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Learning space or learning setting refers to a physical setting for a learning environment, a place in which teaching and learning occur. The term is commonly used as a more definitive alternative to "
classroom A classroom, schoolroom or lecture room is a learning space in which both children and adults learn. Classrooms are found in educational institutions of all kinds, ranging from preschools to universities, and may also be found in other place ...
," but it may also refer to an indoor or outdoor location, either actual or virtual. Learning spaces are highly diverse in use, configuration, location, and educational institution. They support a variety of pedagogies, including quiet study, passive or active learning, kinesthetic or physical learning, vocational learning, experiential learning, and others. As the design of a learning space impacts the learning process, it is deemed important to design a learning space with the learning process in mind.


History

The word ''school'' derives from
Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
'' (''), originally meaning "
leisure Leisure (, ) has often been defined as a quality of experience or as free time. Free time is time spent away from business, Employment, work, job hunting, Housekeeping, domestic chores, and education, as well as necessary activities such as ...
" and also "that in which leisure is employed", and later "a group to whom lectures were given, school". The Japanese word for school, ''gakuen'', means "learning garden" or "garden of learning".
Kindergarten Kindergarten is a preschool educational approach based on playing, singing, practical activities such as drawing, and social interaction as part of the transition from home to school. Such institutions were originally made in the late 18th cen ...
is a German word whose literal meaning is "garden for the children", however the term was coined in the metaphorical sense of a "place where children can grow in a natural way". Over time different methods of instruction have led to different types of learning spaces.
Direct instruction Direct instruction (DI) is the explicit teaching of a skill set using lectures or demonstrations of the material to students. A particular subset, denoted by capitalization as Direct Instruction, refers to the approach developed by Siegfried E ...
is perhaps civilization's oldest method of formal, structured education and continues to be a dominant form throughout the world. In its essence it involves the transfer of information from one who possesses more knowledge to one who has less knowledge, either in general or in relation to a particular subject or idea. This method is commonly used in traditional classrooms. The
Socratic method The Socratic method (also known as the method of Elenchus or Socratic debate) is a form of argumentative dialogue between individuals based on asking and answering questions. Socratic dialogues feature in many of the works of the ancient Greek ...
was developed over two millennia ago in response to direct instruction in the scholae of
Ancient Greece Ancient Greece () was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity (), that comprised a loose collection of culturally and linguistically r ...
. Its
dialectic Dialectic (; ), also known as the dialectical method, refers originally to dialogue between people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing to arrive at the truth through reasoned argument. Dialectic resembles debate, but the ...
, questioning form continues to be an important form of learning in western schools of law. This method is commonly used in seminar rooms and smaller lecture halls. Hands-on learning, a form of active and experiential learning, predates language and the ability to convey knowledge by means other than demonstration, and has been shown to be one of the more effective means of learning and over the past two decades has been given an increasingly important role in education. This method is used in outdoor learning spaces, specialty labs, studios, vocational shops, maker spaces, and in physical education facilities.


Institutions

Institutions that provide learning spaces can be categorized in several ways, including: * Student age:
kindergarten Kindergarten is a preschool educational approach based on playing, singing, practical activities such as drawing, and social interaction as part of the transition from home to school. Such institutions were originally made in the late 18th cen ...
, elementary or primary school,
middle school Middle school, also known as intermediate school, junior high school, junior secondary school, or lower secondary school, is an educational stage between primary school and secondary school. Afghanistan In Afghanistan, middle school includes g ...
, secondary or high school * Academic level:
school A school is the educational institution (and, in the case of in-person learning, the Educational architecture, building) designed to provide learning environments for the teaching of students, usually under the direction of teachers. Most co ...
,
college A college (Latin: ''collegium'') may be a tertiary educational institution (sometimes awarding degrees), part of a collegiate university, an institution offering vocational education, a further education institution, or a secondary sc ...
,
university A university () is an educational institution, institution of tertiary education and research which awards academic degrees in several Discipline (academia), academic disciplines. ''University'' is derived from the Latin phrase , which roughly ...
,
graduate school Postgraduate education, graduate education, or graduate school consists of academic or professional degrees, certificates, diplomas, or other qualifications usually pursued by post-secondary students who have earned an undergraduate (bachel ...
* Physical, mental, or social development:
special education Special education (also known as special-needs education, aided education, alternative provision, exceptional student education, special ed., SDC, and SPED) is the practice of educating students in a way that accommodates their individual di ...
, school for the deaf, school for the blind, etc. * Pedagogy: traditional education, progressive education,
Montessori The Montessori method of education is a type of educational method that involves children's natural interests and activities rather than formal teaching methods. A Montessori classroom places an emphasis on hands-on learning and developing ...
, Reggio Emilia approach,
Waldorf schools Waldorf education, also known as Steiner education, is based on the educational philosophy of Rudolf Steiner, the founder of anthroposophy. Its educational style is Holistic education, holistic, intended to develop pupils' intellectual, artistic ...
, etc. * Subject or focus:
STEM Stem or STEM most commonly refers to: * Plant stem, a structural axis of a vascular plant * Stem group * Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics Stem or STEM can also refer to: Language and writing * Word stem, part of a word respon ...
,
magnet school In the U.S. education system, magnet schools are public schools with specialized courses or curricula. Normally, a student will attend an elementary school, and this also determines the middle school and high school they attend unless they mo ...
, vocational or trades school,
flight school Flight training is a course of study used when learning to aviator, pilot an aircraft. The overall purpose of primary and intermediate flight training is the acquisition and honing of basic airmanship skills. Flight training can be conducted un ...
, sailing school, dive shops,
finishing school A finishing school focuses on teaching young women social graces and upper-class cultural rites as a preparation for entry into society. The name reflects the fact that it follows ordinary school and is intended to complete a young woman's ...
, etc. * Organizational, institutional, or philosophical type: public or state school,
private school A private school or independent school is a school not administered or funded by the government, unlike a State school, public school. Private schools are schools that are not dependent upon national or local government to finance their fina ...
,
independent school A private school or independent school is a school not administered or funded by the government, unlike a State school, public school. Private schools are schools that are not dependent upon national or local government to finance their fina ...
, community school, military school,
parochial school A parochial school is a private school, private Primary school, primary or secondary school affiliated with a religious organization, and whose curriculum includes general religious education in addition to secular subjects, such as science, mathem ...
* Location: neighborhood,
distance learning Distance education, also known as distance learning, is the education of students who may not always be physically present at school, or where the learner and the teacher are separated in both time and distance; today, it usually involves online ...
, online or virtual school or classroom, outdoor school or classroom


Organizational models

Learning environments are frequently organized into six pedagogical and physical models: * Departmental model * Integrative model * Project-based learning model * Academy model * Small learning communities model * School-within-a-school model


Significance

The physical, and/or virtual, characteristics of learning spaces play a strong role in their effectiveness and, by impacting student learning, on society. As
Winston Churchill Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British statesman, military officer, and writer who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 (Winston Churchill in the Second World War, ...
stated: "we shape our buildings and afterwards our buildings shape us." The importance of interactions between individuals and their environment have long been established by
Kurt Lewin Kurt Lewin ( ; ; 9 September 1890 – 12 February 1947) was a German-American psychologist, known as one of the modern pioneers of social psychology, social, industrial and organizational psychology, organizational, and applied psychology in the ...
's ''field theory'' and ''life space'',
Urie Bronfenbrenner Urie Bronfenbrenner (April 29, 1917, Moscow – September 25, 2005) was a Russian-born American psychologist best known for using a contextual framework to better understand human development. This framework, broadly referred to as 'ecological sys ...
's concept of ''microsystem'',
Jean Lave Jean Lave is a social anthropologist who theorizes learning as changing participation in on-going changing practice. Her lifework challenges conventional theories of learning and education. Education and career Lave received a Bachelor's from ...
and Etienne Wenger's situated learning theory, and others.''Learning Styles and Learning Spaces: Enhancing Experiential Learning in Higher Education'', Alice Y. Kolb and David A. Kolb, Academy of Management Learning & Education, Vol. 4, No. 2 (Jun., 2005), pp. 193-212
Retrieved 2016-04-08
Rearch continues to show us that active learning, and learning spaces configured to support active learning, contribute to more effective learning and encourage different methods of instruction.''Space and consequences: The impact of different formal learning spaces on instructor and student behavior'', D. Christopher Brooks, University of Minnesota, 2012
Retrieved 2016-04-10


Spatial characteristics

Learning spaces extend well beyond real-world, " brick and mortar" educational institutions. They are increasingly varied in style, configuration, and location. Their physical characteristics include many variables, including size, form, and shape; environmental; technological; space type and appropriateness for its intended activity and users; location; and numerous others. A basic tenet of learning spaces housed in buildings is to provide shelter, although many facilities from campuses to portable classrooms, do not provide shelter between individual spaces. Outdoor learning spaces rely on clothing and personal items to maintain comfort. The location of the learning space affects both its functional and operational interrelationships with other spaces, student and instructor cohorts, learning programs, and support spaces. The proportion of a space's height-width-length can affect the ability of learners to see instructional or demonstration material or the presenter. The orientation of the space towards adjacent spaces or the outdoor environment can affect activities, thermal comfort, as well as daylight penetration (if any) at different times of the day. Increased demand for flexibility and adaptability have seen greater use of ( operable partition walls) to combine and separate spaces. Safety and security in schools, including major incidents of violence,
bullying Bullying is the use of force, coercion, Suffering, hurtful teasing, comments, or threats, in order to abuse, aggression, aggressively wikt:domination, dominate, or intimidate one or more others. The behavior is often repeated and habitual. On ...
, and
vandalism Vandalism is the action involving deliberate destruction of or damage to public or private property. The term includes property damage, such as graffiti and defacement directed towards any property without permission of the owner. The t ...
have led to increased use of security monitoring systems, strategies such ''crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED)'', and sometimes competing discussions of transparency versus visible
lockdown A lockdown () is a restriction policy for people, community or a country to stay where they are, usually due to specific risks that could possibly harm the people if they move and interact freely. The term is used for a prison protocol that us ...
of learning spaces.


Temperature

Thermal comfort of a learning space is important for student comfort, and therefore learning. This is affected by several factors: ambient room temperature, air movement (via open windows, mechanical ventilation, drafts across cold surfaces, and room fans), and solar exposure. Insulating windows, shaded windows, and careful placement of ventilation ducts can all affect the comfort.


Ventilation

Appropriate levels of ventilation is critical to occupant health, comfort, and cognitive functions, all required for effective learning. Recent studies at Harvard University and Syracuse University reported significant cognitive impairment from impurities in the air. Significant cognitive deficits were observed in performance scores in environments with increasing concentrations of either
volatile organic compound Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are organic compounds that have a high vapor pressure at room temperature. They are common and exist in a variety of settings and products, not limited to Indoor mold, house mold, Upholstery, upholstered furnitur ...
s (VOCs) or
carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalent bond, covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in a gas state at room temperature and at norma ...
. The highest impurity levels reached in the study are not uncommon in some classroom or office environments. Filtering the air to reduce dust and pollen can be important to help prevent allergic reactions in students.


Views

Theories that views out of windows cause distractions were one of the prime motivations for the windowless classroom of the 1960s and 70s. More recent studies have demonstrated that views of nature potentially improve health and well-being and that more stimulating environments foster improvements in learning and retention. Ophthalmologists have stressed the importance of distant views to help relax the eye engaged in close work, such as on a video or computer monitor. Attention Restoration Theory suggests that views of natural scenes have the potential to restore a person's ability to focus and concentrate after intense cognitive activity.''Windows and Classrooms: A Study of Student Performance and the Indoor Environment'', Technical Report, California Energy Commission, October 2003
Retrieved 2016-04-10


Natural light

Natural light in any space can be provided through windows, doors, or
skylight A skylight (sometimes called a rooflight) is a light-permitting structure or window, usually made of transparent or translucent glass, that forms all or part of the roof space of a building for daylighting and ventilation purposes. History O ...
s. Providing natural light has been shown to be highly impactful on a learning space. Properly controlled and located, it has been demonstrated to have measurably positive impacts on student academic performance and behavior. If not properly controlled and located, it can interfere with abilities to read, view demonstration materials, or cause physical discomfort. Control methods include fixed or adjustable window coverings, exterior sunshades, interior light shelves, or dimmable " Smart glass".


Light

For those learning spaces that don't have access to adequate natural light, artificial light is required to support effective learning. Lighting levels, type, color rendition, and fixture type are all important components for different learning styles and activities. Classrooms with direct instruction require different levels of illumination than those using computer or video monitors. Specific task lighting may be required to supplement general room lighting in science labs, vocational shops, or gymnasia. Color rendition and color temperature (the perceived color of light) can affect student moods and the educational content or project (e.g. art project). As with natural light, personalizing the lighting through manual occupant controls can provide the greatest flexibility and user satisfaction.


Acoustics

Research has shown that children require much quieter learning spaces with less
reverberation In acoustics, reverberation (commonly shortened to reverb) is a persistence of sound after it is produced. It is often created when a sound is reflection (physics), reflected on surfaces, causing multiple reflections that build up and then de ...
to hear and understand spoken words than do adults. Even normal, healthy listeners younger than 13 have a much more difficult time distinguishing verbal signals from background noise. Students who have hearing loss (e.g. from ear infections), who are learning a new language, or have auditory or attention problems required even more favorable acoustics in order to understand speech. In response, acceptable limits of background noise in classrooms have been reduced to 35 dBA and 55 dBC by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).


Finishes

The finishes of walls, floors, ceilings, and furniture can have significant effects on the functionality, durability, and effectiveness of the learning space. Light levels, glare, mood, and color rendition are affected by reflectance of surfaces. Acoustics are affected by the absorptive properties of ceilings, walls, and floors; carpet reduces footfall impact noise and reverberation; painted drywall or plaster ceilings increase reverberance and clarity of speech. Durability, which affects aesthetics over time, can determine the longer term usefulness and effectiveness of the space, including possible long-term health impacts on students. Cleanliness is also a factor in maintaining a healthy environment, in particular for young students who tend to be in greater physical contact with floor and wall surfaces than others.Classroom Design Guide, Arizona State University, 2011
. Retrieved 2016-04-09


Furniture

In order for learning spaces to operate for more than a few minutes at a time, furniture for students and instructors is needed. Together with the air in the room, this is the most direct interaction occupants have with their space. Configuration and
ergonomics Ergonomics, also known as human factors or human factors engineering (HFE), is the application of Psychology, psychological and Physiology, physiological principles to the engineering and design of products, processes, and systems. Primary goa ...
need to be attuned to the activities in the learning space for learning to be most effective. Historically student desks and chairs (or benches) were aligned in rows facing the front of the classroom, often secured to the floor. This supported passive learning and methods of direct instruction but does not support active and student-centered learning.''Challenging Traditional Assumptions and Rethinking Learning Spaces'', Learning Spaces, Chapter 2. Nancy Van Note Chism. Educause, 2006
Retrieved 2016-04-10
Active learning, including collaboration, group activity, and project-based learning, requires students to move between furniture and spaces and requires different configurations of furniture, often within the same instructional period. As instructors move away from the lecture podium to interact, consult, and guide the students, they too need to move. An awareness of the importance of personalization and differentiation in learning activities and environments. Studies indicate that people, and young students in particular, need to move about frequently. These indicate that a variety of furniture types, configurations, and flexibility can contribute to the effectiveness of learning spaces. Personal technology, often hand-held, also demands different postures and positions for people to sit, stand, or relax in. Chairs with tablet arms for taking notes are not useful to hold laptop computers, and hand-held devices are often supported on knees and thighs, not furniture.


Technology

Until recently, technology in the learning space was almost exclusively for the use of instructors. Students now have greater access to classroom technology and personal technology in the classroom. With Internet access, e-books, and other digital content, the technology has moved beyond simply presentation types to actual research, generation, collaboration, and presentation or publishing. Key technologies in modern learning spaces include: projectors, interactive whiteboards and projectors, computers (
desktop A desktop traditionally refers to: * The surface of a desk (often to distinguish office appliances that fit on a desk, such as photocopiers and printers, from larger equipment covering its own area on the floor) Desktop may refer to various compu ...
,
laptop A laptop computer or notebook computer, also known as a laptop or notebook, is a small, portable personal computer (PC). Laptops typically have a Clamshell design, clamshell form factor (design), form factor with a flat-panel computer scree ...
, tablet, or mobile devices), document cameras, digital cameras, video conferencing, sound and video playback systems, voice enhancement,
Wi-Fi Wi-Fi () is a family of wireless network protocols based on the IEEE 802.11 family of standards, which are commonly used for Wireless LAN, local area networking of devices and Internet access, allowing nearby digital devices to exchange data by ...
,
Internet access Internet access is a facility or service that provides connectivity for a computer, a computer network, or other network device to the Internet, and for individuals or organizations to access or use applications such as email and the World Wide ...
, and others. Mobile and personal technology is transforming the way learning spaces are used and configured. It allows learning – including research, collaboration, creating, writing, production, and presentation – to occur almost anywhere. For example, mobile devices allow an easier communication to the students. Its robust tools support creativity of thought – through collaboration, generation, and production that does not require manual dexterity. It fosters personalization of learning spaces by teachers and students, which both supports the learning activity directly as well as indirectly through providing a greater feeling of ownership and relevancy.


Sustainability

Sustainable (or 'green') architecture is design that seeks to minimize the negative environmental impact of buildings through efficient and moderate use of materials, energy, and development space. It uses a conscious approach to energy and ecological conservation in the design of the built environment. he intent of sustainability (or ecological design) is to ensure that current actions and decisions do not inhibit the opportunities of future generations. Sustainable attributes are recognized for their importance in the effectiveness of learning spaces, from perspectives of occupant comfort and health, stewardship of public funds, and as demonstration tools to support sustainable initiatives or become part of the school curriculum. There are various rating systems for the performance and incorporation of sustainable features in buildings in general and schools and other learning spaces. These include requirements and rating systems from ( LEED, BREEAM,
Energy Star Energy Star (trademarked ENERGY STAR) is an Efficient energy use, energy-efficiency program established in 1992. It is administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in partnership with the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The EPA ...
, Collaborative for High Performance Schools, The 2030 °Challenge, Living Building Challenge, various state-level standards for schools (e.g. Washington Sustainable Schools Protocol), which may be mandated, encouraged, or voluntary, depending on the jurisdiction. Learning spaces must be sustainable and ease education for
Sustainable Development Sustainable development is an approach to growth and Human development (economics), human development that aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.United Nations General ...
as smart classrooms do.


Educational facilities types

Learning spaces are provided in a variety of institutions, buildings, environments, and organizational models.


One room schools

This model, also termed ''shrools'', were commonplace throughout rural portions of various countries in Europe, North America, and the
Commonwealth A commonwealth is a traditional English term for a political community founded for the common good. The noun "commonwealth", meaning "public welfare, general good or advantage", dates from the 15th century. Originally a phrase (the common-wealth ...
throughout the 19th and early 20th century, primarily in rural (country) and small towns. The design was very straightforward - all of the students met in a single room with a single teacher teaching academic basics to several grade levels of elementary-age students. While in many areas one-room schools are no longer used, it is not uncommon for them to remain in developing nations and rural or remote areas, including remote parts of the
American West The Western United States (also called the American West, the Western States, the Far West, the Western territories, and the West) is census regions United States Census Bureau As American settlement in the U.S. expanded westward, the mea ...
, the Falklands Islands, and the
Shetland Islands Shetland (until 1975 spelled Zetland), also called the Shetland Islands, is an archipelago in Scotland Scotland is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It contains nearly one-third of the Uni ...
. With modern digital technology providing connections to distant resources and communities, this model is being given renewed scrutiny as a viable form.


Traditional schools

This model, also known as '"factory model schools'", which developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, are the most common form of school in many parts of the world. Classrooms and the facilities were configured into "assembly lines", similar to the pedagogy that shares its approach. Standardization and efficiencies of space, time, and materials are key components of this model. Student desks and chairs were arranged in rows, often secured in place, facing the teaching wall. Classrooms were also arranged in rows along double-loaded corridors. This model is also known as the "cells and bells" model. After World War II and the emergence of the International Style of architecture, mass production, maximization of efficiencies of space and volume, and cost-efficient materials replaced ornamentation and aesthetic considerations in design, so the schools began to look as factory-like as they were configured and operated.


Open plan schools

Open plan schools and open plan classrooms in Europe and North America developed in the 1960s from the progressive education movement. In parallel with a student-centered pedagogy, these facilities without interior walls were built to foster team teaching, student mobility between "learning areas", and to save costs in building and operating the facilities.''Noise in open plan classrooms in primary schools: A review'', Bridget Shield, Emma Greenland, and Julie Dockrell. Noise & Health, 2010, Volume 12, Issue 49, Pages 225-234
Retrieved 2016-04-08
Lack of acoustic separation and claims of visual distraction made many of these schools unpopular. Many were built during the energy crisis of the early 1970s and together with an inward focus, windows were reduced or eliminated from the learning areas. This design also resulted in poor indoor air quality and low levels natural light, which more recent studies have shown are critical to an effective learning space.


Advisory schools

In this model, core-subject teachers have dual roles as advisors and teachers in their area of expertise. Instead of general classrooms, schools are designed with advisory spaces, which are open areas containing flexible workstations, and conference and collaboration areas. There are also areas for subjects requiring special equipment, such as art and music. Students work on their own pace until they achieve mastery learning, eliminating school bells, semesters, and school years. The advisory model encourages building peer-to-peer relationships between students of varying ages and backgrounds, which lessens negative social behavior such as bullying and the development of cliques.


Small learning communities

The Small Learning Community (SLC) model is structured to provide a more personalized learning environment, including collaboration amongst teachers and between students, interdisciplinary studies, and project-based learning, although schools need not offer any or all of these aspects in their curriculum model. SLCs are essentially separate clusters or groupings of learning spaces, often with a central common or flexible learning area at their heart, with a variety of learning and group meeting rooms opening onto it, including several classrooms or learning studios, and a science lab. Theme-based or career-focused SLCs in particular may also incorporate special labs, makerspaces, or vocational shops. A school would have multiple SLCs, often with between 100 and 200 students, which can be operated on a departmental, academy, or small schools model.''Architecture for Achievement - building patterns of small school learning'', Victoria Bergsagel, Tim Best, Kathleen Cushman, Lorne McConachie, Wendy Sauer, David Stephen. Mercer Island, WA. 1997. Page 101-104. . Retrieved 2016-04-07


Open air schools

This model, also known in some areas as ''California style schools'', are collections of buildings that together form one school or learning institution but are not connected by indoor, enclosed corridors. All circulation between major spaces is out of doors. This is similar to a university or college campus, but with buildings not containing major indoor circulation routes as would be found in a faculty building. Some are provided with covered exterior walkways (or breezeways) between buildings or along the edges to provide shelter when moving between rooms. This design has been criticized due to its unsuitability in certain climates and concerns about safety and security with forcing students to go outside into unenclosed and unsecured areas.


Portable classrooms

This model consists of modular buildings that are also colloquially known around the world as ''portables, bungalows, t-shacks, trailers, terrapins, huts, mobiles, t-buildings'', or ''relocatables''. They are pre-fabricated in a factory and delivered in two or more sections to an educational facility. There they are assembled into one or two classroom-sized buildings, normally without permanent foundations so they may be removed. Their normal purpose is to provide temporary classroom space for schools that require additional instructional space, either standard classrooms or for specialty art, science, or other programs. it is estimated that there are approximately 350,000 portable classrooms in use in the United States. They are seen as a cost-effective, quick, and temporary way to address school capacity issues. However, they often remain in use long after their useful lifespan, are not as energy efficient or durable as permanent buildings, and have been linked to health concerns in students from poor indoor environmental quality. Portable classrooms are normally installed as separate from permanent school buildings, either stand-alone, back-to-back in pairs (to share toilet facilities), or in clusters. As such they can form a distinct campus unto themselves or as they are often considered as temporary solutions to a problem, are not adequately planned for in terms of space, location, or services. They are also not designed to provide an optimal learning space tailored to the site, either with access, direction of natural light, or integration with other learning spaces in the school.


Outdoor classrooms

This model describes the spaces in which outdoor education occurs. These spaces can be structured or fully natural and organic. The model can also involve any activities and spaces other than in an educational facility or classroom. It can encompass a wide variety of subjects, including biology field trips and searching for insects, as well as indoor activities like observing stock control in a local retail outlet, or visiting a
museum A museum is an institution dedicated to displaying or Preservation (library and archive), preserving culturally or scientifically significant objects. Many museums have exhibitions of these objects on public display, and some have private colle ...
. It typically supports active and inquiry-based learning and
experiential learning Experiential learning (ExL) is the process of learning through experience, and is more narrowly defined as "learning through reflection on doing". Hands-on learning can be a form of experiential learning, but does not necessarily involve students ...
, with a focus on students "doing." Examples of outdoor learning are Garden-based learning, Forest kindergarten, and Forest schools.


Virtual classrooms

This (VLE) model is a Web-based environment or platform for learning, usually within educational institutions. VLEs typically: allow participants to be organized into cohorts, groups and roles; present resources, activities and interactions within a course structure; provide for the different stages of assessment; report on participation; and have some level of integration with other institutional systems. VLEs have been adopted by most institutions of higher education in the
English-speaking world The English-speaking world comprises the 88 countries and territories in which English language, English is an official, administrative, or cultural language. In the early 2000s, between one and two billion people spoke English, making it the ...
. A
virtual school An online school (virtual school, e-school, or cyber-school) teaches students entirely or primarily online and offline, online or through the Internet. Online education exists all around the world and is used for all levels of education (K–12 ...
is an online-based educational institution that may or may not have any "bricks and mortar" facilities open to students. The physical environment required to support this is essentially anything that which supports a person using the connecting devices – desktop, laptop, tablet, or hand-held devices. Key requirements include suitable ergonomic furniture or workstations, power, connectivity (
Wi-Fi Wi-Fi () is a family of wireless network protocols based on the IEEE 802.11 family of standards, which are commonly used for Wireless LAN, local area networking of devices and Internet access, allowing nearby digital devices to exchange data by ...
), lighting control, and acoustic isolation to minimize unwanted distraction. Increasingly this can be almost any environment with access to a wireless telephone, internet, or communications network.


Flipped classrooms

This model is a learning space that combines traditional "bricks and mortar" and virtual instructional spaces. This type of blended learning reverses the traditional educational arrangement by delivering instructional content, often online, outside of the classroom and traditional homework-style activities are moved into the classroom. This approach therefore relies on the transformation of students' after-hours locations (home or other) into learning spaces. This is similar to the educational approach used at higher grade levels and higher education institutions where more content is sourced outside the classroom and discussion, inquiry-based learning, and hands-on projects are undertaken at the educational facility. Outside of instructional hours, the digital environment becomes as integral as the physical environment, both of which are beyond the control of the instructor and increasingly so by the student.


Types by activity


General education

General education instruction is most commonly undertaken in classrooms. This involves the teaching and learning of a full range of subjects not requiring specialized spaces or equipment, including language arts, mathematics, and social sciences. It may also include art, science, and some physical activity, in particular for younger students where large spaces and special equipment and services are not required.


Specialized

Laboratories, shops, studios, and similar rooms each have particular spatial, environmental, and equipment needs to support a specialized subject, including the following: *Science lab: *Computer lab: *Vocational lab/shop: * Makerspace, Hackerspace, or
Library makerspace A library makerspace, also named Hackerspace or Hacklab, is an area and/or service that offers library patrons an opportunity to create intellectual and physical materials using resources such as computers, 3D printing, 3-D printers, 3D scanning, a ...
: *Fine Arts
studio A studio is a space set aside for creative work of any kind, including art, dance, music and theater. The word ''studio'' is derived from the , from , from ''studere'', meaning to study or zeal. Types Art The studio of any artist, esp ...
s: *Music, band, choir practice, rehearsal, and performance, spaces. *Special Education - resource or access room


Lecture

Lecture halls have been a primary learning space in colleges and universities for centuries. This spatial type supports ''passive learning'' and ''direct instruction'', as well as the ''
Socratic method The Socratic method (also known as the method of Elenchus or Socratic debate) is a form of argumentative dialogue between individuals based on asking and answering questions. Socratic dialogues feature in many of the works of the ancient Greek ...
'', a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between students and instructors. It is based on asking and answering questions to stimulate
critical thinking Critical thinking is the process of analyzing available facts, evidence, observations, and arguments to make sound conclusions or informed choices. It involves recognizing underlying assumptions, providing justifications for ideas and actions, ...
, draw out ideas and underlying presumptions, and challenge positions.


Performance

Theater Theatre or theater is a collaborative form of performing art that uses live performers, usually actors to present experiences of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. The performers may communi ...
s and auditoria are normally found in larger and higher level learning institutions whose population base and curriculum support these spaces. Both are also frequently made available for use by outside community groups. An auditorium may serve as a performance space or a large instructional venue such as a lecture hall. It may or may not have a stage and its functions are sometimes combined with a cafeteria or lunch room, such as in a cafetorium. A theater may share similar functions but normally have a larger stage, partial or full height fly loft, an
orchestra pit An orchestra pit is an area in a theatre (usually located in a lowered area in front of the stage) in which musicians perform. The orchestra plays mostly out of sight in the pit, rather than on the stage as for a concert, when providing music fo ...
, and a higher level of theatre equipment and systems. A
black box theater A black box theater is a performance space, typically a square or rectangular room, with black walls and a black, flat floor. The simplicity of the space allows it to be used to create a variety of configurations of stage and audience interact ...
is also a space devoted to performances and rehearsals, although in a smaller setting and without a formal stage. A school theater also supports drama and other educational programs that involve producing a performance, including students learning to operate the theatre equipment, rigging, and sound and light systems. These differ from non school-based theaters as they may include additional safety features and space for instructors to demonstrate to students, as individuals or groups, in areas that normally might be sized or configured to have only one or a very few experienced operators.


Library and Learning Commons

A school library (or a school library media center) is a
library A library is a collection of Book, books, and possibly other Document, materials and Media (communication), media, that is accessible for use by its members and members of allied institutions. Libraries provide physical (hard copies) or electron ...
within a
school A school is the educational institution (and, in the case of in-person learning, the Educational architecture, building) designed to provide learning environments for the teaching of students, usually under the direction of teachers. Most co ...
where students, staff, and often, parents of a
public In public relations and communication science, publics are groups of individual people, and the public (a.k.a. the general public) is the totality of such groupings. This is a different concept to the sociology, sociological concept of the ''Öf ...
or
private school A private school or independent school is a school not administered or funded by the government, unlike a State school, public school. Private schools are schools that are not dependent upon national or local government to finance their fina ...
have access to a variety of resources, including books, periodicals, and other media. The library is sometimes referred to as a "resource center" or "media center", or may include these as components within the library. Libraries frequently include instructional and study space for individual or groups and in recent years have included internet-accessible computer stations or labs. A Learning Commons (or Digital Commons), as well as the "bookstore model" of a library that focuses on customer service, and bookless or digital libraries, are frequently cited as models for the "library of the future." Both Libraries and Learning Commons are increasingly used as a place for active learning and hands-on activities, including having tools, equipment, makerspaces, and/or publishing services available for borrowing or use. Emerging 21st century trends involve locating the Learning Commons to a more central position within the school, opening them to corridors, distributing them into smaller components that are more accessible to learning communities, and combining them into a central Commons or lunchroom. Environmental characteristics such as acoustical dampening and separation, and controlled lighting to support both highly focused individual activities (e.g. reading), online research, or group instruction or project work are increasingly critical to support the varied activities in these environments.


Physical education

Learning spaces for
physical education Physical education is an academic subject taught in schools worldwide, encompassing Primary education, primary, Secondary education, secondary, and sometimes tertiary education. It is often referred to as Phys. Ed. or PE, and in the United Stat ...
normally include a
gym A gym, short for gymnasium (: gymnasiums or gymnasia), is an indoor venue for exercise and sports. The word is derived from the ancient Greek term " gymnasion". They are commonly found in athletic and fitness centres, and as activity and learn ...
nasium and supporting spaces, such as locker rooms, as well as outdoor playing fields and courts for athletics, track and field, and games. This may include soccer, field hockey, football, baseball, softball, volleyball, basketball, tennis, and others. Larger facilities, such as higher-level schools, colleges, and universities, frequently include indoor weight rooms and fitness rooms, as well as natatoria and indoor tennis courts. These spaces each have a specialized degree of spatial and environmental characteristics and requirements to suit their activities, including size and environmental attributes to provide an effective learning environment.
Outdoor gym An outdoor gym is a gym built outside in a public park, with the all-weather construction of its exercise machines somewhat modeled on playground equipment. It is similar to the 1960s–1970s proliferation of fitness trails, which continue to ...
s provide fitness and exercise equipment and spaces suitable for structured or informal learning and practice, typically in parks and public locations. Gymnasia are also frequently used for whole-school gatherings and community events which require additional projecting technologies and sound systems.


Types by learning method

Learning spaces are typically designed or used for one or both of the two broad categorizations of learning, passive or active.


Passive learning/direct instructional

''Passive learning'' and ''direct instruction'' are teacher-centered pedagogies that are characterized as 'sage on the stage'. They are the most common form of instruction in historic and current learning spaces that are typified by the standard classroom model: space for 15 to 40 students and one instructor; a fixed teaching station or teaching wall with a writing or display surface composed of one or more
blackboard A blackboard or a chalkboard is a reusable writing surface on which text or drawings are made with sticks of calcium sulphate or calcium carbonate, better known as chalk. Blackboards were originally made of smooth, thin sheets of black or da ...
s or
whiteboard A whiteboard (also known as marker board, dry-erase board, dry-wipe board, and pen-board) is a glossy, usually white surface for making non-permanent markings. Whiteboards are analogous to blackboards, but with a smoother surface allowing for ...
s; and students sitting at desks, tables, or benches, traditionally arranged in rows facing the teaching wall; one wall with windows; one interior wall backing onto a corridor or outdoor circulation path, with a door, and typically without glass to minimize student distraction; wall surfaces may have additional display or writing surfaces for lessons or instructional material; a counter with a sink for lower-level grades who might take art classes in this room; and in the lower grades, cabinets or cubbies for student coats and books. Historically the furniture in school classrooms would have been fixed, as it typically was and continues to be in lecture halls with stepped, sloping, or tiered theater-type seating. In religious spaces such as churches, the instructional station is at or near the altar or the pulpit with the learners seated in rows of chairs or pews facing the speaker. This prescribed uni-directional format facing the instructor supports direct instruction by having instructors and learners face-to-face; opportunities for interaction between students is limited.


Active/experiential learning

Active learning, experiential learning, progressive education, and personalized learning are student-centered pedagogies. * ''Active learning'' is generally defined as any instructional method that engages students in the learning process, where students engage in meaningful learning activities and reflect on what they are doing.''Active Learning'', Everett Community College
Retrieved 2016-04-04
Typical activities include reading, writing, discussion, or problem solving and promote analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of learning content. Approaches that support active learning include cooperative learning, problem-based learning, class discussion, small group discussion, debate, and the use of case methods and simulations. * ''Experiential learning'' is generally defined as learning that supports students in applying their knowledge and conceptual understanding to real-world problems or situations, where the instructor directs and facilitates learning instead of providing direct instruction. Typical activities include case studies,problem-based studies, guided inquiry, simulations, experiments, and art projects."Wurdinger & Carlson, 2010, cited in ''Experiential Learning - defined'', University of Texas at Austin
Retrieved 2016-04-08
Physical learning spaces that support experiential learning include Career and Technical Education (CTE) environments, such as family and consumer science labs (sewing, culinary arts), vocational shops, music rooms, performance spaces, art studios, and makerspaces. * ''Progressive education'' shares many characteristics of ''personalized learning'' and ''differentiated learning'' as well as physical learning spaces that support them. A pioneering design for progressive education-based learning spaces is the 1940 Crow Island School in Illinois. The configuration of classrooms, adjacent outdoor learning and play spaces, and the relationships between the spaces were designed to support individual, student-centered learning, including inquiry and personalized approaches. * ''Differentiated instruction or differentiated learning'' is intended to ensure that all students grow in all key skills and knowledge areas, to encourage students to become more independent learners. The instructor closely assesses and monitors skills, knowledge levels, and interests to determine effective ways for all students at all levels of skills and with different interests. The physical learning environment requires a variety of different spaces and configurations, whether they are in multiple fixed configurations or in readily flexible and adaptable ones (e.g. movable walls). Different configurations of students require multiple types and arrangements of furniture, areas for quiet individual work, and areas for group work. * '' Personalized learning'' is a concept that tailors education and learning to meet the different needs of students in terms of the pace (individualization), the approach (differentiation), and the learner's interests and experiences. Personalization is broader than differentiation or individualization in that it affords the learner a degree of choice about what is learned, when it is learned, and how it is learned. It has been described as learning 'any time, any where or any place'. A key feature is it may provide learners the opportunity to learn in ways that suit their individual learning styles and multiple intelligences. The School of one utilizes a digital delivery model for personalizing individual student's curriculum and learning. Physical attributes of active learning spaces are more specialized to meet the spatial and environmental characteristics that support the learning methods. These may include larger spaces with different levels of finishes, and increased acoustical treatment to provide separation between different activities and groups of students


21st century

A learning space that is focused on using and developing 21st century skills and competencies would support the learning and practice of core subjects (3 R's), 21st century content, collaboration, communication, creativity, critical thinking, digital (ICT) literacy, life skills, 21st century assessments, and would support technology for remote, recorded, and differentiated learning. These environments have been more commonly found in higher education facilities but are now replacing or augmenting traditional spaces and configurations in K–12 schools. 21st century skills-based learning spaces also share similar physical needs to progressive education environments. 21st century learning spaces support
multidisciplinary An academic discipline or academic field is a subdivision of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part) and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, ...
, team-taught, interactive learning, not restricted by conventional class period-based constraints, within a setting that supports social interaction, and fosters student and instructor engagement. A variety of differentiated, inter-related, flexible spaces that are both functional and appealing; aesthetics are important to encourage attendance and engagement. Extending this approach beyond any given room and into the entire facility, campus, and beyond, nearly any place can be an effective learning space.''Seriously Cool Places: The Future of Learning-Centered Built Environments'', William Dittoe, Learning Spaces, Chapter 3
Retrieved 2016-04-10
General needs:P21 framework
Retrieved 2016-04-04
Bob Pearlman, Chapter 5, DesignShare
Retrieved 2016-04-09
* Professional learning community: for educators to collaborate, to share best practices and integrate curriculum into student activities, project, and practice; * Real world 21st century contexts through project-based or other applied work; * Equitable access to high quality technology and other learning tools and resources; * Spaces and furniture for group, team and individual learning; * Mentoring and involvement of outside human resources from community, industry, and international partners, both face-to-face and online; Specific needs: * Direct instruction: spaces that support general instruction, such as traditional classrooms or lecture halls; * Collaboration spaces: small group spaces and rooms for individual, small group, and large group work; tables and furniture for multiple and flexible groupings of students; multiple or portable presentation for instructional services and stations. Lack of hierarchy, circular tables. Multi-directional, no single "front" * Labs: critical thinking - labs, research, inquiry * Makerspaces: hand-on learning: creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, applied work * Presentation spaces - communication, collaboration, applied work * Flexible spaces: Multiple, mobile, or no defined teaching stations, a variety of other spaces and furniture, variety of sizes. Access to digital technologies for research, rehearsal, presentation, creation. And for communication and collaboration, either in person or distance. * Technology: communication, creativity, online collaboration * Food and beverages: access to, for longer-term engagement, developing engaging and fun places students will want to learn and work in; similar to real-world workspaces, demonstrating relevancy. * Professional spaces: educators' offices and collaboration rooms outside of individual classrooms, small learning communities to foster personalized interaction amongst educators.


Virtual

Virtual learning environments, by definition, exist in a digital space (or
cyberspace Cyberspace is an interconnected digital environment. It is a type of virtual world popularized with the rise of the Internet. The term entered popular culture from science fiction and the arts but is now used by technology strategists, security ...
). To access them, students require both technology and a physical environment that supports that interconnectivity. The internet and digital communications technology allows students to access information and knowledge, tools, instructors, mentors, fellow students and collaborators, and the actual educational material or project they are producing from areas well beyond the educational institution. With highly mobile devices, these locations may be anywhere with access to the internet or communications network, on the planet or beyond. To be effective, the physical environment from which the student accesses the virtual environment needs to have several key components: * connectivity, either wired or wireless; * power for the device, if not directly in the space within reasonable access for recharging; * suitable ergonomics; * environmental conditions that provide basic needs and comfort; that eliminate distraction and support focus; * personalization for students to choose what is preferable for them (also applies to the virtual environment);


See also

* Evidence-based design *
SCALE-UP SCALE-UP, Student-Centered Active Learning Environment with Upside-Down Pedagogies, is a classroom specifically created to facilitate active, collaborative learning in a classroom. The spaces are carefully designed to facilitate interactions betwe ...


References


External links

{{portal bar, education
''Learning Spaces'', Educause''Educating the Net Generation'', Educause''Classroom Design - Literature Review'', Lawson Reed Wulsin Jr.

Learning Spaces Collaboratory
Schools Educational environment