National Agrarian Party (Romania)
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The National Agrarian Party ( ro, Partidul Național-Agrar or ''Partidul Național-Agrarian'', PNA) was a right-wing agrarian party active in
Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, S ...
during the early 1930s. Established and led by poet Octavian Goga, it was originally a schism from the more moderate People's Party, espousing
national conservatism National conservatism is a nationalist variant of conservatism that concentrates on upholding national and cultural identity. National conservatives usually combine nationalism with conservative stances promoting traditional cultural values, ...
,
monarchism Monarchism is the advocacy of the system of monarchy or monarchical rule. A monarchist is an individual who supports this form of government independently of any specific monarch, whereas one who supports a particular monarch is a royalist. ...
,
agrarianism Agrarianism is a political and social philosophy that has promoted subsistence agriculture, smallholdings, and egalitarianism, with agrarian political parties normally supporting the rights and sustainability of small farmers and poor peasants ...
,
antisemitism Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is considered to be a form of racism. Antis ...
, and Germanophilia; Goga was also positively impressed by fascism, but there is disagreement in the scholarly community as to whether the PNA was itself fascist. Its antisemitic rhetoric was also contrasted by the PNA's acceptance of some Jewish members, including Tudor Vianu and Henric Streitman. The group was generally suspicious of Romania's other ethnic minorities, but in practice accepted members and external collaborators of many ethnic backgrounds, including the
Romani Romani may refer to: Ethnicities * Romani people, an ethnic group of Northern Indian origin, living dispersed in Europe, the Americas and Asia ** Romani genocide, under Nazi rule * Romani language, any of several Indo-Aryan languages of the Roma ...
Gheorghe A. Lăzăreanu-Lăzurică Gheorghe A. Lăzăreanu-Lăzurică or George Lăzurică, also known as Lăzărescu-Lăzurică or Lăzărică (1892 – ?), was a leader of the Romani (Gypsy) community in Romania, also remembered for his support of Romania's interwar far-right. O ...
. The PNA existed as a venue for supporting the authoritarian King, Carol II, whose political program it partly enacted. The National Agrarianist economic and social proposals included the protection of smallholders, with echoes of
dirigisme Dirigisme or dirigism () is an economic doctrine in which the state plays a strong directive (policies) role contrary to a merely regulatory interventionist role over a market economy. As an economic doctrine, dirigisme is the opposite of ''lai ...
and promises of debt relief. It was strongly opposed to the more left-wing National Peasants' Party, describing it as corrupt and denouncing its autonomist-regionalist tendencies. In Parliament, PNA representatives, largely inherited from the People's Party, collaborated mostly with two other anti-establishment groups: the Georgist Liberals and the Lupist Peasantists. The PNA was able to absorb some National Peasantist sections, primarily in Bucharest and Transylvania. The PNA registered its best result nationally in the December 1933 election, when it took 4.1% of the vote. Despite its relative insignificance, its leader Goga was often perceived as a likely contender for the office of Prime Minister. The PNA had contacts in Nazi Germany, who regarded it as a political ally. While cautious about the Nazis' take on international politics, Goga traveled to Berlin in late 1933, meeting Adolf Hitler and returning as an enthusiastic admirer. Moving closer to the
far-right Far-right politics, also referred to as the extreme right or right-wing extremism, are political beliefs and actions further to the right of the left–right political spectrum than the standard political right, particularly in terms of being ...
and abandoning his own membership in the Romanian Freemasonry, Goga sought alliances with the more radical movements. The PNA tried but failed to unite with the
Iron Guard The Iron Guard ( ro, Garda de Fier) was a Romanian militant revolutionary fascist movement and political party founded in 1927 by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu as the Legion of the Archangel Michael () or the Legionnaire Movement (). It was strongly ...
and the Romanian Front, finally merging with the slightly more powerful National-Christian Defense League in July 1935. The resulting National Christian Party (PNC) offered a venue for conservative antisemites with fascist sympathies, but was rejected by PNA moderates, as well as by some of the League's radicals. A splinter group, led by Ion Al. Vasilescu-Valjean and centered on
Romanați County Romanați County was a county (Romanian: '' județ'') in the Kingdom of Romania, in southeastern part of the historical region of Oltenia. The county seat was Caracal. The county was located in the southwestern part of Romania, in the southeaster ...
, continued to call itself PNA, surviving to at least 1937. Briefly serving as Prime Minister, Goga was asked to step down by Carol II, whose 1938 Constitution introduced a royal dictatorship. Goga died soon after; although the PNC was not repressed under the new regime, it suffered an internal crisis, with PNA men establishing a Union of National Awareness. Both it and other PNC factions were then absorbed by Carol's
National Renaissance Front The National Renaissance Front ( ro, Frontul Renașterii Naționale, FRN; also translated as ''Front of National Regeneration'', ''Front of National Rebirth'', ''Front of National Resurrection'', or ''Front of National Renaissance'') was a Romani ...
.


History


Emergence

The party emerged with a split in the more mainstream People's Party (PP), which was led by General Alexandru Averescu. This followed a major dispute between Averescu and Goga, prompted by the latter's unconditional support for Carol II, who had taken the throne under disputed circumstances in 1930. Historian Adolf Minuț argues that Carol personally intervened to create a rift between the two men, this being one of a "web of Carlist machinations" to isolate his constitutionalist adversaries. The same is noted by memoirist Vasile Netea, who describes Carol as performing "
scissiparity Fission, in biology, is the division of a single entity into two or more parts and the regeneration of those parts to separate entities resembling the original. The object experiencing fission is usually a cell, but the term may also refer to how ...
" on the old parties.Netea, p. 249 In January 1932, Goga had vaguely announced his bid for the PP chairmanship, while also hinting that he was prepared to leave with his partisans if his candidacy were to be rejected. On March 3, Averescu formally denounced Goga's maneuvers in a circular letter to regional affiliates, noting that a conspiracy was in place to break up the PP.Minuț (1999), p. 269 In response, Goga accused Averescu of tarnishing the crown's prestige, claiming that his own faction was now Romania's "one monarchist party"; according to Goga, a reigning king was to be held as an expression of the "Romanian soul". Goga and his group were now situated on the extreme of Romanian nationalism, with "some sympathies toward fascism".Heinen, p. 175 However, their caucus was also able to absorb more moderate sections of the PP, leaving Averescu's group severely weakened. Averescu and his colleague, Grigore Trancu-Iași, fought back by asking for all dissidents still holding seats in the Assembly of Deputies to be deposed. This proposal was eventually defeated by a vote, during which the National Liberal Party voted in Goga's favor.Minuț (1999), p. 273 Goga's party originated with a PP congress at Enescu restaurant on March 12, attended by 45 of 65 sections, which proclaimed Goga as People's Party chairman. By March 21, Averescu was able to regain control over most PP chapters, though he lost all presence in places such as Argeș, Cluj, and Mehedinți. Following this confrontation, Goga announced he would take on the "painful task" of leaving Averescu's group. As noted by scholar Armin Heinen, the National Agrarians' genesis coincided with the parallel rise of the Nazi Party in Weimar Germany: the PNA began organizing during Weimar's presidential election, in which Adolf Hitler came second. Goga's "general staff" included former minister
Ion Petrovici Ion (Ioan) Petrovici (June 14, 1882 – February 17, 1972) was a Romanian professor of philosophy at the University of Iași and titular member of the Romanian Academy. He served as Minister of National Education in the Goga cabinet and Ministe ...
, alongside Ion Al. Vasilescu-Valjean and C. Brăescu, who had been Vice Presidents of the Deputies' Assembly.Tr. R., "Știri—Note—Comentarii. Marea întrunire Național-Agrară ținută la Turtucaia", in ''Farul'', Issue 14/1933, p. 4 Three other prominent Averescu supporters, Leon Scridon,
Silviu Dragomir Silviu may refer to: * Silviu Bălace (born 1978), Romanian football player * Silviu Berejan (1927–2007), Bessarabian writer from Moldova and member of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova * Silviu Bindea (1912–1992), Romanian football player *Si ...
and
Ioan Lupaș Ioan Lupaș (9 August 1880 – 3 July 1967) was a Romanian historian, academic, politician, Orthodox theologian and priest. He was a member of the Romanian Academy. Biography Lupaș was born in Szelistye, now Săliște, Sibiu County (at the time ...
, also joined Goga during his departure. Early defectors also included a large part of the PP eminences in Transylvania and the Banat: Eugen P. Barbul, Sebastian Bornemisa, Laurian Gabor, and Petru Nemoianu. This remained "the most painful" of all schisms endured by the PP.Hans-Christian Maner, "Despre elite și partide politice din România interbelică", in Vasile Ciobanu, Sorin Radu (eds.), ''Partide politice și minorități naționale din România în secolul XX'', Vol. III, p. 197. Sibiu: TechnoMedia, 2008. On April 10, 1932, this dissidence held its congress at Rio Cinema, Bucharest. Its first presidium included Lupaș, General
Constantin Iancovescu Constantin Iancovescu (1862–1945) was a Romanian politician and general. During World War I, he was Secretary General of the War Ministry from August to September 1916. He became Chief of the General Staff and Commander of the Danube Defense ...
,
Stan Ghițescu Stan Ghițescu (June 2, 1881 – February 25, 1952) was a Romanian politician. Born in Mârzănești, Teleorman County, Cicerone Ionițoiu"Victimele terorii comuniste. Arestați, torturați, întemnițați, uciși. Dicționar G"/ref> he atten ...
, Ilie Rădulescu, and Iancu Isvoranu; Goga was reconfirmed as People's Party chairman, before the party changed names. The "PNA" name was adopted hours later, following a motion submitted by deputy D. D. Burileanu—having been first submitted for discussion a week earlier, during a more private meeting of party leaders. The group registered as its electoral symbol "two dots within a circumference", sometimes described as a circle with "two eyes". Whether intentionally or not, this symbol closely resembled the circle used by a more democratic agrarian group, the National Peasants' Party (PNȚ). Transylvanian defectors from the PNȚ initially organized some of the PNA branches, but, in June 1932, returned to their old party. More dedicated support came from the former PNȚ chapters in Ilfov County and the "Black" (northeastern) sector of Bucharest, which were absorbed into Goga's new movement. PNA cadres included four important figures in Romania's commercial and industrial life, who, as Netea writes, were especially treasured by Goga. These were Ghițescu, Tilică Ioanid, I. D. Enescu, and Leon Gigurtu. The group also reached out of its PP constituency, and had traction among people not previously involved in party politics, such as Virgil Molin, a journalist and president of the
Craiova Craiova (, also , ), is Romania's 6th Cities in Romania, largest city and capital of Dolj County, and situated near the east bank of the river Jiu River, Jiu in central Oltenia. It is a longstanding political center, and is located at approximatel ...
chamber of labor. Also joining the PNA were the literary critic Tudor Vianu Lucian Boia, ''Capcanele istoriei. Elita intelectuală românească între 1930 și 1950'', pp. 102–103. Bucharest:
Humanitas ''Humanitas'' is a Latin noun meaning human nature, civilization, and kindness. It has uses in the Enlightenment, which are discussed below. Classical origins of term The Latin word ''humanitas'' corresponded to the Greek concepts of '' philanthr ...
, 2012.
and his brother, the essayist Alexandru Vianu, alongside poet Sandu Tudor and philosopher
Alexandru Mironescu Alexandru Mironescu (July 23, 1903–January 20, 1973) was a Romanian prose writer. Born in Tecuci, his parents were Victor Mironescu and his wife Elena. After attending Dimitrie Cantemir High School in Bucharest, he obtained degrees in chemis ...
.Emilia Motoranu, "Un scriitor uitat: Alexandru Vianu", in ''Sud. Revistă Editată de Asociația pentru Cultură și Tradiție Istorică Bolintineanu'', Issues 1–2/2016, p. 5 ''
Țara Noastră ''Ţara'' ( en, The Country) was a magazine from the Republic of Moldova founded on August 15, 1990 as a newspaper of the Popular Front of Moldova. Ţara was the successor of Deşteptarea. Ştefan Secăreanu was the editor in chief and Sergiu Bu ...
'', put out from Transylvania by Ion Gorun, endured as the central party organ, with another party newspaper of the same name appearing at Buzău.Minuț (1999), p. 274 While establishing itself regionally, Goga's party took over or established several regional newspapers: ''Cuvântul Poporului'', put out by Elie Mărgeanu of Sibiu; ''Agrarul Vâlcei'', published by Dumitru Zeana in Râmnicu Vâlcea; ''Cârma Vremii'' of
Iași Iași ( , , ; also known by other alternative names), also referred to mostly historically as Jassy ( , ), is the second largest city in Romania and the seat of Iași County. Located in the historical region of Moldavia, it has traditionally ...
and ''Chemarea'' of Vaslui; as well as two sheets in
Brăila Brăila (, also , ) is a city in Muntenia, eastern Romania, a port on the Danube and the capital of Brăila County. The ''Sud-Est'' Regional Development Agency is located in Brăila. According to the 2011 Romanian census there were 180,302 pe ...
and
Constanța Constanța (, ; ; rup, Custantsa; bg, Кюстенджа, Kyustendzha, or bg, Констанца, Konstantsa, label=none; el, Κωνστάντζα, Kōnstántza, or el, Κωνστάντια, Kōnstántia, label=none; tr, Köstence), histo ...
, both named ''Brazda Nouă''.


Platform


Conservatism, radicalism, agrarianism

As Heinen notes, the PNA was one of several groups channeling popular discontent following the
Great Depression The Great Depression (19291939) was an economic shock that impacted most countries across the world. It was a period of economic depression that became evident after a major fall in stock prices in the United States. The economic contagio ...
; it was also the most authentic, and a "remarkable force." Historian
Stanley G. Payne Stanley George Payne (born September 9, 1934) is an American historian of modern Spain and European Fascism at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He retired from full-time teaching in 2004 and is currently Professor Emeritus at its Department ...
describes the splinter group as authoritarian nationalist and "rightist", or "rather more overtly right radical" than
Mihail Manoilescu Mihail Manoilescu (; December 9, 1891 – December 30, 1950) was a Romanian journalist, engineer, economist, politician and memoirist, who served as Foreign Minister of Romania during the summer of 1940. An active promoter of and contributor to f ...
's own dissident faction. The issue of its labeling has caused some disputes in the community of experts. Nicholas Nagy-Talavera viewed Goga as a "bourgeois fascist", but his assessment was challenged by Heinen, according to whom the PNA's "radical nationalism" was "entirely devoid of that revolutionary pathos which set apart all the fascist parties." Overall, "too many PNA members were still tied to the People's Party directives in both manners and ideas of political combat." Researcher Ion Mezarescu likewise viewed the PNA ideology as "within the coordinates of interwar bourgeois democracy". However, according to scholar Irina Livezeanu, Goga was in the process of migrating "across the conservative-radical divide". National Peasantist
Nicolae Carandino Nicolae Carandino (19 July 1905 – 16 February 1996) was a Romanian journalist, pamphleteer, translator, dramatist, and politician. He was born in Brăila into a family of intellectuals, the son of a Romanian mother and Greek father. After co ...
, who was a political reporter in the 1930s, describes his disappointment with witnessing Goga's transition into a "politician and by no means a statesman". According to Carandino, the PNA leader had "no politically autonomous values", and was essentially a "high-end prostitute". While reaching out to the far-right, the PNA remained staunchly monarchist—according to Heinen, Goga was a " national conservative" among the "Carlists". The National Agrarians adopted ''Dumnezeu, Patrie, Rege'' ("God, Fatherland, King") as their slogan, a rallying cry already associated with Goga before the party's formation. The group's rejection of democracy had its roots in Goga's 1927 book, ''Mustul care fierbe'' ("The Frothing Must"), which argued that the masses needed a "moral eminence" to "inspire in them tranquility and safety." The PNA suggested modifying Romania's Constitution of 1923, reducing Parliament to an "orderly and useful instrument", reformed around a corporative representation. Simultaneously, the party campaigned for widening the suffrage, primarily by allowing women to vote; to this end, the wives of PNA eminences created their own "women circles", which also took up the task of promoting social hygiene in rural areas. In time, the PNA adopted another slogan: ''Rod mult, bun și cu preț'' ("More, better, valuable bearings"). This notion reflected its commitment to an agrarian economy, which Goga identified as the core of Romania's potential for export, in tandem with the
Romanianization Romanianization is the series of policies aimed toward ethnic assimilation implemented by the Romanian authorities during the 20th and 21st century. The most noteworthy policies were those aimed at the Hungarian minority in Romania, Jews and as ...
of labor and capital.
Al. Gherghel Al. Gherghel (; April 27, 1879 — December 20, 1951) was a Romanian Symbolist poet. Born in Pitești into a family of intellectuals, his father Ion was a German teacher in Câmpulung. He spent his childhood and adolescence in the latter town, ...
, "Octavian Goga și partidul său", in ''Farul'', Issue 18/1933, pp. 1–2
Its leadership promised to suspend payments on Romania's external debt; in exchange, it promised a tax reform that would benefit both local and foreign investors. Goga's agrarianism rested on the notion that peasants were a unifying factor, their shared culture transcending regional divisions. In 1935, Valjean similarly proclaimed that all classes were "subordinate to the plowmen".Dumitru Botar, "Din presa romanațeană de altădată (III)", in ''Memoria Oltului și Romanaților'', Issue 4/2017, p. 32 His PNA intended to make the smallholders key players in Romania's economy, encouraging credit unions and land purchase, as well as describing a future in which labor and its product would be more expensive; it also promised to enact agricultural
dirigisme Dirigisme or dirigism () is an economic doctrine in which the state plays a strong directive (policies) role contrary to a merely regulatory interventionist role over a market economy. As an economic doctrine, dirigisme is the opposite of ''lai ...
, with tools such as a state plan for developing agriculture, pomology, sericulture, and handicrafts. In parallel, Goga's intellectual debt to corporatism took form as promises to enact class collaboration, or "harmonious solidarity between workers, peasants and all other productive forces". Historian Oltea Rășcanu Gramaticu, who focused on the politics of Tutova County, noted that the PNA enjoyed "some popularity", due to its "radical solutions for revitalizing small plots owned by the peasants". However, as argued by researchers Cornel Popescu and George Daniel Ungureanu, the PNA was agrarian "in name", and had a mostly right-wing program. While seeking ways to improve the peasants' economic status, the party pledged itself to administrative reform and a full clampdown on corruption. By October 1932, its deputies were engaged in a public confrontation with the PNȚ cabinet, headed by
Alexandru Vaida-Voevod Alexandru Vaida-Voevod or Vaida-Voievod (27 February 1872 – 19 March 1950) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian politician who was a supporter and promoter of the Union of Transylvania with Romania, union of Transylvania (before 1920 part of ...
, over the issue of debt relief. Goga wanted most of the small- and mid-sized plots to be cleared of debt with state support, and wanted to extend that principle to public debt held by urban localities. He also wanted communes to exercise more control over local tribunals.Mezarescu, p. 65 Such proposals were balanced out by the PNA's adversity toward decentralizing projects, in which Goga saw evidence of pushes for Transylvanian autonomism, as endorsed by the PNȚ.Minuț (2001), p. 429 The PNA understood administrative reform to be necessary, but would only commit itself to projects which would befit "national unity as an instinct".


The PNA on minorities

The party's stances evidenced Goga's conversion to antisemitism, which he had not explicitly embraced before 1932; within that framework, Goga was arguing that Jews were endorsing "
Magyarization Magyarization ( , also ''Hungarization'', ''Hungarianization''; hu, magyarosítás), after "Magyar"—the Hungarian autonym—was an assimilation or acculturation process by which non-Hungarian nationals living in Austro-Hungarian Transleithan ...
" in Transylvania.
William I. Brustein William I. Brustein is Professor Emeritus at West Virginia University, having recently stepped down as Vice President for Global Strategies and International Affairs and Eberly Family Distinguished Professor of History. Previously, he was the Vic ...
, ''Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe Before the Holocaust'', p. 157. Cambridge etc.: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
However, already in the 1910s Goga was modelling himself on
Karl Lueger Karl Lueger (; 24 October 1844 – 10 March 1910) was an Austrian politician, mayor of Vienna, and leader and founder of the Austrian Christian Social Party. He is credited with the transformation of the city of Vienna into a modern city. The pop ...
,
Cisleithania Cisleithania, also ''Zisleithanien'' sl, Cislajtanija hu, Ciszlajtánia cs, Předlitavsko sk, Predlitavsko pl, Przedlitawia sh-Cyrl-Latn, Цислајтанија, Cislajtanija ro, Cisleithania uk, Цислейтанія, Tsysleitaniia it, Cislei ...
's antisemitic doctrinaire. In the 1920s, his ''Țara Noastră'' had expressed sympathy with the growing antisemitic trend among students, and indirectly with the
Iron Guard The Iron Guard ( ro, Garda de Fier) was a Romanian militant revolutionary fascist movement and political party founded in 1927 by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu as the Legion of the Archangel Michael () or the Legionnaire Movement (). It was strongly ...
. In ''Mustul care fierbe'', Goga further hinted that Jews were to blame for the ills of modernity. He voiced alarm about Greater Romania being invaded by "parasites" and "guess... who". However, he framed his support for the students in terms of social rejuvenation, and noted that violent antisemitism was perhaps an "incorrect slogan". During the elections of 1926, Goga, as
Minister of the Interior An interior minister (sometimes called a minister of internal affairs or minister of home affairs) is a cabinet official position that is responsible for internal affairs, such as public security, civil registration and identification, emergency ...
, had obtained favors for
A. C. Cuza Alexandru C. Cuza (8 November 1857 – 3 November 1947), also known as A. C. Cuza, was a Romanian far-right politician and economist. Early life Born in Iași, Cuza attended secondary school in his native city and in Dresden, Saxony, Germany, ...
's National-Christian Defense League (LANC), which was virulently antisemitic. However, his assistance proved a moderating influence, obliging Cuza to purge the LANC of radicals such as
Ion Zelea Codreanu An ion () is an atom or molecule with a net electrical charge. The charge of an electron is considered to be negative by convention and this charge is equal and opposite to the charge of a proton, which is considered to be positive by convent ...
, Valer Pop, and
Traian Brăileanu Traian Brăileanu or BrăileanAndrei Corbea-Hoișie, "'Wie die Juden Gewalt schreien': Aurel Onciul und die antisemitische Wende in der Bukowiner Öffentlichkeit nach 1907", in ''East Central Europe'', Vol. 39, Issue 1, 2012, p. 22 (September 14, ...
. While commenting on Goga's political duplicity, Carandino agued that he "was just as ready to serve the monarchy, the ationalLiberals, he Jewish businessman
Aristide Blank Aristide or Aristid Blank, also spelled Blanc or Blanck (January 1, 1883 – January 1, 1960), was a Romanian financier, economist, arts patron and playwright. His father, Mauriciu Blank, an assimilated and naturalized Romanian Jew, was manager o ...
, or anyone else who would have hired him." In 1931, Goga was still reassuring his readers that he was not an antisemite. According to Minuț, his subsequent drift was a consequence of his taking money from antisemitic industrialists, and in particular from
Ion Gigurtu Ion Gigurtu (; 24 June 1886 – 24 November 1959) was a far-right Romanian politician, Land Forces officer, engineer and industrialist who served a brief term as Prime Minister from 4 July to 4 September 1940, under the personal regime of King Car ...
. Xenophobic radicalization was additionally enhanced by the PNA–PNȚ conflict: Goga castigated his adversaries for their alleged
grafting Grafting or graftage is a horticultural technique whereby tissues of plants are joined so as to continue their growth together. The upper part of the combined plant is called the scion () while the lower part is called the rootstock. The succ ...
during the "
Škoda Affair Škoda means ''pity'' in the Czech and Slovak languages. It may also refer to: Czech brands and enterprises * Škoda Auto, automobile and previously bicycle manufacturer in Mladá Boleslav ** Škoda Motorsport, the division of Škoda Auto respons ...
", which had profited the Polish industrialist Bruno Seletzky. However, Minuț notes, Goga was "contradictory" even at this late stage, sometimes stating his belief in the minorities' integration, but often decrying their participation in public life. The PNA nevertheless had various Jewish affiliates, including the Vianus, who probably believed that membership would complement their
assimilation Assimilation may refer to: Culture *Cultural assimilation, the process whereby a minority group gradually adapts to the customs and attitudes of the prevailing culture and customs **Language shift, also known as language assimilation, the progre ...
, and journalist Henric Streitman, who was primarily motivated by anticommunism.
G. Brătescu G is the seventh letter of the Latin alphabet. G may also refer to: Places * Gabon, international license plate code G * Glasgow, UK postal code G * Eastern Quebec, Canadian postal prefix G * Melbourne Cricket Ground in Melbourne, Australia, ...

"Uniunea Ziariștilor Profesioniști, 1919 – 2009. Compendiu aniversar"
in ''Mesagerul de Bistrița-Năsăud'', December 11, 2009
While Tudor Vianu co-chaired the PNA Studies Circle, alongside Petrovici, Streitman was appointed on the PNA's Executive Committee. They were joined by Jewish philosopher
Iosif Brucăr Iosif may refer to: People * Iosif Amusin, Soviet historian * Iosif Anisim, Romanian sprint canoer *Iosif Blaga, Romanian literary theorist and politician *Iosif Bobulescu, Romanian bishop *Iosif Capotă, Romanian anti-communist resistance fighte ...
, but only briefly. As Brucăr explained years later, he had resigned upon learning what the party actually stood for. Another leading party figure was Jewish businessman Leon Preiss, who chaired the PNA section in Bucharest's Black Sector and, in 1932, still referred to Goga as a friend of the Jews. The party remained open to other ethnic minorities: its branch in Durostor County, organized by M. Magiari and
Pericle Papahagi Pericle Papahagi (1872 – January 20, 1943) was an Aromanian literary historian and folklorist. He was born into an Aromanian family in Avdella (), a village that formed part of the Ottoman Empire's Manastir Vilayet and is now in Greece. Aft ...
, counted Turks, Bulgarians and Aromanians among its members. PNA sections in
Bukovina Bukovinagerman: Bukowina or ; hu, Bukovina; pl, Bukowina; ro, Bucovina; uk, Буковина, ; see also other languages. is a historical region, variously described as part of either Central or Eastern Europe (or both).Klaus Peter BergerT ...
were led by Petro Ivanciuc, Andriv Zemliuc and Necolai Palli, who were probably
Ukrainian Ukrainian may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Ukraine * Something relating to Ukrainians, an East Slavic people from Eastern Europe * Something relating to demographics of Ukraine in terms of demography and population of Ukraine * So ...
. Goga also had contacts within the
Romani community The Romani (also spelled Romany or Rromani , ), colloquially known as the Roma, are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group, traditionally nomadic itinerants. They live in Europe and Anatolia, and have diaspora populations located worldwide, with si ...
, including activist
Gheorghe A. Lăzăreanu-Lăzurică Gheorghe A. Lăzăreanu-Lăzurică or George Lăzurică, also known as Lăzărescu-Lăzurică or Lăzărică (1892 – ?), was a leader of the Romani (Gypsy) community in Romania, also remembered for his support of Romania's interwar far-right. O ...
, who acted as an electoral agent for both the PNA and the Iron Guard. PNA politico Rădulescu was allegedly of Romani origin, and was attending Romani congresses in a private capacity. Such issues highlighted the schism between the two Romani organizations, respectively led by Lăzăreanu and Calinic Șerboianu. At the time, Șerboianu accused his rival of being Goga's puppet.


Electioneering and Nazi influence

According to Heinen, the PNA can be grouped into an "antisemitic ndmarkedly right-wing" segment, alongside the LANC and the Citizen Bloc—but distinct from the more radical Iron Guard. The three parties had 9% of the vote in the July 1932 election, with the PNA itself at 3.64% (or 4% and 108,857 ballots, in Minuț's count). The leading candidates included Dragomir, Ghițescu, Gorun, Ioanid, Lupaș, Nemoianu, Scridon, Valjean,
Sergiu Niță Sergiu T. Niță (1883 in Peresecina – 3 March 1940 in Bucharest) was a politician and lawyer from Romania. He served as Minister for Bessarabia (1920–1921, 1926–1927) in the Averescu cabinets. Biography Sergiu Niță was born on March ...
, I. C. Atanasiu, Dumitru Topciu, as well as the party leader and his brother
Eugen Goga Eugen is a masculine given name which may refer to: * Archduke Eugen of Austria (1863–1954), last Habsburg Grandmaster of the Teutonic Order from 1894 to 1923 * Prince Eugen, Duke of Närke (1865–1947), Swedish painter, art collector, and pat ...
. Eight were elected, including Octavian Goga for Mureș, Ioanid for Mehedinți, Ghițescu for Teleorman, Pavel Cuciujna for Orhei, and Valjean for Romanați; Scridon also entered the Assembly by taking the second seat in Năsăud County, with 2,069 votes. According to Netea's first-hand account, Goga's victory was hard-won: peasants rounded up to mock him during his campaign tour at Deda. Speaking for his party, Ghițescu accused Premier Vaida of having falsified the vote. The PNA chose not to compete in the by-elections of September, announcing that it was too caught up organizing its base. Vaida's paper, ''
Gazeta Transilvaniei ''Gazeta de Transilvania'' was the first Romanian-language newspaper to be published in Transylvania. It was founded by George Bariț in 1838 in Brașov. It played a very important role in the awakening of the Romanian national conscience in Trans ...
'', ridiculed this decision, noting that Goga had been "shamed" and was not risking further embarrassment. The National Agrianists had by then cultivated a relationship with two other splinter groups of the classical parties: the Georgist Liberal Party and the Lupist Peasantists. It developed into a working alliance.Minuț (2001), p. 430 Preparing for a foreseeable PNȚ downfall, the PNA held large-scale rallies announcing its preparedness for government. In April, at Caracal, Goga hinted that Carol was seriously considering forming a PNA cabinet. On June 26, addressing a crowd gathered outside
Târgoviște Târgoviște (, alternatively spelled ''Tîrgoviște''; german: Tergowisch) is a city and county seat in Dâmbovița County, Romania. It is situated north-west of Bucharest, on the right bank of the Ialomița River. Târgoviște was one of the ...
, he announced his contempt for the PNȚ, describing its leader, Iuliu Maniu, as "responsible for all misfortunes that have fallen upon this country." In December 1933, Carol asked Vaida to step down, and the National Liberals took over, with
Ion G. Duca Ion Gheorghe Duca (; 20 December 1879 – 29 December 1933) was Romanian politician and the Prime Minister of Romania from 14 November to 29 December 1933, when he was assassinated for his efforts to suppress the fascist Iron Guard movement. ...
at the helm. Duca then approached the PNA leadership to establish a coalition, conditioned on Goga toning down his nationalism; Goga refused. The PNA leader was also dissatisfied with the details of the offer, and in particular with Duca's history as an anti-Carlist. Discarding such mainstream arrangements, the PNA issued press releases referring to the Duca team as a clientele of the Jewry. Before the December 1933 election in Romania, Germany had come under Nazi control. The PNA found itself intensely courted by the new regime, which pursued Eastern European alliances. Goga was a regular guest at the German Legation, and accepted offers for collaboration; however, he also insisted that Nazi Germany vouch for Greater Romania's borders. During those months, the PNA, represented by Valjean, joined the "Antirevisionist League", a civic movement for the
Little Entente The Little Entente was an alliance formed in 1920 and 1921 by Czechoslovakia, Romania and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929 Yugoslavia) with the purpose of common defense against Hungarian revanchism and the prospect of a Hab ...
and against
Hungarian irredentism Hungarian irredentism or Greater Hungary ( hu, Nagy-Magyarország) are irredentist political ideas concerning redemption of territories of the historical Kingdom of Hungary. Targeting at least to regain control over Hungarian-populated areas in H ...
. Formally supportive of the League of Nations and its system of peace treaties, the PNA made a slow move into Germany's orbit. In its electoral program of 1933, the party removed all reference to the toleration of national minorities, and proposed measures to supervise them, and in particular their "ideological imports". Nonetheless, in March 1933, the Nazi agent of influence, Friedrich Weber, described Goga as a "man of the future", one who could bring Hitler's ideology to Romania. A far-right politico, Nae Ionescu, allegedly regarded Goga as a potential Prime Minister of an Iron Guard cabinet. According to this version, Goga was tasked with enacting the "Hitlerian" program, including antisemitism and
anti-Masonry Anti-Masonry (alternatively called anti-Freemasonry) is "avowed opposition to Freemasonry",''Oxford English Dictionary'' (1979 ed.), p. 369. which has led to multiple forms of religious discrimination, violent persecution, and suppression in so ...
. This pronouncement anticipated Goga's own departure from the Romanian Freemasonry, of which he was still a member in summer 1933. In September, Goga and Colonel
Ștefan Tătărescu Ștefan is the Romanian form of Stephen, used as both a given name and a surname. For the English version, see Stefan. Some better known people with the name Ștefan are listed below. For a comprehensive list see . Notable persons with that name ...
of the Romanian National Socialist Party (PNSR) were both received by Hitler in Berlin. In November, while campaigning in
Bessarabia Bessarabia (; Gagauz: ''Besarabiya''; Romanian: ''Basarabia''; Ukrainian: ''Бессара́бія'') is a historical region in Eastern Europe, bounded by the Dniester river on the east and the Prut river on the west. About two thirds of Be ...
, the Colonel was seized by the local police; Consequently, he and Cicerone Manole, who had led the Bukovina Nazi cell, were put up as PNA candidates for the Assembly—Tătărescu headed the list for
Cahul Cahul (; also known by other alternative names) is a city and municipality in southern Moldova. The city is the administrative center of Cahul District; it also administers one village, Cotihana. As of 2014 census, the city has had a populatio ...
, while Manole ran second to Teodor Tcaciuc in
Storojineț Storozhynets ( uk, Сторожинець, ; ro, Storojineț; see #Other names, below for other names) is a small city located in Chernivtsi Raion, Chernivtsi Oblast of western Ukraine, north of the border with Romania. It hosts the administra ...
. The 1932 performance was closely mirrored in this second national race, when the PNA managed 4.2%, with its family of parties again at 9%. Such results proved well below Goga's expectations, and widely acknowledged as a sign that the Romanian electorate had not been persuaded by the tenets of radical nationalism—the party leader himself noted that propaganda had been "inefficient". The PNA had nine mandates: Goga, Scridon, Ioanid and Ghițescu held on to their seats; Valjean was also elected, but for Caraș, with Petrovici taking his post in Romanați."Tablou indicând rezultatele", ''passim''; Minuț (2001), pp. 427–428 Topciu also won a seat, at Tighina, while physician
Gheorghe Banu Gheorghe Banu (23 March 1889—15 August 1957) was a Romanian hygienist and politician who served as Health Minister in the Octavian Goga government from 12 December 1937 to 10 February 1938. He was a leading promoter of eugenics among academics ...
was elected at Ialomița. Another new recruit, Vasile Goldiș, failed to win the race for Arad, as did Ion Demetrescu-Agraru in Baia, while Lupaș lost at Sibiu and Nemoianu at Severin. Overall, the PNA had some 122,000 votes, which was enough to earn it an extra seat.


Merger and splinters

As historian Francisco Veiga notes, visits to Germany and the Kingdom of Italy made Goga "enthusiastic" and "completed ispolitical evolution". It was at this stage that Goga began openly praising Italian fascism as the paragon of the "new psychology", while using its administrative laws as a template for reforms in Romania. According to Mezarescu, this period also saw him taking a stand against Marxism, which he opposed to "Romanianism". According to Mezarescu, this had "no logical justification", given that Goga addressed his critique to a "healthy ndmodern" capitalist society, in which Marxist postulates were "virtually unknown". The PNA and the LANC both repeatedly tried, but failed, to persuade the Iron Guard into a merger. King Carol also proposed that the Guard be co-opted into a government coalition of "national forces", centered on the PP and the PNA. This tendency was curbed by Premier Duca, who outlawed the Guard. Goga and the PNA reacted with public protests, viewing the measure as unwarranted. In part, this was because the PNA leadership sensed that Duca would next target them. Reportedly, after Duca's assassination by Guardist ''
Nicadori During the 1930s, three notable death squads emerged from Romania's Iron Guard: the ''Nicadori'', the ''Decemviri'' and the ''Răzbunători''. Motivated by a combination of fascist political ideology and religious-nationalist mysticism, they carri ...
'', Goga sent boots as gifts to all those convicted for the murder. PNA deputies publicly called for an end to the anti-Guard wave of arrests, suggesting that it was unjustified. By 1934, Goga was exchanging letters with the Guard's leader, Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, who promised him backing for a PNA government. Nevertheless, according to writer
Al. Gherghel Al. Gherghel (; April 27, 1879 — December 20, 1951) was a Romanian Symbolist poet. Born in Pitești into a family of intellectuals, his father Ion was a German teacher in Câmpulung. He spent his childhood and adolescence in the latter town, ...
, in August 1933 the PNA still viewed itself as standing against "right- and left-wing extremes", its platform one of "moderate progress". Over the following moths, Goga tried to fuse into his party the Lupist and Radical Peasantists, as well as the Agrarian League. In mid 1935, Goga also approached Vaida's new far-right party, called Romanian Front (FR), with offers of alliance or merger. Reportedly, Goga offered to fuse the PNA group into the FR, asking that he be assigned vice-chairmanship; Vaida refused, since he had promised that role to a long-time collaborator of his,
Aurel Vlad Aurel may refer to: Places * Aurel, Drôme, France * Aurel, Vaucluse, France Other uses * Aurel (given name) * Aurel Awards The Aurel Awards were Slovak music accolades presented by ''Slovenská národná skupina Medzinárodnej federáci ...
. Goga's Nazi contacts also networked for the creation of a Romanian fascist party bringing together the PNA, the LANC, and the Georgists, but the project failed to materialize in this form. It was then kept alive by Alfred Rosenberg, who believed in the necessity of consolidating Romania's antisemitic camp. A LANC–PNA fusion was nonetheless also favored by Carol, who kept a close watch on Goga through
Ion Sân-Giorgiu Ion Sân-Giorgiu (also known as Sîn-Giorgiu, Sângiorgiu or Sîngiorgiu; 1893–1950) was a Romanian modernist poet, dramatist, essayist, literary and art critic, also known as a journalist, academic, and fascist politician. He was notably the ...
; both the king and his spy saw the resulting party as an instrument for the king's own executive powers. Carol's agent at Internal Affairs,
Victor Iamandi Victor Iamandi (February 15, 1891 – 26 November 1940) was a Romanian politician who served as the Romanian Minister of Justice in 1938–1939, in several successive cabinets. He was born in Hodora, Iași County, the son of Ion and Lucreția Ia ...
, distributed boons to the PNA and the LANC, helping their leaders to prefer Carol over Codreanu. Nichifor Crainic, who oversaw the LANC's paramilitary youth (or '' Lăncieri''), also boasted an important role in negotiating the Goga–Cuza rapprochement. The final merger was also partly motivated by Cuza's political calculations, since the LANC had only taken 4.5% of the vote in 1933. The National Agrarianists held their second and final congress on April 7, 1935, again at Rio Cinema. On July 14, the PNA merged with the LANC to form the National Christian Party, a hard-line antisemitic group. It used as its most popular symbol the LANC swastika, which Goga himself acknowledged as standing for the " Aryan race"; according to Mezarescu, its adoption showed a direct link with Nazism, despite claims that it had evolved from old Dacian symbolism. The new party had a shared presidency, with Cuza and Goga as co-chairs. It sought to challenge the Iron Guard whilst remaining close to more mainstream conservative forces.


Later echoes

As noted by historian Lucian T. Butaru, Goga proved a worthy replacement for Cuza's first associate, Nicolae Paulescu, who had died after disease in 1931. Nevertheless, the new party faced immediate difficulties. A far-left antifascist,
Scarlat Callimachi Scarlat Callimachi or Calimachi (; nicknamed ''Prinţul Roşu'', "the Red Prince"; September 20, 1896 – June 2, 1975) was a Romanian journalist, essayist, futurist poet, trade unionist, and communist activist, a member of the Callimachi fa ...
, noted in September 1935 that the PNC was made up from regional chapters that had no common ideological ground, the entire enterprise having been engineered by Hitler. The fusion resulted in another split: after being sidelined in favor of a Goga favorite, Ion V. Emilian quit the PNC and formed his own movement, called "Fire Swastika". Valjean also opposed the merger, and made a point of not attending the PNC's constitutive congress. His own National Agrarian Party, centered on Romanați, counted among its members poet
Horia Furtună Horia Furtună (June 21, 1888 – March 8, 1952) was a Romanian poet, playwright and prose writer. Born in Focșani, his father Ioan Ștefănescu was inspector general of the veterinary service; his mother was Speranța-Plautina (''née'' Vasi ...
, sculptor Dumitru Pavelescu-Dimo, and businessman Sterie Ionescu (formerly of the
League Against Usury The League Against Usury ( ro, Liga contra Cametei, LCC, or ''Liga împotriva Cametei'', sometimes shortened to ''Liga Cametei'', "Usury League") was a single-issue, mainly agrarian, political party in Romania. Formed in late 1929 as a political ...
). Valjean's party still existed during the general election of December 1937, when it ran under a "T" logo, the old PNA symbol having been withdrawn and made unavailable for use. The Goga group continued to have autonomous existence within the PNC, notably by serving as the more Carlist branch, and therefore more directly supported by the king. It was itself weakened by defections—described by Mezarescu as "the logical consequence" of Goga's antisemitic turn. Of the PNA moderates, Lupaș no longer joined the PNC, whereas his colleague Dragomir did. Tudor Vianu left before the unification and the adoption of full-on antisemitism, with his brother resigning in 1935; by contrast, Streitman remained an outside ally, serving as the PNC's electoral agent. Goga himself became more explicitly antisemitic. Appointed Carol's Prime Minister after the 1937 election, he introduced a set of antisemitic laws. However, he continued to view himself as a moderate, censuring PNC radicals—including Gheorghe Cuza, who took pride in fomenting violence. Virulent antisemitism was also embraced by the Romani caucus of Craiova, whose leader, Lăzăreanu-Lăzurică, finally joined the PNC in February 1938. Carol's eventual recall of the PNC cabinet that same month inaugurated a monarchist dictatorship: the 1938 Constitution proclaimed a corporate state, and all political parties were dissolved. However, the PNC was allowed to function on Carol's orders, with the hope that it could emerge as the country's mass party. The embittered Goga left the country and, having personally witnessed Germany's annexation of Austria, expressed support for a direct Nazi takeover in Romania. He died suddenly in May 1938, leaving the PNC to separate into its pre-1935 formations: while Cuza opted to fully support the dictatorial project, former PNA activists grouped into a dissident, if politically insignificant, Union of National Awareness (''Uniunea Conștiinței Naționale'', UCN). In December, the
National Renaissance Front The National Renaissance Front ( ro, Frontul Renașterii Naționale, FRN; also translated as ''Front of National Regeneration'', ''Front of National Rebirth'', ''Front of National Resurrection'', or ''Front of National Renaissance'') was a Romani ...
(FRN) was introduced as a sole legal party. Organized by Armand Călinescu, formerly of the PNȚ, the FRN was implicitly hostile toward Cuza's ideology. As a preliminary step, it recruited heavily among UCN representatives.Mezarescu, pp. 316–317


Electoral history


Legislative elections


See also

* :National Agrarian Party politicians


Notes


References

{{Historical Romanian political parties Agrarian parties in Romania Defunct agrarian political parties National conservative parties Corporatism Conservative parties in Romania Nationalist parties in Romania Romanian nationalist parties Monarchist parties in Romania Antisemitism in Romania Anti-communist parties Defunct political parties in Romania 1932 establishments in Romania 1935 disestablishments in Romania Political parties established in 1932 Political parties disestablished in 1935