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is provided as a topical overview of science; the discipline of science is defined as both the systematic effort of acquiring knowledge through observation, experimentation and reasoning, and the body of knowledge thus acquired, the word "science" derives from the Latin word '' scientia'' meaning knowledge. A practitioner of science is called a "scientist". Modern science respects objective logical reasoning, and follows a set of core procedures or rules to determine the nature and underlying natural laws of all things, with a scope encompassing the entire universe. These procedures, or rules, are known as the scientific method.


Essence of science

* Research – systematic investigation into existing or new knowledge. * Scientific discovery – observation of new phenomena, new actions, or new events and providing new reasoning to explain the knowledge gathered through such observations with previously acquired knowledge from abstract thought and everyday experiences. * Laboratory – facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. *
Objectivity Objectivity can refer to: * Objectivity (philosophy), the property of being independent from perception ** Objectivity (science), the goal of eliminating personal biases in the practice of science ** Journalistic objectivity, encompassing fairne ...
– the idea that scientists, in attempting to uncover truths about the natural world, must aspire to eliminate personal or cognitive biases, a priori commitments, emotional involvement, etc. *
Inquiry An inquiry (also spelled as enquiry in British English) is any process that has the aim of augmenting knowledge, resolving doubt, or solving a problem. A theory of inquiry is an account of the various types of inquiry and a treatment of the ...
– any process that has the aim of augmenting knowledge, resolving doubt, or solving a problem.


Scientific method

Scientific method   (
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) – body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. It is based on observable, empirical, measurable evidence, and subject to laws of reasoning, both deductive and inductive. * Empirical method – * Experimental method – The steps involved to produce a reliable and logical conclusion include: *# Conducting initial research and asking a question about a natural phenomenon *# Making observations of the phenomenon and/or collecting data about it *# Forming a hypothesis – proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific theories. *#
Predicting A prediction (Latin ''præ-'', "before," and ''dicere'', "to say"), or forecast, is a statement about a future event or data. They are often, but not always, based upon experience or knowledge. There is no universal agreement about the exact ...
a logical consequence of the hypothesis *# Testing the hypothesis through an experiment – methodical procedure carried out with the goal of verifying, falsifying, or establishing the validity of a hypothesis. The 3 types of scientific experiments are: *#* Controlled experiment – experiment that compares the results obtained from an experimental sample against a control sample, which is practically identical to the experimental sample except for the one aspect the effect of which is being tested (the independent variable). *#* Natural experiment – empirical study in which the experimental conditions (i.e., which units receive which treatment) are determined by nature or by other factors out of the control of the experimenters and yet the treatment assignment process is arguably exogenous. Thus, natural experiments are observational studies and are not controlled in the traditional sense of a randomized experiment. *#** Observational study – draws inferences about the possible effect of a treatment on subjects, where the assignment of subjects into a treated group versus a control group is outside the control of the investigator. *#* Field experiment – applies the scientific method to experimentally examine an intervention in the real world (or as many experimentalists like to say, naturally occurring environments) rather than in the laboratory. See also field research. *# Gather and analyze data from experiments or observations, including indicators of uncertainty. *# Draw conclusions by comparing data with predictions. Possible outcomes: *#* Conclusive: *#** The hypothesis is falsified by the data. *#** Data are consistent with the hypothesis. *#** Data are consistent with alternative hypotheses. *#* Inconclusive: *#** Data are not relevant to the hypothesis, or data and predictions are incommensurate. *#** There is too much uncertainty in the data to draw any conclusion. *# Further steps include peer review and enabling others to reproduce or
falsify Falsifiability is a standard of evaluation of scientific theories and hypotheses that was introduced by the philosopher of science Karl Popper in his book ''The Logic of Scientific Discovery'' (1934). He proposed it as the cornerstone of a sol ...
the observations and/or conclusions * Deductive-nomological model * Scientific modelling – * Models of scientific method ** Hypothetico-deductive model – proposed description of scientific method. According to it, scientific inquiry proceeds by formulating a hypothesis in a form that could conceivably be falsified by a test on observable data. A test that could and does run contrary to predictions of the hypothesis is taken as a falsification of the hypothesis. A test that could but does not run contrary to the hypothesis corroborates the theory.


Branches of science

Branches of science The branches of science, also referred to as sciences, scientific fields or scientific disciplines, are commonly divided into three major groups: *Formal sciences: the study of formal systems, such as those under the branches of logic and mat ...
– divisions within science with respect to the entity or system concerned, which typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. The most traditional data structure used for organizing the subfields of science is the "tree of knowledge", hence the idea of different scientific "branches". But over time, several other taxonomic systems have also been proposed for that purpose (such as networks, tables or circular schemes).Sandoz, R. (ed.), ''Interactive Historical Atlas of the Disciplines'', University of Geneva
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Formal science

Formal science Formal science is a branch of science studying disciplines concerned with abstract structures described by formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, statistics, theoretical computer science, artificial intelligence, information theory, ga ...
– branches of knowledge that are concerned with formal systems, such as those under the branches of: logic, mathematics, computer science, statistics, and some aspects of linguistics. Unlike other sciences, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the real world, but instead with the properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules. * Branches of formal science (also known as the formal sciences)


Natural science

Natural science Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatab ...
  (
outline Outline or outlining may refer to: * Outline (list), a document summary, in hierarchical list format * Code folding, a method of hiding or collapsing code or text to see content in outline form * Outline drawing, a sketch depicting the outer edge ...
) – a major branch of science that tries to explain and predict nature's phenomena, based on empirical evidence. In natural science, hypotheses must be verified scientifically to be regarded as scientific theory. Validity, accuracy, and social mechanisms ensuring quality control, such as peer review and repeatability of findings, are among the criteria and methods used for this purpose. Natural science can be broken into two main branches: biology and physical science. Each of these branches, and all of their sub-branches, are referred to as natural sciences. *
Branches of natural science The following outline (list), outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to natural science: Natural science – a major branch of science that tries to explain, and predict, nature's phenomena based on empirical evidence. In nat ...
(also known as the natural sciences)


Social science

Social science – study of the social world constructed between humans. The social sciences usually limit themselves to an anthropomorphically centric view of these interactions with minimal emphasis on the inadvertent impact of social human behavior on the external environment (physical, biological, ecological, etc.). 'Social' is the concept of exchange/influence of ideas, thoughts, and relationship interactions (resulting in harmony, peace, self enrichment, favoritism, maliciousness, justice seeking, etc.) between humans. The scientific method is used in many social sciences, albeit adapted to the needs of the social construct being studied. * Branches of social science (also known as the social sciences)


Applied science

Applied science Applied science is the use of the scientific method and knowledge obtained via conclusions from the method to attain practical goals. It includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and medicine. Applied science is often contrasted ...
– branch of science that applies existing scientific knowledge to develop more practical applications, including inventions and other technological advancements. *
Branches of applied science The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to applied science: Applied science – the branch of science that applies existing scientific knowledge to develop more practical applications, including inventions and o ...
(also known as the applied sciences)


Essence science

Essence science – is a science that discusses problems ranging from general and core questions to major scientific problems in both social and natural sciences, among other things. Philosophy is an example of an essential science that can be classified as a subset of it. * Branches of Essence science (also known as the Essence sciences)


Types of scientific fields

* Exact science – any field of science capable of accurate quantitative expression or precise predictions and rigorous methods of testing hypotheses, especially reproducible experiments involving quantifiable predictions and measurements. * Fundamental science – science that describes the most basic objects, forces, relations between them and laws governing them, such that all other phenomena may be in principle derived from them following the logic of scientific reductionism. * Hard and soft science – colloquial terms often used when comparing scientific fields of academic research or scholarship, with hard meaning perceived as being more scientific, rigorous, or accurate.


Politics of science

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Disruptive technology In business theory, disruptive innovation is innovation that creates a new market and value network or enters at the bottom of an existing market and eventually displaces established market-leading firms, products, and alliances. The concept was ...
– innovation that helps create a new market and value network, and eventually goes on to disrupt an existing market and value network (over a few years or decades), displacing an earlier technology. *
Kansas evolution hearings The Kansas evolution hearings were a series of hearings held in Topeka, Kansas, Topeka, Kansas, United States from May 5 to 12, 2005 by the Kansas State Board of Education and its State Board Science Hearing Committee to change how evolution and ...
– series of hearings held in Topeka, Kansas, United States 5 to 12 May 2005 by the Kansas State Board of Education and its State Board Science Hearing Committee to change how evolution and the origin of life would be taught in the state's public high school science classes. * List of books about the politics of science – list of books about the politics of science. * Politicization of science – politicization of science is the manipulation of science for political gain. *
Science by press release Science by press conference or science by press release is the practice by which scientists put an unusual focus on publicizing results of research in the media, in the form of press conference events or press release statements. The term is usual ...
– refers to scientists who put an unusual focus on publicizing results of research in the media.


History of science

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History of science The history of science covers the development of science from ancient times to the present. It encompasses all three major branches of science: natural, social, and formal. Science's earliest roots can be traced to Ancient Egypt and Meso ...
– history of science in general **
History of scientific method The history of scientific method considers changes in the methodology of scientific inquiry, as distinct from the history of science itself. The development of rules for scientific reasoning has not been straightforward; scientific method has been ...
– history of scientific method is a history of the methodology of scientific inquiry, as differentiated from a history of science in general. ** Theories/sociology of science – sociology and philosophy of science, as well as the entire field of science studies, have in the 20th century been occupied with the question of large-scale patterns and trends in the development of science, and asking questions about how science "works" both in a philosophical and practical sense. ** Historiography – study of the history and methodology of the sub-discipline of history, known as the history of science, including its disciplinary aspects and practices (methods, theories, schools) and to the study of its own historical development ("History of History of Science", i.e., the history of the discipline called History of Science). **
History of pseudoscience The history of pseudoscience is the study of pseudoscientific theories over time. A pseudoscience is a set of ideas that presents itself as science, while it does not meet the criteria to properly be called such. Distinguishing between proper sci ...
– history of pseudoscience is the study of pseudoscientific theories over time. A pseudoscience is a set of ideas that presents itself as science, while it does not meet the criteria to properly be called such. **
Timeline of scientific discoveries The timeline below shows the date of publication of possible major scientific breakthroughs, theories and discoveries, along with the discoverer. This article discounts mere speculation as discovery, although imperfect reasoned arguments, argu ...
– shows the date of publication of major scientific theories and discoveries, along with the discoverer. In many cases, the discoveries spanned several years. **
Timeline of scientific thought __NOTOC__ The following entries cover events related to science or technology which occurred in the listed year. Before 2000s * 0s: 1st century in science * 100s: 2nd century in science * 200s: 3rd century in science * 300s: 4th century in s ...
– lists the major landmarks across all scientific philosophy and methodological sciences.


By period

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History of science in early cultures The history of science in early cultures covers protoscience in ancient history to Islamic Science. In these times, advice and knowledge was passed from generation to generation in an oral tradition. The development of writing enabled knowledge to ...
– history of science in early cultures refers to the study of protoscience in ancient history, prior to the development of science in the Middle Ages. * History of science in Classical Antiquity – history of science in classical antiquity encompasses both those inquiries into the workings of the universe aimed at such practical goals as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses and those abstract investigations known as natural philosophy. * History of science in the Middle Ages – Science in the Middle Ages comprised the study of nature, including practical disciplines, the mathematics and natural philosophy in medieval Europe. * History of science in the Renaissance – During the Renaissance, great advances occurred in geography, astronomy, chemistry, physics, mathematics, manufacturing, and engineering. ** Science and inventions of Leonardo da Vinci – Italian polymath, regarded as the epitome of the "Renaissance Man", displaying skills in numerous diverse areas of study. * Scientific revolution – scientific revolution is an era associated primarily with the 16th and 17th centuries during which new ideas and knowledge in physics, astronomy, biology, medicine and chemistry transformed medieval and ancient views of nature and laid the foundations for modern science. * Governmental impact on science during WWII – Governmental impact on science during World War II represents the effect of public administration on technological development that provided many advantages to the armed forces, economies and societies in their strategies during the war.


By date

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List of years in science __NOTOC__ The following entries cover events related to science or technology which occurred in the listed year. Before 2000s * 0s: 1st century in science * 100s: 2nd century in science * 200s: 3rd century in science * 300s: 4th century in s ...
– events related to science or technology which occurred in the listed year (current year in the box on the right). *
Timeline of scientific discoveries The timeline below shows the date of publication of possible major scientific breakthroughs, theories and discoveries, along with the discoverer. This article discounts mere speculation as discovery, although imperfect reasoned arguments, argu ...
– shows the date of publication of major scientific theories and discoveries, along with the discoverer. In many cases, the discoveries spanned several years. *
Timeline of scientific experiments The timeline below shows the date of publication of major scientific experiments: 5th century BC *430 BC - Empedocles proves that air is a material substance by submerging a clepsydra into the ocean. 2nd century BC *240 BC - Archimedes devis ...
– shows the date of publication of major scientific experiments. *
Timeline of the history of the scientific method This timeline of the history of the scientific method shows an overview of the development of the scientific method up to the present time. For a detailed account, see History of the scientific method. BC *1600 BC – The Edwin Smith Papyrus, a ...
– shows an overview of the cultural inventions that have contributed to the development of the scientific method. * List of science timelines – more timeline articles


By field

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History of natural science Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatabil ...
– study of nature and the physical universe that was dominant before the development of modern science. ** Natural philosophy – study of nature and the physical universe that was dominant before the development of modern science. ** Natural history – scientific research of plants or animals, leaning more towards observational rather than experimental methods of study, and encompasses more research published in magazines than in academic journals. **
History of biology The history of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times. Although the concept of ''biology'' as a single coherent field arose in the 19th century, the biological sciences emerged from traditions of medicine a ...
– traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times. **
History of ecology Ecology is a new science and considered as an important branch of biological science, having only become prominent during the second half of the 20th century. Ecological thought is derivative of established currents in philosophy, particularly f ...
– history of the science of ecology. **
History of molecular biology The history of molecular biology begins in the 1930s with the convergence of various, previously distinct biological and physical disciplines: biochemistry, genetics, microbiology, virology and physics. With the hope of understanding life at its mo ...
– begins in the 1930s with the convergence of various, previously distinct biological disciplines: biochemistry, genetics, microbiology, and virology. **
History of astronomy Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, mythological, cosmological, calendrical, and astrological beliefs and practices of prehistory: vestiges of these are still found in ...
Timeline **
History of chemistry The history of chemistry represents a time span from ancient history to the present. By 1000 BC, civilizations used technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include the discovery of fire, e ...
– By 1000 BC, ancient civilizations used technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. **
History of geography The history of geography includes many histories of geography which have differed over time and between different cultural and political groups. In more recent developments, geography has become a distinct academic discipline. 'Geography' deriv ...
** History of geologyTimeline **
History of meteorology Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences (which include atmospheric chemistry and physics) with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not ...
Timeline ** History of physics – As forms of science historically developed out of philosophy, physics was originally referred to as natural philosophy, a field of study concerned with "the workings of nature." **
History of science and technology The history of science and technology (HST) is a field of history that examines the understanding of the natural world (science) and the ability to manipulate it (technology) at different points in time. This academic discipline also studies the c ...
* History of the social sciences – has origin in the common stock of Western philosophy and shares various precursors, but began most intentionally in the early 19th century with the positivist philosophy of science. ** History of archaeologyTimeline ** History of cognitive science ** History of criminal justice – Throughout the history of criminal justice, evolving forms of punishment, added rights for offenders and victims, and policing reforms have reflected changing customs, political ideals, and economic conditions. **
History of economics History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the History of writing#Inventions of writing, invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbr ...
– study of different thinkers and theories in the subject that became political economy and economics from the ancient world to the present day. ** History of education – development of systematic methods of teaching and learning. **
History of law Legal history or the history of law is the study of how law has evolved and why it has changed. Legal history is closely connected to the development of civilisations and operates in the wider context of social history. Certain jurists and hist ...
– study of how law has evolved and why it changed. **
History of linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of language, involving analysis of language form, language meaning, and language in context. Language use was first systematically documented in Mesopotamia, with extant lexical lists of the 3rd to the 2nd M ...
– endeavors to describe and explain the human faculty of language. ** History of marketing – recognized discipline, along with concomitant changes in marketing theory and practice. **
History of parapsychology Parapsychology is the study of alleged psychic phenomena (extrasensory perception, telepathy, precognition, clairvoyance, psychokinesis (also called telekinesis), and psychometry (paranormal), psychometry) and other paranormal claims, for exampl ...
**
History of political science While the term "political science" as a separate field is a rather late arrival in terms of social sciences, analyzing political power and the effects that it had on history has been occurring for centuries. However, the term "political science" wa ...
– social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government, and politics. ** History of psychologyTimeline **
History of sociology Sociology as a scholarly discipline emerged, primarily out of Enlightenment thought, as a positivist ''science of society'' shortly after the French Revolution. Its genesis owed to various key movements in the philosophy of science and the phi ...
Timeline


By region


History of science in present states, by continent

See – :Science and technology by continent


History of science in historic states

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Science and technology of the Han Dynasty The Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) of early imperial China, divided between the eras of Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE, when the capital was at Chang'an), the Xin dynasty of Wang Mang (r. 9–23 CE), and Eastern Han (25–220 CE, when ...
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Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire During its 600-year existence, the Ottoman Empire made significant advances in science and technology, in a wide range of fields including mathematics, astronomy and medicine. The Islamic Golden Age was traditionally believed to have ended in t ...
* Science and technology of the Song Dynasty * Science and technology in the Soviet Union * Science and technology of the Tang Dynasty


Philosophy of science

* Philosophy of science – questions the assumptions, foundations, methods and implications of science. * Models of scientific inquiry


Adoption, use, results and coordination of science

* Science and technology studies *
Scientometrics Scientometrics is the field of study which concerns itself with measuring and analysing scholarly literature. Scientometrics is a sub-field of informetrics. Major research issues include the measurement of the impact of research papers and academi ...
** Altmetrics ** Article-level metrics **
Expert elicitation In science, engineering, and research, expert elicitation is the synthesis of opinions of authorities of a subject where there is uncertainty due to insufficient data or when such data is unattainable because of physical constraints or lack of res ...
** Lists of science and technology awards *
Research and development Research and development (R&D or R+D), known in Europe as research and technological development (RTD), is the set of innovative activities undertaken by corporations or governments in developing new services or products, and improving existi ...
** Innovation * Science policy * Knowledge#Science * Funding of science


Technology and mechanisms of science

* Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology * Laboratory automation * History of communication *
Internet research Internet research is the practice of using Internet information, especially free information on the World Wide Web, or Internet-based resources (like Internet discussion forum) in research. Internet research has had a profound impact on the way id ...
*
Scientific journal In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research. Content Articles in scientific journals are mostly written by active scientists such as s ...
* Peer review * Metascience


Scientific community

* Scientific community – group of all interacting scientists.


Scientific organizations

* Academy of Sciences – national academy or another learned society dedicated to sciences.


Scientists

* Scientist – practitioner of science; an individual who uses scientific method to objectively inquire into the nature of reality—be it the fundamental laws of physics or how people behave. There are many names for scientists, often named in relation to the job that they do. One example of this is a
biologist A biologist is a scientist who conducts research in biology. Biologists are interested in studying life on Earth, whether it is an individual cell, a multicellular organism, or a community of interacting populations. They usually specialize in ...
, a scientist who studies biology (the study of living organisms and their environments).


Types of scientist


= By field

= The scientific fields mentioned below are generally described by the science they study. * Agricultural scientist – broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. *
Archaeologist Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscap ...
– study of human activity, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes (the archaeological record). * Astronomer – astronomer is a scientist who studies celestial bodies such as planets, stars and galaxies. ** Astrophysicist – branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties of celestial objects, as well as their interactions and behavior. *
Biologist A biologist is a scientist who conducts research in biology. Biologists are interested in studying life on Earth, whether it is an individual cell, a multicellular organism, or a community of interacting populations. They usually specialize in ...
– scientist devoted to the study of living organisms and their relationship to their environment. ** Astrobiologist – study of the origin, evolution, distribution, and future of extraterrestrial life. ** Biophysicist – interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physical science to study biological systems. ** Biotechnologist – field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses in engineering, technology, medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts. **
Botanist Botany, also called , plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term "botany" comes from the Ancient Greek wo ...
– discipline of biology, is the science of plant life. ** Cognitive scientists – scientific study of the mind and its processes. ** Ecologist – scientific study of the relations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment. **
Entomologist Entomology () is the scientific study of insects, a branch of zoology. In the past the term "insect" was less specific, and historically the definition of entomology would also include the study of animals in other arthropod groups, such as arach ...
– scientific study of insects, a branch of arthropodology. ** Evolutionary biologist – sub-field of biology concerned with the study of the evolutionary processes that have given rise to the diversity of life on Earth. ** Geneticist – biologist who studies genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and variation of organisms. ** Herpetologist – branch of zoology concerned with the study of amphibians (including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and gymnophiona) and reptiles (including snakes, lizards, amphibians, turtles, terrapins, tortoises, crocodiles, and the tarantulas). ** Immunologist – branch of biomedical science that covers the study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms. **
Ichthyologist Ichthyology is the branch of zoology devoted to the study of fish, including bony fish ( Osteichthyes), cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes), and jawless fish (Agnatha). According to FishBase, 33,400 species of fish had been described as of Octobe ...
– study of fish. **
Lepidopterist Lepidopterology ()) is a branch of entomology concerning the scientific study of moths and the three superfamilies of butterflies. Someone who studies in this field is a lepidopterist or, archaically, an aurelian. Origins Post-Renaissance, t ...
– person who specializes in the study of Lepidoptera, members of an order encompassing moths and the three superfamilies of butterflies, skipper butterflies, and moth-butterflies. ** Marine biologist – scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water. **
Medical scientist Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practice ...
– basic research, applied research, or translational research conducted to aid and support the body of knowledge in the field of medicine. **
Microbiologist A microbiologist (from Ancient Greek, Greek ) is a scientist who studies microscopic life forms and processes. This includes study of the growth, interactions and characteristics of Microorganism, microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, f ...
– study of microscopic organisms. **
Mycologist Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungus, fungi, including their genetics, genetic and biochemistry, biochemical properties, their Taxonomy (biology), taxonomy and ethnomycology, their use to humans, including as a so ...
– branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as a source for tinder, medicinals (e.g., penicillin), food (e.g., beer, wine, cheese, edible mushrooms) and entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection. ** Neuroscientist – individual who studies the scientific field of neuroscience or any of its related sub-fields. **
Ornithologist Ornithology is a branch of zoology that concerns the "methodological study and consequent knowledge of birds with all that relates to them." Several aspects of ornithology differ from related disciplines, due partly to the high visibility and th ...
– branch of zoology that concerns the study of birds. ** Paleontologist – study of prehistoric life. ** Pathologist – precise study and diagnosis of disease. ** Pharmacologist – branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action. **
Physiologist Physiology (; ) is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system. As a sub-discipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ systems, individual organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical a ...
– science of the function of living systems. ** Zoologist – branch of biology that relates to the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct. * Chemist – scientist trained in the study of chemistry. ** Analytical chemist – study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. **
Biochemist Biochemists are scientists who are trained in biochemistry. They study chemical processes and chemical transformations in living organisms. Biochemists study DNA, proteins and Cell (biology), cell parts. The word "biochemist" is a portmanteau of ...
– study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. **
Inorganic chemist Inorganic chemistry deals with synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds. This field covers chemical compounds that are not carbon-based, which are the subjects of organic chemistry. The distinction between the two discipl ...
– branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds. ** Organic chemist – subdiscipline within chemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives. ** Physical chemist – study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts. * Earth scientist – all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. ** Geologist – scientist who studies the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth as well as the processes and history that has shaped it. ** Glaciologist – study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice. ** Hydrologist – study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability. ** Limnologist – study of inland waters ** Meteorologist – study of weather ** Mineralogist – study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals. ** Oceanographer – branch of Earth science that studies the ocean ** Paleontologist – study of prehistoric life **
Seismologist Seismology (; from Ancient Greek σεισμός (''seismós'') meaning "earthquake" and -λογία (''-logía'') meaning "study of") is the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other ...
– scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies. ** Volcanologist – study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena. *
Informatician Informatics is the study of computational systems, especially those for data storage and retrieval. According to ACM ''Europe and'' ''Informatics Europe'', informatics is synonymous with computer science and computing as a profession, in which t ...
– science of information, the practice of information processing, and the engineering of information systems. **
Computer scientist A computer scientist is a person who is trained in the academic study of computer science. Computer scientists typically work on the theoretical side of computation, as opposed to the hardware side on which computer engineers mainly focus (al ...
– scientist who has acquired knowledge of computer science, the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation *
Library scientist Library science (often termed library studies, bibliothecography, and library economy) is an interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary field that applies the practices, perspectives, and tools of management, information technology, education, an ...
– interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary field that applies the practices, perspectives, and tools of management, information technology, education, and other areas to libraries; the collection, organization, preservation, and dissemination of information resources; and the political economy of information. *
Management scientist Management science (or managerial science) is a wide and interdisciplinary study of solving complex problems and making strategic decisions as it pertains to institutions, corporations, governments and other types of organizational entities. It is ...
– study of advanced analytical methods to help make better decisions. * Mathematician– person with an extensive knowledge of mathematics, a field that has been informally defined as being concerned with numbers, data, collection, quantity, structure, space, and change. **
Statistician A statistician is a person who works with theoretical or applied statistics. The profession exists in both the private and public sectors. It is common to combine statistical knowledge with expertise in other subjects, and statisticians may wor ...
– someone who works with theoretical or applied statistics. *
Military scientist Military science is the study of military processes, institutions, and behavior, along with the study of warfare, and the theory and application of organized coercive force. It is mainly focused on theory, method, and practice of producing mil ...
– process of translating national defense policy to produce military capability by employing military scientists, including theorists, researchers, experimental scientists, applied scientists, designers, engineers, test technicians, and military personnel responsible for prototyping. * Physicist – scientist who does research in physics *
Psychologist A psychologist is a professional who practices psychology and studies mental states, perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and social processes and behavior. Their work often involves the experimentation, observation, and interpretation of how indi ...
– professional or academic title used by individuals who practice psychology ** Abnormal psychologist – branch of psychology that studies unusual patterns of behavior, emotion and thought, which may or may not be understood as precipitating a mental disorder. ** Educational psychologist – psychologist whose differentiating functions may include diagnostic and psycho-educational assessment, psychological counseling in educational communities (students, teachers, parents and academic authorities), community-type psycho-educational intervention, and mediation, coordination, and referral to other professionals, at all levels of the educational system. ** Biopsychologist – application of the principles of biology (in particular neurobiology), to the study of physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in human and non-human animals. **
Clinical psychologist Clinical psychology is an integration of social science, theory, and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and persona ...
– integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. ** Comparative psychologist – scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history, adaptive significance, and development of behavior. ** Cognitive psychologist – subdiscipline of psychology exploring internal mental processes. It is the study of how people perceive, remember, think, speak, and solve problems. ** Developmental psychologist – scientific study of systematic psychological changes, emotional changes, and perception changes that occur in human beings over the course of their life span. ** Evolutionary psychologist – approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological traits such as memory, perception, and language from a modern evolutionary perspective. ** Experimental psychologist – study of behavior and the processes that underlie it, by means of experiment ** Neuropsychologist – studies the structure and function of the brain as they relate to specific psychological processes and behaviors. ** Social psychologist – scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. * Social scientist – field of study concerned with society and human behaviors. **
Anthropologist An anthropologist is a person engaged in the practice of anthropology. Anthropology is the study of aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology, cultural anthropology and philosophical anthropology study the norms and ...
– study of humanity. *** Ethnologist – branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the origins, distribution, technology, religion, language, and social structure of the ethnic, racial, and/or national divisions of humanity. **
Communication scientist Communication studies or communication science is an academic discipline that deals with processes of human communication and behavior, patterns of communication in interpersonal relationships, social interactions and communication in differ ...
– academic field that deals with processes of human communication, commonly defined as the sharing of symbols to create meaning. ** Criminologist – study of criminal behavior ** Demographer – statistical study of populations ** Economist – professional in the social science discipline of economics. ** Geographer – geographer is a scholar whose area of study is geography, the study of Earth's natural environment and human society. ** Political economist – study of production, buying, and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government, as well as with the distribution of national income and wealth, including through the budget process. ** Political scientist – social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government, and politics. ** Sociologist – * Technologist ** Architectural technologist – specialist in the technology of building design and construction **
Educational technologist Education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, such as transmitting knowledge or fostering skills and character traits. These aims may include the development of understanding, rationality, kindness, and honesty. Vari ...
– specialist in tools to enhance learning **
Engineering technologist An engineering technologist is a professional trained in certain aspects of development and implementation of a respective area of technology. Engineering technology education is even more applied and less theoretical than engineering education ...
– specialist who implements technology within a field of engineering ** Industrial technologist – specialist in the management, operation, and maintenance of complex operation systems ** Medical Technologist – healthcare professional who performs diagnostic analysis on a variety of body fluids ** Radiologic technologist – medical professional who applies doses of radiation for imaging and treatment **
Surgical technologist A surgical technologist, also called a scrub, scrub tech, surgical technician, or operating room technician, is an allied health professional working as a part of the team delivering surgical care. Surgical technologists are members of the surgi ...
– health specialist who facilitates the conduct of invasive surgical procedures


= By employment status

= * Academic – community of students and scholars engaged in higher education and research. * Corporate Scientist – someone who is employed by a business to do research and development for the benefit of that business * Layperson – someone who is not an expert or someone who has not had professional training * Gentleman scientist – financially independent scientist who pursues scientific study as a hobby. * Government scientist – scientist employed by a country's government


Famous scientists

* Aristotle – Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great *
Archimedes Archimedes of Syracuse (;; ) was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer, and inventor from the ancient city of Syracuse in Sicily. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists ...
– Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer * Andreas Vesalius – Flemish anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, ''De humani corporis fabrica'' (''On the Structure of the Human Body'') * Nicolaus Copernicus – Renaissance astronomer and the first person to formulate a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe * Galileo Galilei – Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution *
Johannes Kepler Johannes Kepler (; ; 27 December 1571 – 15 November 1630) was a German astronomer, mathematician, astrologer, natural philosopher and writer on music. He is a key figure in the 17th-century Scientific Revolution, best known for his laws ...
– German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution, he is best known for his eponymous laws of planetary motion, codified by later astronomers, based on his works ''Astronomia nova'', ''Harmonices Mundi'', and ''Epitome of Copernican Astronomy'' * René Descartes – French philosopher, mathematician, and writer who spent most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic * Isaac Newton – English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, who has been "considered by many to be the greatest and most influential scientist who ever lived" * Leonhard Euler – pioneering Swiss mathematician and physicist * Pierre-Simon Laplace – French mathematician and astronomer whose work was pivotal to the development of mathematical astronomy and statistics * Alexander von Humboldt – German geographer, naturalist and explorer, and the younger brother of the Prussian minister, philosopher and linguist Wilhelm von Humboldt * Charles Darwin – English naturalist, he established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection * James Clerk Maxwell – Scottish physicist and mathematician * Marie Curie – Polish physicist and chemist famous for her pioneering research on radioactivity * Albert Einstein – German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics *
Linus Pauling Linus Carl Pauling (; February 28, 1901August 19, 1994) was an American chemist, biochemist, chemical engineer, peace activist, author, and educator. He published more than 1,200 papers and books, of which about 850 dealt with scientific top ...
– American chemist, biochemist, peace activist, author, and educator. He was one of the most influential chemists in history and ranks among the most important scientists of the 20th century *
John Bardeen John Bardeen (; May 23, 1908 – January 30, 1991) was an American physicist and engineer. He is the only person to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics twice: first in 1956 with William Shockley and Walter Brattain for the invention of the tran ...
– American physicist and electrical engineer, the only person to have won the Nobel Prize in Physics twice *
Frederick Sanger Frederick Sanger (; 13 August 1918 – 19 November 2013) was an English biochemist who received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry twice. He won the 1958 Chemistry Prize for determining the amino acid sequence of insulin and numerous other p ...
– English biochemist and a two-time Nobel laureate in chemistry, the only person to have been so * Stephen Hawking – British theoretical physicist, cosmologist, and author


Science education

Science education * Scientific literacy – encompasses written, numerical, and digital literacy as they pertain to understanding science, its methodology, observations, and theories. *
Pseudo-scholarship Pseudo-scholarship (from pseudo- and scholarship) is a term used to describe work (e.g., publication, lecture) or a body of work that is presented as, but is not, the product of rigorous and objective study or research; the act of producing such wo ...
– is a work (e.g., publication, lecture) or body of work that is presented as, but is not, the product of rigorous and objective study or research; the act of producing such work; or the pretended learning upon which it is based. *
Science communication Science communication is the practice of informing, educating, raising awareness of science-related topics, and increasing the sense of wonder about scientific discoveries and arguments. Science communicators and audiences are ambiguously def ...


See also

* Outline of academic disciplines * Sci-Mate – open collaboration of scientists using Web 2.0 software to address well known challenges in academic publishing and technology transfer * Science Daily – news website for topical science articles *
Phys.org Phys.org is an online science, research and technology news aggregator offering briefs from press releases and reports from news agencies (a form of journalism sometimes pejoratively called churnalism). The website also produces its own science jo ...
– news website for topical science articles with some public metrics *
Science.tv Science.tv is a virtual community for people interested in science. It enables users to upload videos and categorize them according to subject matter and intended audience. History science.tv was founded by Matt Thurling, a digital media pionee ...
– virtual community for people interested in science * * Science studies


References

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