Leif Tronstad
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Leif Hans Larsen Tronstad DSO, OBE (27 March 1903 – 11 March 1945) was a Norwegian
inorganic chemist Inorganic chemistry deals with synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds. This field covers chemical compounds that are not carbon-based, which are the subjects of organic chemistry. The distinction between the two disci ...
, intelligence officer and military organizer. He graduated from the
Norwegian Institute of Technology The Norwegian Institute of Technology (Norwegian: ''Norges tekniske høgskole'', NTH) was a science institute in Trondheim, Norway. It was established in 1910, and existed as an independent technical university for 58 years, after which it was m ...
in 1927 and was a prolific researcher and writer of academic publications. A professor of
chemistry Chemistry is the science, scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a natural science that covers the Chemical element, elements that make up matter to the chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules and ions ...
at the
Norwegian Institute of Technology The Norwegian Institute of Technology (Norwegian: ''Norges tekniske høgskole'', NTH) was a science institute in Trondheim, Norway. It was established in 1910, and existed as an independent technical university for 58 years, after which it was m ...
from 1936, he was among the pioneers of heavy water research, and was instrumental when a heavy water plant was built at
Vemork Vemork is a hydroelectric power plant outside Rjukan in Tinn, Norway. The plant was built by Norsk Hydro and opened in 1911, its main purpose being to fix nitrogen for the production of fertilizer. At opening, it was the world's largest power pl ...
. After the invasion of Norway by Germany during
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
, Tronstad conducted domestic resistance for one year before fleeing the country for England. There, he gathered valuable intelligence from Norwegian sources, both on the development of the
V-2 rocket The V-2 (german: Vergeltungswaffe 2, lit=Retaliation Weapon 2), with the technical name ''Aggregat 4'' (A-4), was the world’s first long-range guided ballistic missile. The missile, powered by a liquid-propellant rocket engine, was developed ...
and the growing German interest in heavy water. In 1943 Tronstad planned
Operation Gunnerside The Norwegian heavy water sabotage ( nb, Tungtvannsaksjonen; nn, Tungtvassaksjonen) was a series of Allied-led efforts to halt German heavy water production via hydroelectric plants in Nazi Germany-occupied Norway during World War II, involvi ...
, in which the German access to heavy water processing at Vemork was severely impeded. His information about the V-2 rocket contributed to the massive
Allied An alliance is a relationship among people, groups, or states that have joined together for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not explicit agreement has been worked out among them. Members of an alliance are called ...
bombing A bomb is an explosive weapon that uses the exothermic reaction of an explosive material to provide an extremely sudden and violent release of energy. Detonations inflict damage principally through ground- and atmosphere-transmitted mechanica ...
of
Peenemünde Peenemünde (, en, "Peene iverMouth") is a municipality on the Baltic Sea island of Usedom in the Vorpommern-Greifswald district in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. It is part of the ''Amt'' (collective municipality) of Usedom-Nord. The communi ...
. For a long time Tronstad had wanted to return to Norway to organize resistance work, however he was prevented by the Norwegian military authorities in Britain. In 1944, he did travel to Norway, to organize Operation Sunshine, for the defence of Norwegian infrastructure. After five months in the country, he was killed in action after his team had taken the local bailiff hostage.


Early life

Tronstad was born in
Bærum Bærum () is a municipality in the Greater Oslo Region in Norway that forms an affluent suburb of Oslo on the west coast of the city. Bærum is Norway's fifth largest municipality with a population of 128,760 (2021). It is part of the electoral ...
; the son of Hans Larsen and Josefine Amalie Tronstad, Hans died three months before Leif was born. Leif thus grew up in
Sandvika Sandvika () is the administrative centre of the municipality of Bærum in Norway. It was declared a List of cities in Norway, city by the municipal council (Norway), municipal council in Bærum on 4 June 2003. Sandvika is situated approximately ...
with his mother and four siblings. He graduated from middle school in 1918, with top grades in mathematics. He then embarked on thirty months of professional practice in two local electricity companies, which was a requirement to enrol at Kristiania Technical School, a predecessor of the Faculty of Engineering at
Oslo University College Oslo University College ( no, Høgskolen i Oslo; HiO) was the largest state university college in Norway from 1994 to 2011, with more than 18,000 students and approximately 1800 employees.
. When he enrolled in 1920 he chose technical chemistry instead of
electronic engineering Electronics engineering is a sub-discipline of electrical engineering which emerged in the early 20th century and is distinguished by the additional use of active components such as semiconductor devices to amplify and control electric current ...
. He graduated in 1922, the best chemistry student; a fellow student recalled that he "did not have to read anything more than once" in order to remember it. In the spring of 1923, he also took the ''
examen artium Examen artium was the name of the academic certification conferred in Denmark and Norway, qualifying the student for admission to university studies. Examen artium was originally introduced as the entrance exam of the University of Copenhagen in 1 ...
'' after attending the
Haagaas School The Haagaas School ( no, Haagaas Artiumskursus, informally also ''Haagaas skole'', ''Haagaas private gymnas'' or ''Haagaas' studentfabrikk''), or simply Haagaas, was a Private school, private Gymnasium (school), gymnasium in Oslo, that existed from ...
for one year. He was ready to enroll at the
Norwegian Institute of Technology The Norwegian Institute of Technology (Norwegian: ''Norges tekniske høgskole'', NTH) was a science institute in Trondheim, Norway. It was established in 1910, and existed as an independent technical university for 58 years, after which it was m ...
, but waited one year, possibly wanting to strengthen his personal finances. In the meantime, he started on his
compulsory military service Conscription (also called the draft in the United States) is the state-mandated enlistment of people in a national service, mainly a military service. Conscription dates back to antiquity and it continues in some countries to the present day un ...
. He was an accomplished athlete and helped his hometown club Grane SK to two Norwegian
4 × 1500 metres relay The 4 x 1500 metres relay is an athletics track event in which teams comprise four runners who each complete 1500 metres or 3.75 laps on a standard 400 metre track. While not a World Championship or Olympic event, the IAAF does ratify world recor ...
records. The records were set in 1921 and 1923, but broken by the team
IL i BUL Idrottslaget i Bondeungdomslaget i Oslo (also BUL, Oslo) is a sports club in Oslo, Norway, founded on 8 January 1913. It is one of several branches of Bondeungdomslaget i Oslo, a local chapter of Noregs Mållag and Noregs Ungdomslag. IL i BUL h ...
in 1926. His brother John, a bronze medalist in
1500 metres The 1500 metres or 1,500-metre run (typically pronounced 'fifteen-hundred metres') is the foremost middle distance track event in athletics. The distance has been contested at the Summer Olympics since 1896 and the World Championships in Athletic ...
at the 1917 Norwegian championships, was on the relay team as well. Both brothers used their father's name Larsen at the time; Leif took up his mother's name Tronstad later. In 1924 Tronstad moved to
Trondheim Trondheim ( , , ; sma, Tråante), historically Kaupangen, Nidaros and Trondhjem (), is a city and municipality in Trøndelag county, Norway. As of 2020, it had a population of 205,332, was the third most populous municipality in Norway, and ...
to study at the
Norwegian Institute of Technology The Norwegian Institute of Technology (Norwegian: ''Norges tekniske høgskole'', NTH) was a science institute in Trondheim, Norway. It was established in 1910, and existed as an independent technical university for 58 years, after which it was m ...
, graduating in 1927. His graduation paper was deemed exceptional and as such was reported to King Haakon of Norway. Regarded as a fully-fledged academic work, it was published scientifically in 1928. Tronstad had taken various stray jobs while studying, and also finished his military service, reaching the rank of
Second Lieutenant Second lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer military rank in many armed forces, comparable to NATO OF-1 rank. Australia The rank of second lieutenant existed in the military forces of the Australian colonies and Australian Army until ...
in the Norwegian Army Corps of Weaponry in 1927. From 1927 to 1928 Tronstad worked briefly as an assistant at the Norwegian Institute of Technology as well as in a private company in
Kristiansand Kristiansand is a seaside resort city and municipality in Agder county, Norway. The city is the fifth-largest and the municipality the sixth-largest in Norway, with a population of around 112,000 as of January 2020, following the incorporation ...
. In 1928 he returned to the Norwegian Institute of Technology as a
research fellow A research fellow is an academic research position at a university or a similar research institution, usually for academic staff or faculty members. A research fellow may act either as an independent investigator or under the supervision of a pr ...
. In the same year, Tronstad married Edla Obel, who was nine years his junior, in Trondheim. The couple had two children.


Academic career

Tronstad spent the first year of a research period as an assistant to
Herbert Freundlich Herbert Max Finlay Freundlich (28 January 1880 in Charlottenburg – 30 March 1941 in Minneapolis) was a German chemist. His father was of German Jewish descent, and his mother ( Finlay) was from Scotland. His younger brother was Erwin Fi ...
in
Dahlem, Berlin Dahlem ( or ) is a locality of the Steglitz-Zehlendorf borough in southwestern Berlin. Until Berlin's 2001 administrative reform it was a part of the former borough of Zehlendorf, Berlin, Zehlendorf. It is located between the mansion settlements ...
. He studied the passivity of metal surfaces, and made a breakthrough when he managed to measure extremely thin
oxide An oxide () is a chemical compound that contains at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical formula. "Oxide" itself is the dianion of oxygen, an O2– (molecular) ion. with oxygen in the oxidation state of −2. Most of the E ...
surface coatings, thus solving a problem dating from the time of
Michael Faraday Michael Faraday (; 22 September 1791 – 25 August 1867) was an English scientist who contributed to the study of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main discoveries include the principles underlying electromagnetic inducti ...
. He continued to Stockholm to study
metallography Metallography is the study of the physical structure and components of metals, by using microscopy. Ceramic and polymeric materials may also be prepared using metallographic techniques, hence the terms ceramography, plastography and, collecti ...
under
Carl Benedicks Carl Axel Fredrik Benedicks (27 May 1875 – 16 July 1958) was a Swedish physicist whose work included geology, mineralogy, chemistry, physics, astronomy and mathematics. Biography Carl Benedicks was born 27 May 1875 in Stockholm, Sweden to Edwa ...
, and to elaborate further on his results from Berlin. The work was completed in 1931 and his thesis, spanning 250 pages, was published in German as ''Optische Untersuchungen zur Frage der Passivität des Eisens und Stahls''. For it, he received the
doctorate A doctorate (from Latin ''docere'', "to teach"), doctor's degree (from Latin ''doctor'', "teacher"), or doctoral degree is an academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism ''l ...
degree. He was hired at the Norwegian Institute of Technology as a lecturer in the summer of 1931, although he spent the first year at the
University of Cambridge , mottoeng = Literal: From here, light and sacred draughts. Non literal: From this place, we gain enlightenment and precious knowledge. , established = , other_name = The Chancellor, Masters and Schola ...
, conducting further research with a scholarship from a memorial fund of
Christian Michelsen Peter Christian Hersleb Kjerschow Michelsen (15 March 1857 – 29 June 1925), better known as Christian Michelsen, was a Norwegian shipping magnate and statesman. He was the first prime minister of independent Norway and Norway's 9th prime minis ...
. The research at Cambridge was a continuation of his thesis work, but this time he tested his method on
mercury Mercury commonly refers to: * Mercury (planet), the nearest planet to the Sun * Mercury (element), a metallic chemical element with the symbol Hg * Mercury (mythology), a Roman god Mercury or The Mercury may also refer to: Companies * Merc ...
. Following the death in 1934 of a professor of technical inorganic chemistry at the Norwegian Institute of Technology, Tronstad was appointed his successor on 17 April 1936, effective from 1 May. At the time, he was one of the youngest professors in Norway. He was a member of the
Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters The Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters ( da, Det Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Selskab, DKNVS) is a Norwegian learned society based in Trondheim. It was founded in 1760 and is Norway's oldest scientific and scholarly institution. The ...
, and in early 1940 he became vice president of the
Norwegian Chemical Society The Norwegian Chemical Society ( no, Norsk kjemisk selskap) is a professional society in Norway for chemists. Formed in 1893, its purpose is to "promote the interest and understanding of chemistry and chemical technology". Chair A chair is a ...
. During his short scientific career, Tronstad penned about eighty scientific publications, including fourteen on heavy water-related topics. The properties of heavy water had been discovered in 1932 by
Harold Urey Harold Clayton Urey ( ; April 29, 1893 – January 5, 1981) was an American physical chemist whose pioneering work on isotopes earned him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1934 for the discovery of deuterium. He played a significant role in the d ...
. In 1933, Leif Tronstad and Jomar Brun, the head of
Norsk Hydro Rjukan Norsk Hydro Rjukan is an industrial facility operated by Norsk Hydro at Rjukan in Tinn, Norway, from 1911 to 1991. The plant manufactured chemicals related to the production of fertilizer, initially potassium nitrate from arc-produced nitric acid a ...
, created a plan for industrial production of heavy water in Norway. As
Norsk Hydro Norsk Hydro ASA (often referred to as just ''Hydro'') is a Norwegian aluminium and renewable energy company, headquartered in Oslo. It is one of the largest aluminium companies worldwide. It has operations in some 50 countries around the world an ...
were already producing
ammonia Ammonia is an inorganic compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula . A stable binary hydride, and the simplest pnictogen hydride, ammonia is a colourless gas with a distinct pungent smell. Biologically, it is a common nitrogenous was ...
for
nitrogen fertilizer A fertilizer (American English) or fertiliser (British English; see spelling differences) is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. Fertilizers may be distinct from ...
, Tronstad and Brun had realized that large amounts of
electrolyze In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a technique that uses Direct current, direct electric current (DC) to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction. Electrolysis is commercially important as a stage in the separation of c ...
d water were available. Tronstad was paid by Norsk Hydro as a consultant. Already in 1934, Norsk Hydro had opened a plant near the power station at
Vemork Vemork is a hydroelectric power plant outside Rjukan in Tinn, Norway. The plant was built by Norsk Hydro and opened in 1911, its main purpose being to fix nitrogen for the production of fertilizer. At opening, it was the world's largest power pl ...
. This was the world's first plant for industrial mass production of heavy water. Both French and German scientists expressed interest in the project.


World War II


German invasion of Norway

Tronstad, holding a military rank, had a standing order to report to the Norwegian military headquarters in
Oslo Oslo ( , , or ; sma, Oslove) is the capital and most populous city of Norway. It constitutes both a county and a municipality. The municipality of Oslo had a population of in 2022, while the city's greater urban area had a population of ...
in the face of a military peril. When Germany invaded Norway on 9 April 1940, he first informed his students of the situation, and then drove towards Oslo. He brought his wife and children with him, but having no intention of taking them to a possible theatre of war, he left them in the
Drivdalen Drivdalen is a river valley located in the municipality of Oppdal in Trøndelag county, Norway. The valley surrounds the river Driva. The European route E6 and the Dovre Line follow the river through much of the valley. The valley is the site ...
valley. He continued alone but shortly after, upon learning that Oslo was the first city to fall to the invaders, he stopped at
Dovre Dovre is a municipality in Innlandet county, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Gudbrandsdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Dovre. Other villages in Dovre include Dombås and Hjerkinn. The ...
. The family had a cabin in the vicinity. Here, he helped organize volunteers from local rifle associations to form a line of defence meant to repel any advancing German forces.
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) ** Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...
Fallschirmjäger The ''Fallschirmjäger'' () were the paratrooper branch of the German Luftwaffe before and during World War II. They were the first German paratroopers to be committed in large-scale airborne operations. Throughout World War II, the commander ...
paratroop A paratrooper is a military parachutist—someone trained to parachute into a military operation, and usually functioning as part of an airborne force. Military parachutists (troops) and parachutes were first used on a large scale during World ...
s did land at nearby
Dombås is a village or small town in Dovre Municipality in northern Innlandet county, Norway. The village serves as the commercial centre for the upper Gudbrandsdalen valley. It lies at an important junction of roads with the European route E6 highway ...
, but were surprised by a contingent of regular Norwegian forces already in the area, who ensured a tactical victory for Norway in the ensuing
Battle of Dombås The Battle of Dombås was fought between Norwegian Army infantry forces and German ''Fallschirmjäger'' paratroops in mid-April 1940. As part of their conquest of Norway south of Trondheim, and as a countermeasure against reported Allied landin ...
.


Resistance

When the Norwegian Campaign ended and the
German occupation of Norway The occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany during the Second World War began on 9 April 1940 after Operation Weserübung. Conventional armed resistance to the German invasion ended on 10 June 1940, and Nazi Germany controlled Norway until the ...
was a reality, Tronstad became involved in resistance work, largely based around the Norwegian Institute of Technology. He was associated with the radio agent group
Skylark B Skylark B was a radio communications group that operated in Trondheim during the German occupation of Norway. The group was established and led by Erik Welle-Strand, who was a student in Trondheim. Preparations were done in 1940, when a transmitter ...
, which had regular contact with London from January 1941. Among other things, he sent reports on the interest shown by German authorities in the heavy water plant at Vemork. One source of this information was Tronstad's old companion, Jomar Brun, still in charge of the plant, who also helped people to flee the country by sea, via the Møre coast. After exposure of the group in September 1941, Tronstad himself had to flee the country. Another resistance member, who had already been jailed, managed to warn Tronstad, who travelled from Trondheim to Oslo by train. The following day, the
Gestapo The (), abbreviated Gestapo (; ), was the official secret police of Nazi Germany and in German-occupied Europe. The force was created by Hermann Göring in 1933 by combining the various political police agencies of Prussia into one organi ...
visited his house to arrest him. After a few days in hiding, Tronstad was driven by car to
Østfold Østfold is a traditional region, a former county and a current electoral district in southeastern Norway. It borders Akershus and southwestern Sweden (Västra Götaland County and Värmland), while Buskerud and Vestfold are on the other side o ...
, and then travelled on foot to
Töcksfors Töcksfors is a locality situated in Årjäng Municipality, Värmland County, Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of ...
via
Ørje Ørje is the administrative centre of Marker municipality, Norway, not far from the Swedish border. Its population (2013) is 1,881. Ørje was founded in the 1880s around a timber-processing mill. Engebret Soot had built the first Norwegian cana ...
. From there he continued by plane to England, rejecting an offer of a civilian job in Sweden. He reached England in October 1941. He already had a broad network of contacts there, stemming both from his academic career as well as from his radio operations. He also maintained several contacts abroad, including scientists whom he knew from the Norwegian Institute of Technology: Harald Wergeland and Njål Hole. The opportunity to work directly for the British was presented to Tronstad, but instead he chose to aim his efforts towards disrupting the German occupation of Norway and improving the Norwegian resistance work. He even wanted to enrol in active duty, but was stopped by the Norwegian military command, who considered him "too valuable" for the war theatre. Tronstad's foremost skill was that of organization, which he owed to his experience in science. Thus, Tronstad became a part of the staff of the
Ministry of Defence {{unsourced, date=February 2021 A ministry of defence or defense (see spelling differences), also known as a department of defence or defense, is an often-used name for the part of a government responsible for matters of defence, found in states ...
, and later of the
Norwegian High Command The Norwegian High Command ( no, Forsvarets Overkommando, FO) was Norway's top military leadership from 1970 to 2003. It was established in Northern Norway in 1940 by General Otto Ruge. It was then re-established by the Norwegian Government-in-exile ...
. From 1943, he headed a section in department 4 (FO IV). This had been established in December 1942 under the leadership of Colonel
Bjarne Øen Bjarne Øen (6 November 1898 – 20 September 1994) was a Norwegian pilot, military officer and Lieutenant General of the Royal Norwegian Air Force. During World War II he played a central role in building up the Royal Norwegian Air Force i ...
, and Tronstad was brought in as a reinforcement as the work burden increased. Also, he had recently been promoted from
Captain Captain is a title, an appellative for the commanding officer of a military unit; the supreme leader of a navy ship, merchant ship, aeroplane, spacecraft, or other vessel; or the commander of a port, fire or police department, election precinct, e ...
to
Major Major (commandant in certain jurisdictions) is a military rank of commissioned officer status, with corresponding ranks existing in many military forces throughout the world. When used unhyphenated and in conjunction with no other indicators ...
. Tronstad's section was responsible for the special operation towards industry and shipping; training of the
Norwegian Independent Company 1 Norwegian Independent Company 1 (NOR.I.C.1, pronounced ''Norisén'' (approx. "noor-ee-sehn") in Norwegian) was a British Special Operations Executive (SOE) group formed in March 1941 originally for the purpose of performing commando raids during ...
(''Kompani Linge''); technical advice on sabotage, and towards the end of the war also the protection of Norwegian industry. He established the Norwegian High Command Technical Committee, which included other Norwegian scientists-in-exile such as Svein Rosseland,
Helmer Dahl Helmer Hartmann Dahl (17 June 1908 – 29 March 1999) was a Norwegian electrical engineer and director of research at the Chr. Michelsen Institute. Biography Dahl was born at Sarpsborg in Østfold, Norway. He was the son of Karl Theodor Dahl (186 ...
and
Gunnar Randers Gunnar Randers (21 April 1914 – 7 February 1992) was a Norwegian physicist. He is known as the principal figure within Norwegian nuclear research after World War II. He was employed at the Mount Wilson Observatory from 1939 to 1940, and at the Y ...
. The Technical Committee is considered as the precursor to the
Norwegian Defence Research Establishment The Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (''Forsvarets forskningsinstitutt'' – ''FFI'') is a research institute that conducts research and development on behalf of the Norwegian Armed Forces and provides expert advice to political and mi ...
, established in 1946.


Heavy water sabotage

Already in 1941, Tronstad was aware that heavy water production at Vemork had greatly increased. In the beginning, Tronstad had not been aware of the connection between heavy water and
atomic weapon A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (fission bomb) or a combination of fission and fusion reactions ( thermonuclear bomb), producing a nuclear explosion. Both bom ...
ry, but it eventually became clear that Germany could be running a nuclear energy project, especially after Harold Urey visited the United Kingdom in November 1941. Tronstad later learned from Jomar Brun that further expansion of heavy water production was being discussed. Brun had been a part of a small conference on the issue, hosted by
Kurt Diebner Kurt Diebner (13 May 1905 – 13 July 1964) was a German nuclear physicist who is well known for directing and administrating the German nuclear energy project, a secretive program aiming to build nuclear weapons for Nazi Germany during World War ...
in Berlin, in January 1942. Brun would later communicate with England through Einar Skinnarland, a covert
Special Operations Executive The Special Operations Executive (SOE) was a secret British World War II organisation. It was officially formed on 22 July 1940 under Minister of Economic Warfare Hugh Dalton, from the amalgamation of three existing secret organisations. Its pu ...
agent hailing from Rjukan. In October 1942, Brun was summoned to England, reportedly at the request of
Winston Churchill Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill (30 November 187424 January 1965) was a British statesman, soldier, and writer who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom twice, from 1940 to 1945 Winston Churchill in the Second World War, dur ...
. Instead, a team of agents were parachuted into the area to gather more intelligence, under the codename Operation Grouse. The idea of subjecting the heavy water facility at Vemork to heavy air bombing surfaced, but Tronstad was a staunch opponent of such an idea, which he saw as too hazardous. He warned of the presence of civil housing, and argued that bombing was not even guaranteed to succeed, given that the heavy water facility was located in the armoured basement of the electrolyzing plant. The first attempt to take out the facility, in November 1942, had consisted of British personnel using gliders to land near Vemork. The operation, codenamed
Freshman A freshman, fresher, first year, or frosh, is a person in the first year at an educational institution, usually a secondary school or at the college and university level, but also in other forms of post-secondary educational institutions. Ara ...
, was a catastrophe, as all units except for one towing aircraft perished, either due to crash landings or in German captivity. Tronstad then organized the next attempt. He had wanted to take an active part in the sabotage mission, but again he was stopped by his commanders, who regarded him as inexpendable. Tronstad and Brun supplied the would-be saboteurs with extensive knowledge of the facility, and organized the training. The operation, codenamed
Gunnerside Gunnerside is a village in the Richmondshire district of North Yorkshire, England. It is situated on the B6270 road, east of Muker and west of Grinton. The village lies between the River Swale and its tributary, Gunnerside Beck, in the Swale ...
and led by
Joachim Rønneberg Joachim Holmboe Rønneberg (30 August 1919 – 21 October 2018) was a Norwegian Army Officer (armed forces), officer and broadcaster. He was known for his Norwegian resistance movement, resistance work during World War II, most notably commandin ...
, was carried out successfully between 27 and 28 February 1943. However, after three months, Germany managed to resume production. Against the will of Tronstad, in July 1943, an American-led raid by 161 aircraft bombed Vemork as well as the shipment yard at
Herøya Herøya is a peninsula in the municipality of Porsgrunn, Norway. It is located between the fjords of Frierfjord to the west and Gunneklevfjord to the east, at the mouth of Telemarksvassdraget. The name stems from the Old Norse word "her-eyjar" m ...
. The two bombings claimed the lives of 76 people, many of whom were civilian. The heavy water plant was not directly affected by the bombing, nevertheless production was halted due to a damaged generator. The Germans then tried to disassemble the production facility, followed by a retreat from Vemork with the remaining stock of heavy water. This resulted in the sinking of by Norwegian saboteurs, halting the heavy water transport, but again claiming many civilian lives. Tronstad had given his consent to the latter operation, reportedly with a "heavy heart". Concealed listening posts at Rjukan and Notodden also revealed high-level German discussions of long-range weaponry. The place name
Peenemünde Peenemünde (, en, "Peene iverMouth") is a municipality on the Baltic Sea island of Usedom in the Vorpommern-Greifswald district in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. It is part of the ''Amt'' (collective municipality) of Usedom-Nord. The communi ...
was frequently mentioned. As this intelligence reaching Tronstad's ear via his contacts in Norway, he forwarded it to the British. As a result, the
Royal Air Force The Royal Air Force (RAF) is the United Kingdom's air and space force. It was formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918, becoming the first independent air force in the world, by regrouping the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) and ...
bombed the Army Research Center of Peenemünde in August 1943. Further raids were made by the US Army Air Force in July and August 1944. The bombing halted the weapons program there, which centered around development of the
V-1 flying bomb The V-1 flying bomb (german: Vergeltungswaffe 1 "Vengeance Weapon 1") was an early cruise missile. Its official Ministry of Aviation (Nazi Germany), Reich Aviation Ministry () designation was Fi 103. It was also known to the Allies as the buz ...
and the
V-2 rocket The V-2 (german: Vergeltungswaffe 2, lit=Retaliation Weapon 2), with the technical name ''Aggregat 4'' (A-4), was the world’s first long-range guided ballistic missile. The missile, powered by a liquid-propellant rocket engine, was developed ...
. Fellow scientists Rideal and Evans later wrote that Tronstad "contributed directly to the speedy victory of the Allied Nations, besides saving the region which came to be known as '
Southern England Southern England, or the South of England, also known as the South, is an area of England consisting of its southernmost part, with cultural, economic and political differences from the Midlands and the North. Officially, the area includes G ...
' from an even longer and more severe ordeal than it actually endured".


Operation Sunshine

In 1944, when the tide of war was turning against Germany, the German forces started to retreat from
Northern Norway Northern Norway ( nb, Nord-Norge, , nn, Nord-Noreg; se, Davvi-Norga) is a geographical Regions of Norway, region of Norway, consisting of the two northernmost counties Nordland and Troms og Finnmark, in total about 35% of the Norwegian mainlan ...
. However, they used
scorched earth A scorched-earth policy is a military strategy that aims to destroy anything that might be useful to the enemy. Any assets that could be used by the enemy may be targeted, which usually includes obvious weapons, transport vehicles, communi ...
tactics as they retreated. Consequently, Tronstad started to plan how to organize a defence of industrial sites in Southern Norway. The first plan pertained to
Upper Telemark Upper Telemark ( no, Øvre Telemark) is a Norwegian region comprising the inland of the traditional district Telemark in Vestfold og Telemark county. More than two thirds of the total area of Telemark, or above 10,000 square kilometres, belong to ...
, and was codenamed Operation Sunshine. Its basic principle was to build a defence force from the existing
Milorg Milorg (abbreviation of militær organisasjon – military organization) was the main Norwegian resistance movement during World War II. Resistance work included intelligence gathering, sabotage, supply-missions, raids, espionage, transport of ...
pockets in the district. Tronstad, who earlier had been stopped from travelling to Norway himself, did so this time. He felt that it was time to deal a decisive blow to a dwindling German war power, and called for the "full effort ... from all who would be called men". Tronstad was parachuted into
Hardangervidda Hardangervidda ( en, Hardanger Plateau) is a mountain plateau (Norwegian: ''vidde'') in central southern Norway, covering parts of Vestland, Vestfold og Telemark, and Viken counties. It is the largest plateau of its kind in Europe, with a cold ye ...
on 4 October 1944, together with eight Norwegian Independent Company 1 members. The group included
Gunnar Syverstad Gunnar Bryde Syverstad, BEM (6 February 1910 – 11 March 1945) was a Norwegian resistance member. He is known for his assistance in the Norwegian heavy water sabotage.Jens-Anton Poulsson Jens-Anton Poulsson Distinguished Service Order, DSO, (27 October 1918 – 2 February 2010) was a Norwegian military officer. During World War II he was a Norwegian resistance movement, Norwegian resistance member, especially noted for his role in ...
and
Claus Helberg Claus Helberg (31 January 1919 – 6 March 2003) was a Norwegian resistance fighter and mountain guide. He was a member of Company Linge, a resistance commando unit that was best known for carrying out Norwegian heavy water sabotage during World W ...
. They lived in a small cabin built by Einar Skinnarland. However, after a few months a situation arose that could compromise the operation. It was feared that Torgeir Lognvik, the
bailiff A bailiff (from Middle English baillif, Old French ''baillis'', ''bail'' "custody") is a manager, overseer or custodian – a legal officer to whom some degree of authority or jurisdiction is given. Bailiffs are of various kinds and their offi ...
installed by the Nazis in
Rauland Rauland is a former municipality in Telemark county, Norway. The municipality existed from 1860 until its dissolution in 1964. The area is now part of Vinje Municipality. The administrative centre was the village of Raulandsgrend (also known ...
municipality, had become suspicious. Thus, the people behind Operation Sunshine created a plan to lure him to the mountains, and capture and interrogate him there. On 11 March 1945, resistance member Jon Landsverk managed to travel with Torgeir Lognvik towards the mountains on the pretext of showing him some stolen goods. The two were soon met by Gunnar Syverstad and Einar Skinnarland, who captured the bailiff. He was taken to a lodge in the hills of Syrebekkstølen, where he was to be interrogated by Landsverk, Syverstad and Tronstad. However, on the same day, Torgeir's brother Johans became suspicious and decided to follow the ski trails, which led him to Syrebekkstølen. Armed, he entered the lodge, firing several shots, taking the Resistance fighters by surprise. Gunnar Syverstad was killed in the initial attack. Torgeir, who was not bound, grabbed a rifle. In the struggle, Tronstad charged at Johans, but was killed. The two brothers then escaped. Jon Landsverk survived, and together with Einar Skinnarland he disposed of the two bodies in a lake. However, the next day the bodies were found and burned by German forces. After the war, Jon Landsverk testified against the Lognvik brothers as a part of the
legal purge in Norway after World War II The purge in Norway after World War II was a purge that took place between May 1945 and August 1948 against anyone who was deemed to have collaborated with the German occupation of the country. Several thousand Norwegians and foreign citizens wer ...
. While Landsverk claimed that the wounded Tronstad had been killed by a blow from the butt of a rifle held by Torgeir, the court found Johans guilty of both murders, and Torgeir of attempted murder. Johans was sentenced to a ten-year prison term, and Torgeir to a five-year term.


Diaries

Tronstad's coded diaries from 1941 to 1945 are preserved, and the 13 original books are kept by the
National Archival Services of Norway The National Archival Services of Norway ( no, Arkivverket) is a Norwegian government agency that is responsible for keeping state archives, conducts control of public archiving and works to preserve private archives. It is subordinate to the Mi ...
. They have been transcribed and made available to historians, and are regarded as an important source of information from the "outer front".


Awards and legacy

Tronstad had a
military funeral A military funeral is a memorial or burial rite given by a country's military for a soldier, sailor, marine or airman who died in battle, a veteran, or other prominent military figures or heads of state. A military funeral may feature guards ...
on 30 May 1945, being buried at
Vestre gravlund Vestre Gravlund is a cemetery in the Frogner borough of Oslo, Norway. It is located next to the Borgen metro station. At , it is the largest cemetery in Norway. It was inaugurated in September 1902 and also contains a crematorium (''Vestre kr ...
in Oslo. He was awarded Norway's highest decoration for military gallantry, the
War Cross with sword The War Cross with Sword (Norwegian Bokmål: ''Krigskorset med sverd, '' Norwegian Nynorsk: ''Krigskrossen med sverd'') is the highest ranking Norwegian gallantry decoration. It is awarded for extraordinary brave actions or extraordinary leadersh ...
, as well as the
Norwegian War Medal __NOTOC__ The War Medal ( no, Krigsmedaljen) is a Norwegian war decoration for service during Second World War, and later for meritous service during war. Criteria The Norwegian War Medal was instituted by King Haakon VII of Norway by Royal Decre ...
and the
Defence Medal 1940–1945 The Defence Medal 1940–1945 () is the award rewarded to those military and civilian personnel who participated in the fight against the German invasion and occupation of Norway between 1940 and 1945. The Defence Medal 1940–1945 can be awarde ...
. In addition to his Norwegian decorations, Tronstad received the
Order of the British Empire The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is a British order of chivalry, rewarding contributions to the arts and sciences, work with charitable and welfare organisations, and public service outside the civil service. It was established ...
, Chevalier of the French
Légion d'honneur The National Order of the Legion of Honour (french: Ordre national de la Légion d'honneur), formerly the Royal Order of the Legion of Honour ('), is the highest French order of merit, both military and civil. Established in 1802 by Napoleon ...
and
Croix de Guerre The ''Croix de Guerre'' (, ''Cross of War'') is a military decoration of France. It was first created in 1915 and consists of a square-cross medal on two crossed swords, hanging from a ribbon with various degree pins. The decoration was first awa ...
and the US
Medal of Freedom The Presidential Medal of Freedom is the highest civilian award of the United States, along with the Congressional Gold Medal. It is an award bestowed by the president of the United States to recognize people who have made "an especially merit ...
with bronze palm as well as the British
Distinguished Service Order The Distinguished Service Order (DSO) is a military decoration of the United Kingdom, as well as formerly of other parts of the Commonwealth, awarded for meritorious or distinguished service by officers of the armed forces during wartime, typ ...
. A memorial stone was raised at Syrebekkstølen, commemorating the death of Tronstad and Gunnar Syverstad. Also, several streets in Norway have been named after him. A statue of Tronstad today stands at the square ''Leif Tronstads plass'' in Sandvika, the administrative centre of Bærum. It was commissioned in 1965 by the local Rotary club, and erected in 1973. Abstract, it was sculpted by
Fritz Røed Fritz Røed (15 August 1928 – 20 December 2002) was a Norwegian sculptor. He is most associated with his work, '' Sverd i fjell'', the commemorative monument that symbolizes the unification of the nation of Norway. Biography Røed was bo ...
.


References


External links


Leif Tronstad private archive
exists at NTNU University Librar
Dorabiblioteket
{{DEFAULTSORT:Tronstad, Leif 1903 births 1945 deaths People from Bærum People educated at the Haagaas School Norwegian male middle-distance runners Norwegian Institute of Technology alumni Academic staff of the Norwegian Institute of Technology Norwegian Army personnel of World War II Norwegian military personnel killed in World War II Deaths by firearm in Norway Norwegian resistance members Companions of the Distinguished Service Order Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France) Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur Recipients of the Medal of Freedom Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters Norwegian Special Operations Executive personnel Recipients of the War Cross with Sword (Norway) Honorary Officers of the Order of the British Empire Burials at Vestre gravlund