of varying size were created to test specific new aircraft, usually numbered with the RLM aircraft designation system airframe number matching the aircraft they were meant to test. Along with the aircraft test and evaluation, a ''Lehrdivision'' was also responsible for testing anti-aircraft defenses and air signals equipment. The staff of this division were required to have prior combat experience. The ''Lehr'' units in this division were usually made part of operational units, receiving help from them for testing under combat conditions. Unlike the ''Erprobungskommando'' units, a ''Lehrdivision'' did not undertake the testing of experimental aircraft. As the war went on, some of the units under its command were used for operational purposes.

Tactical level

''Geschwader''

In the Luftwaffe the largest mobile and autonomous unit was the ''Geschwader''. A ''Geschwader'' was the equivalent of a Wing in the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF). It would be used for different purposes such as bombing, interception (both single and twin engine), ground attack and reconnaissance. A ''Geschwader'' would be named, based on its purpose.Stedman and Chappell, (2002) p. 6 There were several ''Geschwader'' with the same purpose. They would be named with an Arabic numeral following the word. It was also customary to give an additional title to a ''Geschwader'' in honor of a distinguished person. For example, ''Jagdgeschwader 2'' was named ''Jagdgeschwader 2 Richthofen'' in honor of Manfred von Richthofen.

Each ''Geschwader'' was commanded by a ''Geschwaderkommodore''. This person usually had the rank of ''Oberst'' (equivalent to colonel), '' Oberstleutnant'' (lieutenant colonel) or major. He had a small staff along with an adjutant (Staff Officer) for operational as well as for administrative purposes. There was a '' Stabschwarm'' (Command Flight) of four aircraft in two pairs. The 1st Pair (''1. Rotte'') included the ''Geschwaderkommodore'' with the ''Adjutant IIa'' (the Geschwader's staff officer in charge of officer personnel affairs) as his wingman. The 2nd Pair (''2. Rotte'') included the ''1. Generalstabsoffizier Ia'' (the Geschwader's Chief of Operations) with the ''Major beim Stabe'' (the "Major at the Staff", commanding the Geschwader's Stabskompanie - the command company and for that reason also designated as ''StabsKp'') as his wingman. On the rare occasions when more aircraft were made available, the Stabsschwarm could have 5 or even 6 fighter aircraft instead of the standard 4 and transport, liaison or rescue aircraft could be attached to it. Typically there were three ''Gruppen'' (groups) under each ''Geschwader'' and sometimes a fourth or even a fifth ''gruppe'' was added to single engine fighter ''geschwader''. On several occasions, day fighter ''Geschwader'' or ''Jagdgeschwader'' were formed with four ''Gruppe'' strength from start. Each Gruppe had its own ''Stabsschwarm'', which mirrored the two pairs of the Geschwader's ''Stabsschwarm''. The only difference was that the command company of the Gruppe was commanded not by a Major, but by a Captain and his position was designated ''Hauptmann beim Stabe'' (Captain at the Staff) correspondingly.

* ''Jagdgeschwader (JG)'' – A day fighter ''Geschwader'' (literally "hunting ''Geschwader''"), typically equipped with the Messerschmitt Bf 109 or Fw 190 flying in the fighter or fighter-bomber roles.
* ''Nachtjagdgeschwader (NJG)'' – A night fighter ''Geschwader'', typically flying radar-equipped heavy fighters such as the Messerschmitt Bf 110 or Ju 88 against Allied bombers.
* ''Zerstörergeschwader (ZG)'' – ''Zerstörer'' (literally "destroyer", as in naval destroyer). These units were usually equipped with twin-engined heavy fighters such as the Bf 110 or Me 410 ''Hornisse''.
* ''Schlachtgeschwader'' (''SchlG'', since 1943 ''SG'') – ''Schlacht'' (German: "strike") These were ground attack or close air support ''Geschwader'', initially equipped with the biplane Hs 123, later with Hs-129, fighter-bomber variants of Bf 109, and ground-attack variants of Fw 190.
* ''Sturzkampfgeschwader'' (''StG''; ''Stuka Geschwader'') – dive bomber ''Geschwader'' equipped mainly with Ju 87; on 18 October 1943, most of them were re-designated ''Schlachtgeschwader'' (''SG'').
* ''Kampfgeschwader (KG)'' – literally "combat ''Geschwader''", primarily a medium bomber unit, with typical aircraft being the He 111 and the Junkers Ju 88.
* ''Lehrgeschwader (LG)'' – a ''Geschwader'' created to test new equipment under operational conditions and to evaluate new tactics. Personnel from a unit of this type could fly several types of aircraft.
* ''Transportgeschwader (TG)'' – typical aircraft being the Ju 52/3m or the Me 323. The "TG" designation was a result of the reorganization of the transport branch in 1943. These units were previously designated ''KG zbV'' (''Kampfgeschwader zur besonderen Verwendung'' or "combat ''Geschwader'' for special purposes").
* ''Kampfschulgeschwader (KSG)'' – a Bomber Training School ''Geschwader''.
* ''Luftlandegeschwader (LLG)'' – a Glider Geschwader for the ''Fallschirmjäger'' or Paratroops.
* ''Schnellkampfgeschwader (SKG)'' – fast bomber ''Geschwader''. Two units equipped with single- or twin-engine fighter bombers and used for ground-attack or hit-and-run missions over the United Kingdom. Later absorbed by other units or re-designated as Schlachtgeschwader.

As the war progressed, the various sub-units of each numbered ''Geschwader'' operated separately and often on totally different fronts or theaters of war.

''Gruppe''

The ''Gruppe'' was the basic autonomous unit in the Luftwaffe, in both administration and strategic use. Each ''Gruppe'' would have a '' Stabschwarm'' (staff ''schwarm'') of three aircraft. The ''Gruppe'' would be commanded by a ''Gruppenkommandeur'', that would be a ''Major'' or ''Hauptmann'', who would have a small staff including administration, operations, medical and technical officers. A ''Gruppe'' usually occupied one airfield. ''Gruppen'' from the same ''Geschwader'' typically occupied adjacent airfields. Each would have an air signals platoon, mechanical and administrative personnel. There was also a trained fire-fighting crew doubling as police officers and staffed by the SS.

As with the ''Geschwader'', the ''Gruppe'' included staff officers tasked with additional administrative duties, usually an adjutant, technical, medical and operations officers. These officers were usually (though not always) experienced aircrew or pilots appointed from the operational cadre within the unit.

''Gruppen'' organized within a combat ''geschwader'' were designated with Roman numerals: I, II, III and IV. This would be combined with the abbreviated ''Geschwader'' designation – for example, the second ''Gruppe'' of ''Jagdgeschwader'' 11 would be designated II./JG 11. Each ''Gruppe'' in turn consisted of three ''Staffeln''. In total, each ''Gruppe'' had 30–40 aircraft including the ''Gruppenstab''. A ''Gruppe'' was often transferred from one ''Geschwader'' to another. After a transfer they would be re-designated. For example, ''Gruppe II'' of ''Jagdgeschwader 3'', II./JG 3 was transferred to ''Jagdgeschwader 1'' as ''Gruppe I'' and was re-designated I./JG 1. In the case of bomber Geschwader, an ''Ergänzungsgruppe'' (training group) might be attached to a ''Geschwader'' as the fifth ''Gruppe'' and designated 'V' (Roman numeral 5).

Although all ''Gruppen'' in a ''Geschwader'' performed the same role, they were not always equipped with the same aircraft. This was more prevalent in fighter ''Geschwader'', but did occur in bomber units as well. Some ''Gruppen'' of a fighter ''Geschwader'' would be equipped with Messerschmitt Bf 109s, while others would be equipped with Focke-Wulf Fw 190s. Among the bomber ''Geschwader'', some ''Gruppen'' would be equipped with Dornier Do 17s while others would have either Heinkel He 111s or Junkers Ju 88s.

There were several types of ''Gruppen'' acting in specialized autonomous roles, many centered around either reconnaissance or maritime-involved duties. They were:

''Aufklärungsgruppen'' (strategic/tactical reconnaissance)

So-named ''Aufklärungsgruppe'' reconnaissance units existed in two basic forms for the Luftwaffe in World War II:
* ''Aufklärungsgruppe (F)'' – a long range reconnaissance ''Gruppe''. It was later changed to ''Fernaufklärungsgruppe'' (FAGr), from ''Fern'', the German word for "far";
* ''Aufklärungsgruppe (H)'' were units initially attached to the army (''Heer''). They provided tactical and photo reconnaissance and were later re-designated ''Nahaufklärungsgruppe'' (NAGr), from ''Nah'' (near). Typical aircraft were Messerschmitt Bf 109s, Bf 110s and Hs 126s, although a wide range of aircraft types were used, including the STOL-capable Fieseler Fi 156, and the twin-engined Focke-Wulf Fw 189.
* ''Fernaufklärungsgruppe (FAGr)'' – The later designation for ''Aufklärungsgruppe (F)'' involved with long-range reconnaissance duties.
* ''Nahaufklarungsgruppe (NAGr)'' – The later designation for ''Aufklärungsgruppen (H)'' or army reconnaissance group.

Maritime-duty ''Gruppen''

Maritime-involved ''Gruppe''-sized units of the Luftwaffe involved:
* ''Bordfliegergruppe (BFGr)'' – (literally "onboard aircraft group"). Arado Ar 196 seaplanes on battleships and cruisers.
* ''Küstenfliegergruppe (KuFlGr)'' (German: "coastal aircraft group") a coastal reconnaissance ''Gruppe''. These units fulfilled a similar role to RAF Coastal Command and were usually equipped with floatplanes such as the Heinkel He 115 and flying boats like the Dornier Do 18 as well as land-based bombers such as the Dornier Do 17. These units were also used to attack shipping.
* ''Minensuchgruppe (MSGr)'' – (literally "minesearch group"). Junkers Ju 52s, or rarely Bv 138 flying boats fitted with large electromagnetic rings that were designed to sweep oceanic minefields of magnetically-triggered sea mines.
* ''Seeaufklärungsgruppe (SAGr)'' – a ''Gruppe'' for maritime reconnaissance.
* ''Trägergruppe (TrGr)'' – (literally "Carrier group"). They consisted of Junkers Ju 87C (Stukas) and Bf 109 T aircraft for the planned German aircraft carrier ''Graf Zeppelin''. It was disbanded in 1940 after the carrier project was scrapped.

Rear-area and night attack ''Gruppen''

Other types of ''Gruppe''-sized units of various types existed within the Luftwaffe structure as well:
* ''Ergänzungsgruppe (ERgGr)'' – Supplemental''Gruppen'' that were attached to a ''Geschwader'' for replacing lost aircraft and training.
* ''Erprobungsgruppe (ErpGr)'' – a specialized ''Gruppe'', much like the similar '' Erprobungskommando'' (EKdo) units, for field testing new models and on occasions captured Allied aircraft (most notably with KG 200 and the ''Zirkus Rosarius'' units respectively), with the ErpGr and EKdo units using a number matching the RLM airframe number of the aircraft design they were meant to test.
* ''Nachtschlachtgruppe (NSGr)'' – a night ground attack group. Predominantly used in anti-personnel and anti-tank roles.

Each ''Gruppe'' comprised three or four ''Staffeln'', but by late 1944 a fourth ''Staffel'' was usually added to fighter units, making the established strength of the unit approximately 65 to 70 aircraft, although during the war years operational strength tended to fluctuate greatly. Personnel strength varied between 35 and 150 aircrew, and 300 to 500 ground personnel.

During the mid-war years a fourth ''Gruppe'' was introduced in many ''Geschwader'', initially as an operational training unit for new aircrew. However, these ''Gruppen'' soon became additional front-line units, performing the same tasks as their sister formations, while new ''Ergänzungseinheiten'', or operational training units, were formed and took up their tasks.Weal (2006), p. 12.

''Staffel''

A ''Staffel'' usually had nine to 12 aircraft. Others had as few as five or six aircraft due to losses. The commanding officer of a ''Staffel'' was known as a ''Staffelkapitän'' and had the rank of ''Hauptmann'', ''Oberleutnant'' or sometimes ''Leutnant''.

''Staffeln'' were numbered consecutively in Arabic numerals within a ''Geschwader'' irrespective of the ''Gruppe'' they came under. The ''Staffel'' designation would be similar to that of the ''Gruppe'' except for the Arabic numerals. For example, ''Staffel 6'' of ''Jagdgeschwader 27'' would be designated 6./JG 27. The ''Staffeln'' of ''Gruppe I'' would be numbered 1, 2 and 3. Those of ''Gruppe II'' would be numbered 4, 5 and 6. This was continued for the rest of the''Gruppen''. When a ''Staffel'' was transferred from one group to another or from one ''Geschwader'' to another, it would be re-numbered accordingly. For example, ''Gruppe II'' of ''Jagdgeschwader 3'', II./JG 3 was transferred to ''Jagdgeschwader 1'', as ''Gruppe I'' and was re-designated I./JG 1., this caused its three ''Staffeln'' originally named 4./JG 3, 5./JG 3, 6./JG 3 to be renumbered to 1./JG 1, 2./JG 1 and 3./JG 1.

The ''Staffel'' usually had a few vehicles allocated to it, and a mobile ''Fliegerhorstkompanie'' (air station company) to carry out minor repairs. These were usually named after and attached to a ''Geschwader''. The number of ground staff varied depending on its type, with about 150 for a fighter unit and 80 in a bomber unit – a smaller number of personnel were required in the bomber units as many of the servicing functions were carried out by attached units provided by the local ''Luftgau'' or "Air District".

The service test units often known as ''Erprobungskommando'' could also be of ''Staffel'' or ''Gruppe'' organizational size, as well as existing outside of any such "set" unit size as a ''Gruppe'' or ''Staffel'' – the Heinkel He 177 was service-tested by a ''Staffel''-sized unit, known as ''Erprobungsstaffel 177'', frequently using the RLM airframe type number for the number of the unit testing the aircraft bearing it.

There were a few types of ''Staffeln'' acting in specialized autonomous, or semi-autonomous roles, if integrally attached to a ''Gruppe'' or ''Geschwader'' for differing duties from the main unit. Some of these were:
* ''Jagdbomberstaffel (Jabo)'' – a fighter-bomber ''Staffel'', within a ''Gruppe''. Predominantly refers to a ground attack ''Staffel''. It was made more prominent by Heinz Knoke with air-to-air bombing of Allied bombers.
* ''Luftbeobachtungstaffel'', later '' Wettererkundungsstaffel'' (''Weku'' or ''Wekusta'') – a ''Staffel'' meant for meteorological findings.
* ''Zerstörerstaffel'', as the northernmost-based of all Luftwaffe day fighter ''geschwader'', JG 5 in northern Norway, had one attached to it as its 13th ''Staffel''.

After the mid 1942 successes of Operation Barbarossa, Soviet VVS nocturnal harassment bomber units such as the Night Witches, used obsolete Polikarpov Po-2 biplanes against the invading Germans. The Luftwaffe began to set up their own nocturnal harassment Staffel-sized forces known as ''Störkampfstaffeln''. Eventually ''Gruppe''-sized ''Nachtschlachtgruppen'' were used for the same general purpose as the Soviet units. The Luftwaffe's own harassment aviation units also used similarly obsolete aircraft, but of German design. The Heinkel He 46, Arado Ar 66, Focke-Wulf Fw 56 and even the standard training biplane, the Gotha Go 145, were all deployed in their efforts at attempting to emulate the success of the Soviets.

A few specialized ''Staffel'' sized units existed within the Luftwaffe for such specialized tasks as weather observation '' Wettererkundungsstaffeln'', (contracted to ''Wekusta''), specialized weaponry (a so-called ''Staffel 92'' was meant to be equipped with the cannon-armed Ju 88P-series of bomber destroyer fighters) and even outside the actual Luftwaffe, such as aircraft factory-operated defense ''Staffeln'', at least one of which even operated the Me 262 late in the war.

''Schwarm'', ''Rotte'' and ''Kette''

File:Flugformation Rotte.jpg, A ''Rotte''.
File:Flugformation Kettenkeil.jpg, A ''Kette''.

A ''Staffel'' was divided into three ''Schwärme'' (singular: ''Schwarm'', "swarm"), consisting of four to six aircraft.

Each bomber ''Schwarm'' (at full strength, six aircraft) was divided into a ''Kette'' ("chain") of three aircraft. As such, a bomber ''Schwarm'' was equivalent to a flight in the Western Allied air forces. A ''Kette'' was also the term used for a "v" formation.

A fighter ''Schwarm'' (four aircraft) was divided into two ' (singular: ''Rotte'', "pack") of two aircraft, equivalent to a pair in the English-speaking world. As such a fighter ''Schwarm'' was equivalent to a section/element in the Western Allied air forces. The term ''Rotte'' was also used for a formation of two aircraft: the smallest tactical unit, consisting of a leader and a wingman.

Air combat tactics

During the Spanish Civil War, Luftwaffe aces Werner Mölders and Günther Lützow created a new formation strategy for fighter geschwader. It had two aircraft flying in a loose pair called a 'Pack' (german: Rotte). Two pairs constituted a german: Schwarm. The four aircraft were flown in what was called the "Finger-four" formation. These aircraft were spread apart so that each pilot was offered maximum visibility. This arrangement was so successful that Soviet pilots in the Spanish Civil War followed the same technique. However, on returning home, they had to revert to the standard "V" formation. Douglas Bader, the British pilot, was the first RAF leader to adopt the "Finger four" formation in 1940. Japan also adopted the "Finger four" in World War II.Bickers, (1996) p. 150Buell, Griess, Bradley and Dice, (2002) p. 77 However, the Finnish Air Force claims to have used "finger-four" already in 1935.

In this formation, where each aircraft flew in positions similar to the fingers of an open hand (hence the name), the leader (german: Rottenführer) was at the front, while on his left wingtip was his partner from the ''Rotte''. The other ''Rotte'' was on the right wingtip of the leader. The partner in the second ''Rotte'' being on the right wingtip of his partner. The ''Rotte'' fighting pair also added to its flexibility, as a ''Schwarm'' could easily break into two ''Rotte'' pairs without losing its fighting ability. The ''Rottenführer'' could attack enemy aircraft, leaving his wingman to watch for the enemy. It was much more flexible than the rigid three-aircraft "Vic" formation the RAF used at the start of the war. In the ''Schwarm'' the aircraft had plenty of space to maneuver, so they were free to scan the horizon for enemy aircraft rather than focusing on maintaining a close formation. This flexibility became apparent to the RAF during the Battle of Britain.

Ground combat forces

Anti-aircraft units

Luftwaffe controlled the bulk of German anti-aircraft artillery (commonly called ''Flak'') since the 1930s. The smallest tactical unit of anti-aircraft artillery was a battery (german: Batterie).Westermann, ''Flak German Anti-aircraft Defenses 1914–1945''; pp. 36, 44, 90. Battery usually had four to six guns. The larger unit was a battalion (''Flak-Abteilung''), composed of three to five gun batteries and a searchlight battery. Battalions would be "light" (''leichte''), "mixed" (''gemischte''), or "heavy" (''schwere''), referring to the size of guns in their batteries.Ruffner, (1990) pp. 40, 45Mitcham, (2007-b) p. 323 Flak guns in use were in two light calibers and three heavy calibers – light 20 mm and 37 mm; and the heavy 88 mm, 105 mm, and 128 mm.

The battalions were variously organized into regiments (''Flak-Regimenter''), brigades (''Flak-Brigaden'' e.g. ''Flak-Brigade XIX''), divisions (''Flak-Divisionen'', e.g. ''27. Flak-Division'') and flak corps (''Flakkorps''), although the hierarchy was neither very strict or very stable throughout the history.

Over the course of the war, the continuous attacks by first RAF, then USAAF bombers on German cities led to increases in the number of flak units deployed in Germany. Late in the war, AA units were bolstered by the use of foreigners and German youths.Windrow, (1972) p. 18 There were a total of 29 flak divisions. Each division generally consisted of five flak regiments, one searchlight regiment, three motorized flak transport battalions, one communications battalion, and supply troops. The number of transport battalions varied depending on location and need of transport of the divisions. The first of these was formed in Berlin on 1 July 1938 as the Air Defense Command (''Luftverteidigungskommando'') but later renamed as 1st. Flak Division.

Paratroops

One of the unique characteristics of the Luftwaffe (as opposed to independent air forces of other nations), was the possession of an organic paratrooper force; the ''Fallschirmjäger''. These were established in 1938. They saw action in their proper role during 1940–1941, most notably in the capture of the Belgian Army fortress at Eben–Emael and the Battle of the Netherlands in May 1940. They also took part in the invasion of Crete in May 1941. More than 4,000 ''Fallschirmjäger'' were killed during the Crete operation. Consequently, these forces were only used for smaller-scale operations, such as the successful rescue of Benito Mussolini, the then-deposed dictator of Italy, in 1943. Fallschirmjäger formations were used as standard infantry in all theaters of the war.

Armored Paratroop Division

As the Prussian Minister of the Interior, Göring formed an elite police force in early 1933. It consisted of 400 men with its headquarters in Berlin. After several name changes within the following six months, it was named the ''Landespolizeigruppe General Göring''. During the next two years, it grew to become the ''Regiment General Göring''. After the formation of the Luftwaffe was announced, Göring transferred this unit to the German air arm. At that time, it consisted of the following units:Williamson and Andrew, (2003) pp. 3–5
* ''Regimentstab'' (Headquarters Staff)
* ''Musikkorps'' (Military Band)
* I Jäger-
* II Jäger-
* 13. Kradschützen-Kompanie
* 15. Pionier-Kompanie
* Reiterzug
* Nachrichtenzug

In late 1937, volunteers for the Paratroop Corps were combined in the ''I.Jäger–Battalion''. This along with the ''15. Pionier-Kompanie'' formed the ''IV. Fallschirmschützen-Battalion''. They still remained part of the ''Regiment Hermann Göring'' until March 1938. In March they were renamed ''I./FallschirmJäger-Regiment 1''. In late 1939, the regiment had expanded even further and consisted of the following units:
* Regimentstab
* Musikkorps
* Stabsbatterie
* I. (Schwere) Flak-Abteilung (Heavy Anti-Aircraft Artillery Battalion)
* II. (Leichte) Flak-Abteilung (Light Anti-Aircraft Artillery Battalion)
* III.Scheinwerfer-Abteilung (Searchlight Battalion)
* IV.(Leichte) Flak-Abteilung
* Wach-
** Reiterschwadron (Mounted Squadron)
** 9.Wach-Kompanie
** 10.Wach-Kompanie
** 11.Wach-Kompanie
* Reserve Scheinwerfer-Abteilung
* Ersatz-Abteilung
* (Schwere) Eisenbahn Flak-Batterie (Heavy Rail mounted Flak Battery)
* (Leichte) Flak-Batterie (Light Flak Battery)

On 1 October 1944, the division was expanded to become the ''FallschirmPanzerkorps Hermann Göring''. In order to achieve this, another division called '' Fallschirm-Panzergrenadier Division 2 Hermann Göring'' was formed. This was staffed by fresh recruits from both the army and the Luftwaffe.

Field Division

In early 1942, in the east, the Luftwaffe formed seven ''Feldregimenter der Luftwaffe'' ("Luftwaffe Field Regiments"). These were predominantly formed from volunteer or surplus Luftwaffe personnel. Their goal was to maintain airfield security against Soviet Partisan activity. Each regiment consisted of four battalions. Each battalion consisted of three light companies and one heavy company. They also had a headquarters company and one signals platoon. The heavy company operated twelve 20 mm cannon and four 88 mm dual-purpose guns. There was also an anti-tank battalion. It had two companies equipped with nine 5 cm PaK 38 and one company equipped with captured Russian 7.62 cm guns. Due to a lack of training in ground combat skills, these regiments were limited to defensive operations. Although intended to act as a single unit, the divisions were separated and served with army or with ''Fallschirmjäger'' units. While in the field, these units were tactically under the command of the army but administratively still under Luftwaffe control. Within the Luftwaffe, they came under the control of ''XIII. Fliegerkorps''.Taylor and Mayer, (1974) p. 95

Administratively, these units came under the control of four Luftwaffe Field Corps numbered I, II, III and IV. Each was commanded by ''General Der Luftwaffe'' ("General of the Airforce") Headquarters. The strength of a Luftwaffe Field Division was half that of an army infantry division. It did have a mixed Flak battalion and an artillery battalion. The composition of the artillery battalion varied. The mixed flak battalion (german: Abteilung) was formed as a part of the Luftwaffe Field Division. It had one heavy battery with three 20 mm cannons and four 88 mm guns along with twenty-seven 20 mm anti-aircraft guns. It had a headquarters staff as well as signals support troops.Ruffner, (1990) pp. 10–11

The Luftwaffe Field Division had a minimal administrative staff along with logistical support personnel in pioneer, medical and supply companies along with maintenance and other staff. Although the division gave the impression of strength, the reality was that it was barely the size of an army brigade. As of 28 October 1943, the 1st Luftwaffe Field Division reported an effective strength of 6,429 consisting of Officers, NCOs and enlisted men. But the fighting strength was only 2,779.Ruffner, (1990) p. 11

Although the army was short of manpower, Göring blocked the transfer of surplus Luftwaffe personnel to be trained for the army and instead increased the number of field divisions. Besides the lack of training and combat experience of the Luftwaffe commanders, the army had to supply equipment to these units. Instead of being used on quieter sections of the various fronts to relieve army units for use elsewhere, they were put into action where the Germans were hard pressed and suffered accordingly.

Identification markings and camouflage schemes

Identification markings

Aircraft markings were used to distinguish friend from foe. There were several changes in identification markings from 1935 until the end of the war in 1945. From 1933 to 1935, civilian aircraft were painted with a bright red horizontal band with a black swastika in a white circle superimposed, shown only on the vertical stabilizer. From 1936, the '' Balkenkreuz'' (national cross with four equal arms), basically inherited from the early spring 1918 period of ''Luftstreitkräfte'' service when it first appeared in World War I, was applied in black and white, with somewhat different proportions (one-quarter as wide as its length from end-to-end) than the WW I-period insignia, and without the white border outlining the "ends" of the cross, the white borders forming four right-angled "flanks" around the central black core cross. It was painted on the fuselage about halfway between the wing and the tail and on the upper and lower sides of each wing. The flanks came in two regulation dimension formats, with much narrower flanks before July 1939 used in all six positions on an airframe — a wider-flanked variation, for use underneath wings and on the fuselage sides, came into use from July 1939 onwards. This helped in immediate identification.

During the Spanish Civil War, where the Luftwaffe participated through the Condor Legion, aircraft were repainted with a white Andrea's Cross in a black circle. The tail was all white with Andrea's Cross on the rudder. In Germany itself, the ''Balkenkreuz'' was once again used as the national insignia on the fuselage and wings in six locations, initially with a very narrow set of four white "flanks", which were widened around 1938–39, with the usual swastika on the vertical tail surfaces, usually on the fixed fin, but sometimes instead on the rudder (as done on some Arado-designed aircraft) and on airframe designs that either had a small fin or one braced with struts. Medical aircraft were painted with a red cross on a white circular background. Later on in the war when camouflage was more necessary, the ''Balkenkreuz'' had only a white or black outline in a "low-visibility" format, consisting only of the four right-angle "flanks" that had previously bordered the now-absent central black core cross of the ''Balkenkreuz'',Lepage, (2009) pp. 48–50 with the swastika also frequently being done with a white or black border only, omitting the central black shape.

Production examples of the Heinkel He 177, however, curiously most often came from the Heinkel and subcontracting Arado factories with a set of ''Balkenkreuz'' insignia, most often the upper-wing narrow flank variant used as standard for all Luftwaffe aircraft, in all six positions throughout its deployment in the war, as was regulation before July 1939 for the entire Luftwaffe — these were often displayed without the outermost black "flanks", seemingly making the existing white "flanks" appear to be even thinner than regulation, which through photogrammetric examination of some examples, make the stroke width of the white "flanks" on some He 177 airframes as narrow as 1/80 the length of the core cross from end to end, only one-quarter as wide as the 1/20 regulation width called for on the upper wing ''Balkenkreuz'' regulation dimensions. Sometimes the wide-flanked underwing ''Balkenkreuz'' would be substituted for the narrow-flank version on some He 177A aircraft, and was already in use on many He 177As in that position.

Until 1935, civilian aircraft only had a registration painted on. This was usually the letter D (for ''Deutschland'') national identification letter in use from before 1928, followed by three or four numbers. After 1935, military planes carried, on the fuselage, an alphanumeric four-character ''Geschwaderkennung'' code with the ''Balkenkreuz'' after the first two characters, always consisting of one letter and one number in a unique combination for a specific ''Geschwader'' or ''Gruppe''. The third letter always designated the individual aircraft ID within a ''Staffel'', while the fourth letter designated the ''Staffel'' itself within the larger ''Geschwader'' or ''Gruppe'' unit it belonged to.

Camouflage schemes

In the Luftwaffe, there were centralized regulations on field camouflage patterns. In practice, these were either amended or ignored. Units in various areas used their own way of painting the aircraft excepting the ''Geschwaderkennung'' alphanumeric unit identifiers. Units in the very northern parts of Europe used pale blue wavy lines on a gray background. Night units of both fighters and bombers tended to color their aircraft completely black with a light brown or light gray pattern. This changed in early 1942: night fighters were painted a light gray on the upper surfaces and fuselage/nacelle sides, with light blue undersides, then over-sprayed with either irregular dark gray spots or irregular dark gray lines over all their upper surfaces. The irregular lines were meant to match the intricate patterns of ocean waves (usually called "wave-mirror" camouflage) as seen from the air, especially for interceptions of RAF night bombers over the North Sea. The nighttime skies over Germany usually had some light from either moonlight or even from city lights reflecting upwards into the skies, making a light base color effective for night fighters against sometimes cloudy or foggy skies below the night fighters' usual combat altitudes. Reconnaissance and maritime aircraft operating over the North Sea tended to paint the underside light blue and the top side in a dark gray or dark green to resemble the sea. By 1943, as economic conditions tightened, front line units used captured allied paint where available. Central control over camouflage relaxed even further.

Later-deployed examples of both night fighters defending the Reich, and Heinkel He 177 heavy bombers used for night raids over England such as with Operation Steinbock, often returned to using flat black undersurfaces replacing the light blue previously used during the mid-war years, while retaining the skyglow-based light gray base color/darker gray "wave-mirror" irregular lines or irregular splotches on the upper surfaces. With units disbanding and reforming frequently, intricate patterns became less common. Dark green became more or less the standard. With deteriorating conditions and scarce supplies, various motley color schemes were used. This changed only for those day fighter and "destroyer" units that flew as part of the Defense of the Reich (''Reichsverteidigung'') campaign. Later in 1944 these units adopted the pattern of a distinct color band, or two-colored bands, around the aft fuselage, with each ''Geschwader'' usually having their own unique combination.

Day fighter units

Single engine fighter units used chevrons to represent the pilot's rank or seniority. Bars, points or crosses to represent the ''Gruppe'' to which it belonged, and a number representing the ''Jagdgeschwader'' were also utilized. The ''Geschwaderkommodore'' of a fighter ''geschwader'' was represented by two chevrons and a vertical bar. The ''Gruppenkommandeur'' was represented by two chevrons; while a ''Gruppe'' Technical Officer would have a single chevron and a circle. The ''Geschwader'' abbreviation such as JG 11, ZG 110 was also applied. For a staff pilot, there would be a thick black line all around the aircraft. Some day fighter units also used geometric patterns of alternating black and white horizontal stripes on the engine cowling, or checkerboard patterns, also on the cowling. During the Defense of the Reich campaign, there was a general adoption of a system of colored rear fuselage bands, with unique combinations assigned to each ''Jagdgeschwader'' engaged in the campaign. Use of these colored fuselage bands was generally abandoned by mid-1944. At one point, a color scheme that painted the rudder in white, similar to what had been done during the North African Campaign, was trialled for units dedicated to Defense of the Reich duties, which also included the aforementioned ''Reichsverteidigung'' wing-code rear fuselage stripes for each individual ''Jagdgeschwader''.

The unofficial way to represent one's unit was the unit badge. These were solely at the discretion of the commanding officer, so badges of all shapes, sizes and subjects appeared. On the Eastern Front, they were officially banned in later years as they provided intelligence to the enemy.Weal, (2003) p. 48

Remaining units

''Geschwader'' combat wings, other than day fighters, during the war usually bore a four-character identification code, starting with a two-character alphanumeric ' ("wing code", a code unique to each ''Geschwader'') to the left of the national ''Balkenkreuz'' marking and two letters to the right, signifying the individual aircraft's letter within its ''Staffel'' as the third letter and the ''Staffel''-designating letter within the ''Geschwader'' as the fourth and last letter. The full four-character code was usually shown on the fuselage sides, sometimes with the individual aircraft letter repeated under the wings. ''Gruppe'' and ''Staffel''-sized units could also have their own unique codes of this type, most often used for reconnaissance and maritime aviation''Gruppen'' and ''Wekusta'' weather observation ''Staffeln'', with ''Staffel'' sized units using the four-character alphanumeric code almost always using an "H" as the fourth and last character. Late in the war, the first two characters of the ''Geschwaderkennung'' code (designating the ''geschwader'') were depicted on the fuselage sides in a much reduced size, possibly as a "low-visibility" security measure. The code tended (though not always), to be omitted altogether by 1945.

See also

* Luftwaffe personnel structure
* List of RLM paint designations
* Organization of the Kriegsmarine
* RLM aircraft designation system
* RLM numbering system for gliders and sailplanes
* Stab (Luftwaffe designation)

Notes

Footnotes

* By D-Day in June 1944, ''Luftflotte 3'', had units under it, scattered all over France. X. ''Fliegerkorps'' was transferred from Greece to Angers, France in March 1944. It acquired the assets of ''Fliegerführer Atlantik''.

Citations

References

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Organization Of The Luftwaffe (1933-1945)
Luftwaffe
Structure of contemporary air forces