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Jiang Ji (died 18 May 249),
courtesy name A courtesy name (), also known as a style name, is a name bestowed upon one at adulthood in addition to one's given name. This practice is a tradition in the East Asian cultural sphere, including China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.Ulrich Theobald ...
Zitong, was an official and military general of the state of
Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' <
Middle Chinese
: *''ŋjweiC'' <
during the
Three Kingdoms The Three Kingdoms () from 220 to 280 AD was the tripartite division of China among the dynastic states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The Three Kingdoms period was preceded by the Han dynasty#Eastern Han, Eastern Han dynasty and wa ...
period of China. Born in the late
Eastern Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...
, Jiang Ji started his career as a low-level official in his native
Yang Province Yangzhou, Yangchow or Yang Province was one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China mentioned in historical texts such as the ''Tribute of Yu'', ''Erya'' and ''Rites of Zhou''. Name There are four different theories regarding the origin of the ...
before becoming a subordinate of
Cao Cao Cao Cao () (; 155 – 15 March 220), courtesy name Mengde (), was a Chinese statesman, warlord and poet. He was the penultimate Grand chancellor (China), grand chancellor of the Eastern Han dynasty, and he amassed immense power in the End of ...
, the warlord who controlled the central government towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty. After the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, he served in the state of Cao Wei through the reigns of the first three emperors –
Cao Pi Cao Pi () ( – 29 June 226), courtesy name Zihuan, was the first emperor of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the second son of Cao Cao, a warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty, but the eldest son ...
,
Cao Rui Cao Rui () (204 or 206 – 22 January 239), courtesy name Yuanzhong, was the second emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period. His parentage is in dispute: his mother, Lady Zhen, was Yuan Xi's wife, but she later remarr ...
and
Cao Fang Cao Fang () (232–274), courtesy name Lanqing, was the third emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period. He was an adopted son of Cao Rui, the second ruler of Wei. Cao Fang ruled from 239 to 254 as a nominal emperor bef ...
– and held various appointments in the military before rising to Grand Commandant, one of the top positions in the central government. During his service in Wei, he was known for being candid in giving advice to the emperor on various issues, including consolidating power, halting labour-intensive construction projects, and officials' abuses of power. In February 249, he joined the regent
Sima Yi Sima Yi ( ; 179 CE – 7 September 251 CE), courtesy name Zhongda, was a Chinese military general, politician, and regent of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He formally began his political career in 208 un ...
in staging a successful ''coup d'état'' against his co-regent
Cao Shuang Cao Shuang (died 9 February 249), courtesy name Zhaobo, was a Chinese military general and regent of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the eldest son of Cao Zhen, a prominent general of Wei. He initially held ...
, but died from illness a few months later.


Early life and career

Jiang Ji was from Ping'e County (), Chu State (),
Yang Province Yangzhou, Yangchow or Yang Province was one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China mentioned in historical texts such as the ''Tribute of Yu'', ''Erya'' and ''Rites of Zhou''. Name There are four different theories regarding the origin of the ...
, which is located north of present-day
Huai'an Huai'an (), formerly called Huaiyin () until 2001, is a prefecture-level city in the central part of Jiangsu province in Eastern China. Huai'an is situated almost directly south of Lianyungang, southeast of Suqian, northwest of Yancheng, almos ...
,
Anhui Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...
.(蔣濟字子通，楚國平阿人也。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. He started his career as an accounting officer in the local
commandery In the Middle Ages, a commandery (rarely commandry) was the smallest administrative division of the European landed properties of a military order. It was also the name of the house where the knights of the commandery lived.Anthony Luttrell and G ...
office and later became a provincial-level attendant officer.(仕郡計吏、州別駕。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. When Jiang Ji was serving in Yang Province, he was known for frequently consuming alcohol. One day, Shi Miao (), the magistrate of Shouchun County in Yang Province, came to the provincial office to meet Jiang Ji but the latter was drunk. An angry Shi Miao then left. After he returned to Shouchun, he made a wooden statue, labelled it "Jiang Ji the drunkard" (), placed it in front of a wall, and fired arrows at it day and night.(時苗字德胄，鉅鹿人也。 ... 出為壽春令，令行風靡。揚州治在其縣，時蔣濟為治中。苗以初至往謁濟，濟素嗜酒，適會其醉，不能見苗。苗恚恨還，刻木為人，署曰「酒徒蔣濟」，置之牆下，旦夕射之。) Pei Songzhi's annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 23.


Battle of Hefei

In 208, the warlord
Sun Quan Sun Quan (, Chinese: 孫權) (183 – 21 May 252), courtesy name Zhongmou (), posthumously known as Emperor Da of Wu, was the founder of the Eastern Wu dynasty, one of the Three Kingdoms of China. He inherited control of the warlord regime es ...
, who controlled the territories in the Jiangdong (or Wu) region, led his forces to attack
Hefei Hefei (; ) is the capital and largest city of Anhui Province, People's Republic of China. A prefecture-level city, it is the political, economic, and cultural center of Anhui. Its population was 9,369,881 as of the 2020 census and its built-up ( ...
, the administrative centre of Yang Province, which was guarded by the provincial governor Liu Fu. At the time,
Cao Cao Cao Cao () (; 155 – 15 March 220), courtesy name Mengde (), was a Chinese statesman, warlord and poet. He was the penultimate Grand chancellor (China), grand chancellor of the Eastern Han dynasty, and he amassed immense power in the End of ...
, the warlord who controlled the Han central government, was at war with Sun Quan's forces in
Jing Province Jingzhou or Jing Province was one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China referenced in Chinese historical texts such as the ''Tribute of Yu'', '' Erya'' and '' Rites of Zhou''. Jingzhou became an administrative division during the reign of Empe ...
and could not come to Liu Fu's aid. He sent a general Zhang Xi () to lead 1,000 horsemen to reinforce Hefei. Zhang Xi also received an order to bring along additional troops from the garrison at
Runan Commandery Runan Commandery ( zh, 汝南郡) was a Chinese commandery from Han dynasty to Tang dynasty, located in modern Henan and Anhui provinces. The name referred to its location to the south of Ru River (汝水), a historical river that flowed into the H ...
(汝南郡; around present-day
Xi County, Henan Xi County or Xixian () is a county in the southeast of Henan province, China. It is the northernmost county-level division of Xinyang. The primary dialect is Zhongyuan Mandarin. Administrative divisions As 2012, this county is divided to 6 towns a ...
) along the way to Hefei.(建安十三年，孫權率衆圍合肥。時大軍征荊州，遇疾疫，唯遣將軍張喜單將千騎，過領汝南兵以解圍，頗復疾疫。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. In the meantime, Jiang Ji secretly suggested to Liu Fu to spread false news that Zhang Xi was leading 40,000 troops to reinforce Hefei, and that the reinforcements had reached Yulou County (雩婁縣; north of present-day
Jinzhai County Jinzhai County (), previously Lihuang County (, named after Wei Lihuang), is a county in the west of Anhui Province, People's Republic of China, bordering the provinces of Henan to the northwest and Hubei to the southwest. It is under the jurisdi ...
,
Anhui Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...
).(濟乃密白刺史偽得喜書，云步騎四萬已到雩婁，遣主簿迎喜。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Liu Fu agreed and sent three messengers to bring fake letters out of Hefei. Only one of the three returned; the other two were captured by Sun Quan's forces. Sun Quan saw the letters and mistakenly believed that enemy reinforcements were approaching, so he ordered his troops to burn down their camp and retreat back to Jiangdong. The siege on Hefei was thus lifted.(三部使齎書語城中守將，一部得入城，二部為賊所得。權信之，遽燒圍走，城用得全。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Service under Cao Cao


Advising Cao Cao against relocating the residents of Huainan

In 209, when Jiang Ji met
Cao Cao Cao Cao () (; 155 – 15 March 220), courtesy name Mengde (), was a Chinese statesman, warlord and poet. He was the penultimate Grand chancellor (China), grand chancellor of the Eastern Han dynasty, and he amassed immense power in the End of ...
in Qiao County (譙縣; present-day
Bozhou Bozhou () is a prefecture-level city in northwestern Anhui province, China. It borders Huaibei to the northeast, Bengbu to the southeast, Huainan to the south, Fuyang to the southwest, and Henan to the north. Its population was 4,996,844 at the ...
,
Anhui Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...
), the latter asked him: "In the past, when I was at war with
Yuan Shao Yuan Shao (, ; died 28 June 202), courtesy name Benchu (), was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty. He occupied the northern territories of China during the civil wars that occurred to ...
at Guandu, I wanted to relocate the residents in Yan and Boma, but they refused to move. The enemy also did not dare to force them to move. Today, I want to relocate the residents of Huainan. What should I do?"(明年使於譙，太祖問濟曰：「昔孤與袁本初對官渡，徙燕、白馬民，民不得走，賊亦不敢鈔。今欲徙淮南民，何如？」) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Jiang Ji replied: "At the time, you were weak while your enemy was strong. If you didn't relocate those people, you would lose them to your enemy. However, since you defeated Yuan Shao, conquered Liucheng in the north, and advanced south towards the
Yangtze The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ; ) is the longest river in Asia, the third-longest in the world, and the longest in the world to flow entirely within one country. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains (Tibetan Plateau) and flows ...
and
Han Han may refer to: Ethnic groups * Han Chinese, or Han People (): the name for the largest ethnic group in China, which also constitutes the world's largest ethnic group. ** Han Taiwanese (): the name for the ethnic group of the Taiwanese p ...
rivers and
Jing Province Jingzhou or Jing Province was one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China referenced in Chinese historical texts such as the ''Tribute of Yu'', '' Erya'' and '' Rites of Zhou''. Jingzhou became an administrative division during the reign of Empe ...
, the Han Empire has trembled before your might and the people no longer think about opposing you. As people are emotionally attached to their homes, they wouldn't want to relocate elsewhere. If you force them to, they will feel fearful and uneasy."(濟對曰：「是時兵弱賊彊，不徙必失之。自破袁紹，北拔柳城，南向江、漢，荊州交臂，威震天下，民無他志。然百姓懷土，實不樂徙，懼必不安。」) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Cao Cao ignored Jiang Ji's advice and tried to force the people of Huainan to relocate. Jiang Ji was proven right as over 100,000 people from Huainan fled south across the Yangtze and settled in Jiangdong.(太祖不從，而江、淮間十餘萬衆，皆驚走吳。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Some years later, when Jiang Ji visited Cao Cao in Ye (in present-day
Handan Handan is a prefecture-level city located in the southwest of Hebei province, China. The southernmost prefecture-level city of the province, it borders Xingtai on the north, and the provinces of Shanxi on the west, Henan on the south and Shando ...
,
Hebei Hebei or , (; alternately Hopeh) is a northern province of China. Hebei is China's sixth most populous province, with over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. The province is 96% Han Chinese, 3% Manchu, 0.8% Hui, an ...
), Cao Cao laughed and told him: "I wanted to move those people further away from the enemy but ended up scaring them away instead."(後濟使詣鄴，太祖迎見大笑曰：「本但欲使避賊，乃更驅盡之。」) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Cao Cao's trust in Jiang Ji

Jiang Ji was subsequently appointed as the Administrator () of Danyang Commandery (丹楊郡; around present-day
Xuancheng Xuancheng () is a city in the southeast of Anhui province. Archeological digs suggest that the city has been settled for over 4,000 years, and has been under formal administration since the Qin dynasty. Located in the lower Yangtze River drainage ...
,
Anhui Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...
).(拜濟丹楊太守。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. In late 209, after Cao Cao ordered his forces to retreat from
Jing Province Jingzhou or Jing Province was one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China referenced in Chinese historical texts such as the ''Tribute of Yu'', '' Erya'' and '' Rites of Zhou''. Jingzhou became an administrative division during the reign of Empe ...
following their defeat at the Battle of Jiangling, he appointed
Wen Hui Wen Hui (birth and death years unknown), courtesy name Manji, was an official who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of China. He held various positions under the Han government, including county/commandery admi ...
as the Inspector () of
Yang Province Yangzhou, Yangchow or Yang Province was one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China mentioned in historical texts such as the ''Tribute of Yu'', ''Erya'' and ''Rites of Zhou''. Name There are four different theories regarding the origin of the ...
. He also reassigned Jiang Ji to serve as an attendant officer under Wen Hui,(大軍南征還，以溫恢為揚州刺史，濟為別駕。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. and sent him a memo as follows: "When
Ji Zha Ji or JI may refer to: Names and titles * Ji (surname), the pinyin romanization of a number of distinct Chinese surnames * Ji (Korean name), a Korean surname and element in given names (including lists of people with the name) * -ji, an honorific ...
was a minister, the state of Wu should have had a ruler. Now that you have returned to your home province, I will have no worries."(令曰：「季子為臣，吳宜有君。今君還州，吾無憂矣。」) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. On one occasion, when Cao Cao heard that some people have formally accused Jiang Ji of being the mastermind behind a treasonous plot, he wrote to
Yu Jin Yu Jin (died 221), courtesy name Wenze, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He joined Cao Cao in 192 around the start of the civil wars leading to the collapse of the dyna ...
and Feng Ren (): "How could Jiang Ji be involved in something like this? If this really happened, it means that I am not a good judge of character. I am certain that the people are trying to stir up trouble by making such a false accusation." He also sent them a copy of his memo to Jiang Ji, and pressured them to throw out the case against Jiang Ji.(民有誣告濟為謀叛主率者，太祖聞之，指前令與左將軍于禁、沛相封仁等曰：「蔣濟寧有此事！有此事，吾為不知人也。此必愚民樂亂，妄引之耳。」促理出之。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Jiang Ji was later reassigned to be a clerk in the office of the Imperial Chancellor, the position held by Cao Cao in the Han central government. Cao Cao sent a memo to Jiang Ji as follows: "When Gao Yao served under
Emperor Shun Emperor Shun () was a legendary leader of ancient China, regarded by some sources as one of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors being the last of the Five Emperors. Tradition holds that he lived sometime between 2294 and 2184 BC. Tradition a ...
, he caused those who were unkind and uncharitable to shun away. I place my hopes in a virtuous subordinate like you to uphold fairness."(辟為丞相主簿西曹屬。令曰：「舜舉臯陶，不仁者遠；臧否得中，望於賢屬矣。」) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Battle of Fancheng

In 219,
Guan Yu Guan Yu (; ), courtesy name Yunchang, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Along with Zhang Fei, he shared a brotherly relationship with Liu Bei and accompanied him on ...
, a general under a rival warlord
Liu Bei Liu Bei (, ; ; 161 – 10 June 223), courtesy name Xuande (), was a warlord in the late Eastern Han dynasty who founded the state of Shu Han in the Three Kingdoms period and became its first ruler. Although he was a distant relative of the H ...
, led his troops to attack Fancheng (樊城; present-day
Fancheng District Fancheng is a district of the city of Xiangyang, Hubei, People's Republic of China. History Fancheng, or Fan City, was an ancient city in Hubei, situated on the northern side of the Han River, opposite Xiangyang on the southern side of the r ...
,
Xiangyang Xiangyang is a prefecture-level city in northwestern Hubei province, China and the second largest city in Hubei by population. It was known as Xiangfan from 1950 to 2010. The Han River runs through Xiangyang's centre and divides the city no ...
,
Hubei Hubei (; ; alternately Hupeh) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, and is part of the Central China region. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Dongting Lake. The prov ...
), which was guarded by Cao Cao's general
Cao Ren Cao Ren () (168 – 6 May 223), courtesy name Zixiao, was a military general serving during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China under the warlord Cao Cao, who was also his older second cousin. He continued serving in the state of Cao Wei – f ...
. Cao Cao initially sent his general
Yu Jin Yu Jin (died 221), courtesy name Wenze, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He joined Cao Cao in 192 around the start of the civil wars leading to the collapse of the dyna ...
to lead reinforcements to Fancheng to assist Cao Ren, but a flood destroyed the reinforcements, and Yu Jin surrendered to Guan Yu. Upon learning of Yu Jin's defeat, Cao Cao felt that the imperial capital, Xu (許; present-day
Xuchang Xuchang (; postal: Hsuchang) is a prefecture-level city in central Henan province of China, province in Central China. It borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the northwest, Kaifeng to the northeast, Zhoukou to the east, Luohe to the s ...
,
Henan Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is al ...
), was too near enemy territory, so he considered moving the imperial capital further north into
Hebei Hebei or , (; alternately Hopeh) is a northern province of China. Hebei is China's sixth most populous province, with over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. The province is 96% Han Chinese, 3% Manchu, 0.8% Hui, an ...
.(關羽圍樊、襄陽。太祖以漢帝在許，近賊，欲徙都。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Jiang Ji and
Sima Yi Sima Yi ( ; 179 CE – 7 September 251 CE), courtesy name Zhongda, was a Chinese military general, politician, and regent of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He formally began his political career in 208 un ...
advised Cao Cao: "Yu Jin's defeat was not due to flaws in our defences, nor would it significantly affect us. Moving the imperial capital is showing our weakness to the enemy. It will cause panic in the regions around the
Huai The Huai River (), formerly romanized as the Hwai, is a major river in China. It is located about midway between the Yellow River and Yangtze, the two longest rivers and largest drainage basins in China, and like them runs from west to east. ...
and Mian rivers.
Sun Quan Sun Quan (, Chinese: 孫權) (183 – 21 May 252), courtesy name Zhongmou (), posthumously known as Emperor Da of Wu, was the founder of the Eastern Wu dynasty, one of the Three Kingdoms of China. He inherited control of the warlord regime es ...
and Liu Bei seem close to each other, but they actually don't trust each other. Sun Quan will feel very uneasy upon seeing Guan Yu's victory, so we should incite him to attack Guan Yu's base in
Jing Province Jingzhou or Jing Province was one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China referenced in Chinese historical texts such as the ''Tribute of Yu'', '' Erya'' and '' Rites of Zhou''. Jingzhou became an administrative division during the reign of Empe ...
. This will lift the siege on Fancheng."(司馬宣王及濟說太祖曰：「于禁等為水所沒，非戰攻之失，於國家大計未足有損。劉備、孫權，外親內踈，關羽得志，權必不願也。可遣人勸躡其後，許割江南以封權，則樊圍自解。」) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Cao Cao heeded Jiang Ji and Sima Yi's advice and did not relocate the imperial capital. In the winter of 219–220, Sun Quan ordered his general
Lü Meng Lü Meng () (178 – January or February 220), courtesy name Ziming, was a Chinese military general and politician who served under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Early in his career, he fought in several batt ...
to lead his troops to attack the key bases of Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province:
Gong'an Gong'an County () is a county in southern Hubei province, People's Republic of China, bordering Hunan to the south. It is under the administration of Jingzhou City. History During the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms The Three King ...
and Jiangling counties. Guan Yu, who was totally caught off guard by Lü Meng's invasion, lost all of Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province. He was eventually captured in an ambush and executed by Sun Quan's forces.(太祖如其言。權聞之，即引兵西襲公安、江陵。羽遂見禽。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Service under Cao Pi

After Cao Cao died in March 220, his son
Cao Pi Cao Pi () ( – 29 June 226), courtesy name Zihuan, was the first emperor of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the second son of Cao Cao, a warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty, but the eldest son ...
succeeded him as the
vassal A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain. W ...
King of Wei () under the
Eastern Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...
. Cao Pi then reassigned Jiang Ji to be the Chief Clerk () under
Hua Xin Hua Xin (158 – 30 January 232), courtesy name Ziyu, was a Chinese politician who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of China. He initially served directly under the central government of the Eastern Han dynasty ...
, the Chancellor of State () of his vassal kingdom at the time.(文帝即王位，轉為相國長史。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. In December 220, Cao Pi usurped the throne from the figurehead
Emperor Xian Emperor Xian of Han (2 April 181 – 21 April 234), personal name Liu Xie (劉協), courtesy name Bohe, was the 14th and last emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty in China. He reigned from 28 September 189 until 11 December 220. Liu Xie was a so ...
, ended the Eastern Han dynasty, and established the state of Cao Wei (or Wei) to replace the Eastern Han dynasty with himself as the new emperor. After his coronation as emperor, Cao Pi appointed Jiang Ji as East General of the Household ().(及踐阼，出為東中郎將。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. When Jiang Ji sought permission to remain in the central government, Cao Pi denied him permission and issued an imperial decree to him as follows: " Emperor Gaozu once sang, 'Where will I find brave men to guard the four corners of my land?' The Empire is not peaceful yet. We need capable officials to guard the borders. It is still not too late for you to retire when the borders are peaceful."(濟請留，詔曰：「高祖歌曰『安得猛士守四方』！天下未寧，要須良臣以鎮邊境。如其無事，乃還鳴玉，未為後也。」) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Jiang Ji later wrote the '' Wan Ji Lun'' (萬機論; ''Myriad Subtleties''), a treatise on government, and presented it to Cao Pi, who applauded his work. Jiang Ji was subsequently recalled to the central government to serve as a Mounted Regular Attendant ().(濟上萬機論，帝善之。入為散騎常侍。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Cautioning Cao Pi against issuing an inappropriate edict

On one occasion, Cao Pi sent an edict to his general
Xiahou Shang Xiahou Shang (died May or June 226),According to the ''Book of Jin'', Xiahou Shang died in the 4th month of the 7th year of the ''Huangchu'' era of Cao Pi's reign. This corresponds to 14 May to 12 June 226 in the proleptic Gregorian calendar. ( ...
as follows: "You are one of my most trusted generals and you are capable of assuming this responsibility. My kindness towards you is worth dying for, and my favour towards you is worth keeping close to your heart. You can do as you please, and you can decide whether people should live or die."(時有詔，詔征南將軍夏侯尚曰：「卿腹心重將，時當任使。恩施足死，惠愛可懷。作威作福，殺人活人。」尚以示濟。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. He then showed a copy of the edict to Jiang Ji and asked him, "What do you think of the culture in this Empire?"(濟旣至，帝問曰；「卿所聞見天下風教何如？」) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Jiang Ji replied, "I don't see anything good. I only see words suggesting an empire's downfall."(濟對曰：「未有他善，但見亡國之語耳。」) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. When a shocked Cao Pi asked him to explain, Jiang Ji said, "History has warned us against 'doing as you as please'. The ancients also cautioned us that 'the
Son of Heaven Son of Heaven, or ''Tianzi'' (), was the sacred monarchical title of the Chinese sovereign. It originated with the Zhou dynasty and was founded on the political and spiritual doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven. Since the Qin dynasty, the secula ...
should not speak in jest'. I hope that Your Majesty will be more careful with your words!"(帝忿然作色而問其故，濟具以荅，因曰：「夫『作威作福』，書之明誡。『天子無戲言』，古人所慎。惟陛下察之！」) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Cao Pi understood what Jiang Ji meant and immediately rescinded his edict.(於是帝意解，遣追取前詔。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Battle of Ruxu

In 222, Jiang Ji accompanied the Wei general
Cao Ren Cao Ren () (168 – 6 May 223), courtesy name Zixiao, was a military general serving during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China under the warlord Cao Cao, who was also his older second cousin. He continued serving in the state of Cao Wei – f ...
on a campaign against Wei's rival state,
Eastern Wu Wu ( Chinese: 吳; pinyin: ''Wú''; Middle Chinese *''ŋuo'' <
Eastern Han Chinese
: ''*ŋuɑ''), known in h ...
, and led a detachment of troops to attack Xianxi (羨溪; northeast of present-day
Wuwei County Wuwei () is a county-level city in the southeast of Anhui Province, China, under the jurisdiction of the prefecture-level city of Wuhu. Previously a county, Wuwei was upgraded to a county-level city in late 2019. It has population of 1,214,000 as ...
,
Anhui Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...
).(黃初三年，與大司馬曹仁征吳，濟別襲羨溪。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. When Cao Ren wanted to attack the Wu-controlled dock at Ruxu (濡須; north of present-day Wuwei County, Anhui), Jiang Ji warned him: "The enemy has occupied the west riverbank and lined up their ships on the upper stream. By leading your troops to attack the island, you are heading straight into hell. This is a path to defeat and destruction." When Cao Ren ignored Jiang Ji's advice and led his troops to attack Ruxu, he ended up being defeated by the Wu defenders.(仁欲攻濡須洲中，濟曰：「賊據西岸，列船上流，而兵入洲中，是為自內地獄，危亡之道也。」仁不從，果敗。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. After Cao Ren died in 223, Cao Pi reassigned Jiang Ji to serve as East General of the Household () again and put him temporarily in charge of the units which used to be under Cao Ren's command.(仁薨，復以濟為東中郎將，代領其兵。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. He sent an edict to Jiang Ji as follows: "You are well-versed in both civil and military affairs, and you are loyal and passionate. As I know that you have the ambition of crossing the river and conquering Wu, I hereby put you in this position of military command."(詔曰：「卿兼資文武，志節忼愾，常有超越江湖吞吳會之志，故復授將率之任。」) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. However, not long later, he removed Jiang Ji from his command and reassigned him to serve as a Master of Writing () in the imperial secretariat.(頃之，徵為尚書。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Incident at Guangling

Between September and December 224, Cao Pi went on an inspection tour of Qiao Commandery (譙郡; around present-day
Bozhou Bozhou () is a prefecture-level city in northwestern Anhui province, China. It borders Huaibei to the northeast, Bengbu to the southeast, Huainan to the south, Fuyang to the southwest, and Henan to the north. Its population was 4,996,844 at the ...
,
Anhui Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...
), he decided to set sail along the
Huai River The Huai River (), Postal Map Romanization, formerly romanization of Chinese, romanized as the Hwai, is a major river in China. It is located about midway between the Yellow River and Yangtze, the two longest rivers and largest drainage basins ...
towards
Guangling Commandery Guangling Commandery ( zh, 廣陵郡) was a historical commandery of China from Han dynasty to Tang dynasty, located in present-day central Jiangsu province in central coastal China. It was named after Guangling, a historical name of Yangzhou. In e ...
(廣陵郡; around present-day
Huai'an Huai'an (), formerly called Huaiyin () until 2001, is a prefecture-level city in the central part of Jiangsu province in Eastern China. Huai'an is situated almost directly south of Lianyungang, southeast of Suqian, northwest of Yancheng, almos ...
,
Jiangsu Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, Postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an Eastern China, eastern coastal Provinces of the People's Republic of China, province of the China, People's Republic of China. It is o ...
), where he had stationed a naval fleet of over 100,000 troops in preparation for an invasion of the Wu capital, Jianye (present-day
Nanjing Nanjing (; , Mandarin pronunciation: ), alternately romanized as Nanking, is the capital of Jiangsu province of the People's Republic of China. It is a sub-provincial city, a megacity, and the second largest city in the East China region. T ...
, Jiangsu). During this time, Jiang Ji wrote a
memorial A memorial is an object or place which serves as a focus for the memory or the commemoration of something, usually an influential, deceased person or a historical, tragic event. Popular forms of memorials include landmark objects or works of a ...
to the emperor to inform him that the harsh winter weather made it difficult for vessels to sail through the waterways into the
Yangtze The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ; ) is the longest river in Asia, the third-longest in the world, and the longest in the world to flow entirely within one country. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains (Tibetan Plateau) and flows ...
. He also wrote an essay, "San Zhou Lun" (三州論; "Essay on the Three Provinces"), to indirectly persuade Cao Pi to turn back, but the emperor ignored him and ordered his vessels to sail to Guangling Commandery anyway.(車駕幸廣陵，濟表水道難通，又上三州論以諷帝。帝不從， ...) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. At Guangling Commandery, after seeing the weather and the Wu defences, the emperor gave up on his plan for invasion and retreated. The Wu general Sun Shao seized this opportunity to send his subordinate Gao Shou () and 500 men to launch a night raid on Cao Pi's convoy. They succeeded in their attempt and even made off with the parasol of Cao Pi's chariot. As the Wei naval fleet was stranded due to the weather, some officials proposed that the troops go ashore, break up into agricultural colonies, and start growing crops to ensure that they have adequate food supplies (i.e., the ''
tuntian Tuntian (屯田) or Tunken (屯墾) is a type of frontier "military-agricultural colonies" over the history of China. Troops were sent to harsh landscapes at the Chinese frontier to turn uncultivated land into self-sustained, agrarian settler ...
'' system). Jiang Ji, however, strongly objected to this approach as he thought that it was too dangerous because the colonies would be too near the
Chao Lake Chao Lake (), also known by its Chinese name Chao Hu, is a lake wholly situated in Hefei, the capital of Anhui Province. It is the largest lake in Anhui and one of the five largest freshwater lakes in China. Mythology According to legend, the ...
to the east and the
Huai River The Huai River (), Postal Map Romanization, formerly romanization of Chinese, romanized as the Hwai, is a major river in China. It is located about midway between the Yellow River and Yangtze, the two longest rivers and largest drainage basins ...
to the north, so the Wu forces could take advantage of the high tide period to attack them.(... 於是戰船數千皆滯不得行。議者欲就留兵屯田，濟以為東近湖，北臨淮，若水盛時，賊易為寇，不可安屯。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Cao Pi heeded Jiang Ji's advice and brought along his troops as they retreated by land. By the time they reached the Jing Lake (), the tide had subsided so Cao Pi left behind all the vessels for Jiang Ji to dispose of them.(帝從之，車駕即發。還到精湖，水稍盡，盡留船付濟。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. As the vessels were all scattered along the waterways, Jiang Ji ordered his men to dig an additional four or five connecting waterways, gather all the vessels in one location, and build a dam there to block the flow of water from the lake. When the dam was full, they opened it and allowed the force of the water to flush all the vessels out of the waterways into the Huai River.(船本歷適數百里中，濟更鑿地作四五道，蹴船令聚；豫作土豚遏斷湖水，皆引後船，一時開遏入淮中。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. After Cao Pi returned to the Wei capital,
Luoyang Luoyang is a city located in the confluence area of Luo River (Henan), Luo River and Yellow River in the west of Henan province. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the ...
, he told Jiang Ji: "I have to tell you something. I originally wanted to burn down half of all the vessels in the Shanyang Pool, but you disposed of those vessels and even managed to return to Qiao Commandery around the same time as me. Every piece of advice you gave me thus far is in line with my thoughts. From now on, if we have any plans on attacking the enemy, I hope you will share your views and participate in the discussions."(帝還洛陽，謂濟曰：「事不可不曉。吾前決謂分半燒舩於山陽池中，卿於後致之，略與吾俱至譙。又每得所陳，實入吾意。自今討賊計畫，善思論之。」) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Service under Cao Rui

In 227, after
Cao Rui Cao Rui () (204 or 206 – 22 January 239), courtesy name Yuanzhong, was the second emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period. His parentage is in dispute: his mother, Lady Zhen, was Yuan Xi's wife, but she later remarr ...
succeeded his father Cao Pi as the emperor of Wei, he enfeoffed Jiang Ji as a Secondary Marquis ().(明帝即位，賜爵關內侯。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Battle of Shiting

In the following year, when the Wei general
Cao Xiu Cao Xiu (died 29 September 228?), courtesy name Wenlie, was a Chinese military general of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period of China. A distant younger relative of the warlord Cao Cao, Cao Xiu started his career in the late Easte ...
led his troops to attack Wu forces at Wan (皖; present-day
Qianshan County Qianshan is a county-level city in the southwest of Anhui Province, People's Republic of China; it is under the jurisdiction of the prefecture-level city of Anqing. It has a population of 570,000 and an area of . The government of Qianshan County i ...
,
Anhui Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze River ...
), Jiang Ji wrote a
memorial A memorial is an object or place which serves as a focus for the memory or the commemoration of something, usually an influential, deceased person or a historical, tragic event. Popular forms of memorials include landmark objects or works of a ...
to Cao Rui as follows: "I do not think it is advisable for Cao Xiu to lead his men deep into enemy territory to engage
Sun Quan Sun Quan (, Chinese: 孫權) (183 – 21 May 252), courtesy name Zhongmou (), posthumously known as Emperor Da of Wu, was the founder of the Eastern Wu dynasty, one of the Three Kingdoms of China. He inherited control of the warlord regime es ...
's elite troops. Besides, there is a risk that
Zhu Ran Zhu Ran (182 – March or April 249), born Shi Ran, courtesy name Yifeng, was a Chinese military general of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Despite being a childhood friend of Wu's founding emperor, Sun Quan, h ...
and the Wu forces stationed upstream would attack Cao Xiu from the rear."(大司馬曹休帥軍向皖，濟表以為「深入虜地，與權精兵對，而朱然等在上流，乘休後，臣未見其利也。」) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. When Cao Xiu and his army reached Wan, the Wu forces advanced to Anlu (). After hearing about this, Jiang Ji wrote another memorial to Cao Rui: "The enemy is pretending to attack from the west when they actually plan to attack from the east. Your Majesty should quickly send reinforcements to help them."(軍至皖，吳出兵安陸，濟又上疏曰：「今賊示形於西，必欲并兵圖東，宜急詔諸軍往救之。」) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. At the time, Cao Xiu and his army had fallen into a Wu ambush at Shiting (石亭; near present-day Qianshan County, Anhui) and suffered heavy casualties in addition to losing weapons, armour and equipment.(會休軍已敗，盡棄器仗輜重退還。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Just when the Wu forces were preparing to trap Cao Xiu and his surviving men at Jiakou (), Wei reinforcements showed up so the Wu forces retreated and thus Cao Xiu managed to survive. Jiang Ji was subsequently reassigned to serve as Central Protector of the Army ().(吳欲塞夾口，遇救兵至，是以官軍得不沒。遷為中護軍。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Advising Cao Rui on centralising power

At the time, Jiang Ji perceived that the officials who held two key appointments in the imperial palace – Prefect of the Palace Writers () and Supervisor of the Palace Writers () – wielded too much power, so he wrote a
memorial A memorial is an object or place which serves as a focus for the memory or the commemoration of something, usually an influential, deceased person or a historical, tragic event. Popular forms of memorials include landmark objects or works of a ...
to Cao Rui as follows:(時中書監、令號為專任，濟上疏曰： ...) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. In response, Cao Rui sent Jiang Ji an edict which read: "Rulers rely on subjects of strong character. (Jiang) Ji is well-versed in both civil and military affairs and he performs his duties faithfully. Every time there is a discussion on major issues, he will either send in a memorial or speak up to express his views. I am very impressed by his initiative and loyalty."(詔曰：「夫骨鯁之臣，人主之所仗也。濟才兼文武，服勤盡節，每軍國大事，輒有奏議，忠誠奮發，吾甚壯之。」) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Cao Rui then promoted Jiang Ji to General Who Protects the Army () and granted him an additional appointment as a Mounted Regular Attendant ().(就遷為護軍將軍，加散騎常侍。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Advising Cao Rui against attacking Liaodong

In 232, Cao Rui wanted to order
Tian Yu Tian Yu (c. 171 – c. 252), courtesy name Guorang, was a military general of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Life Tian Yu was from Yongnu County (), Yuyang Commandery (), which is present-day Wuqing Distric ...
and Wang Xiong (), who were respectively the governors of Ping and
You In Modern English, ''you'' is the second-person pronoun. It is grammatically plural, and was historically used only for the dative case, but in most modern dialects is used for all cases and numbers. History ''You'' comes from the Proto- ...
provinces, to lead their troops to attack the
Liaodong The Liaodong Peninsula (also Liaotung Peninsula, ) is a peninsula in southern Liaoning province in Northeast China, and makes up the southwestern coastal half of the Liaodong region. It is located between the mouths of the Daliao River (the h ...
region, which was then ruled by the warlord
Gongsun Yuan Gongsun Yuan () (died September 238Cao Rui's biography in ''Sanguozhi'' indicated that Sima Yi laid siege to Xiangping on the ''bingyin'' day of the 8th month of the 2nd year of the ''Jing'chu'' era. However, there is no ''bingyin'' day in that ...
, a
vassal A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain. W ...
of the Cao Wei state. Tian Yu and Wang Xiong would lead their forces to attack Liaodong via sea and land respectively.(司馬彪戰略曰：太和六年，明帝遣平州刺史田豫乘海渡，幽州刺史王雄陸道，并攻遼東。) Sima Biao's ''Zhanlue'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. When Jiang Ji heard about it, he wrote a memorial to Cao Rui to dissuade the emperor from attacking Liaodong: Cao Rui ignored Jiang Ji's advice and ordered Tian Yu to go ahead and attack Liaodong. Tian Yu and his troops pulled back without any success from the campaign.(帝不聽，豫行竟無成而還。) Sima Biao's ''Zhanlue'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Advising Cao Rui against his construction projects

During the Jingchu era (237–239) of Cao Rui's reign, the Cao Wei state not only frequently waged war against its rival states
Eastern Wu Wu ( Chinese: 吳; pinyin: ''Wú''; Middle Chinese *''ŋuo'' <
Eastern Han Chinese
: ''*ŋuɑ''), known in h ...
and
Shu Han Han (; 221–263), known in historiography as Shu Han ( ) or Ji Han ( "Junior Han"), or often shortened to Shu (; pinyin: ''shŭ'' <
(景初中，外勤征役，內務宮室，怨曠者多，而年糓饑儉。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Jiang Ji wrote a memorial to Cao Rui as follows: In response, Cao Rui sent Jiang Ji an edict which read: "If I did not have you, General Who Protects the Army, I will not be able to hear such advice."(詔曰：「微護軍，吾弗聞斯言也。」) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Analysing Gongsun Yuan's alliance with Sun Quan

In 238, when
Gongsun Yuan Gongsun Yuan () (died September 238Cao Rui's biography in ''Sanguozhi'' indicated that Sima Yi laid siege to Xiangping on the ''bingyin'' day of the 8th month of the 2nd year of the ''Jing'chu'' era. However, there is no ''bingyin'' day in that ...
learnt that Cao Rui was planning to attack him, he pledged allegiance to
Sun Quan Sun Quan (, Chinese: 孫權) (183 – 21 May 252), courtesy name Zhongmou (), posthumously known as Emperor Da of Wu, was the founder of the Eastern Wu dynasty, one of the Three Kingdoms of China. He inherited control of the warlord regime es ...
, the emperor of
Eastern Wu Wu ( Chinese: 吳; pinyin: ''Wú''; Middle Chinese *''ŋuo'' <
Eastern Han Chinese
: ''*ŋuɑ''), known in h ...
, and asked Sun Quan to send reinforcements to
Liaodong The Liaodong Peninsula (also Liaotung Peninsula, ) is a peninsula in southern Liaoning province in Northeast China, and makes up the southwestern coastal half of the Liaodong region. It is located between the mouths of the Daliao River (the h ...
to help him.(漢晉春秋曰：公孫淵聞魏將來討，復稱臣於孫權，乞兵自救。) ''Han Jin Chunqiu'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. When Cao Rui heard about it, he asked Jiang Ji, "Do you think Sun Quan will send troops to Liaodong?"(帝問濟：「孫權其救遼東乎？」) ''Han Jin Chunqiu'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Jiang Ji replied: "He knows that our defences are strong and that he won't gain any advantage. If he sends his forces deep into enemy territory, it won't be a sustainable campaign; if he attacks only the periphery, it will be a waste of manpower and resources for him. Sun Quan doesn't even care when his sons and brothers are in danger, so why would he care about a distant ally who has humiliated him before? The reason why he is spreading news that he will be sending aid to Gongsun Yuan is because he wants to confuse us. He will only take action if we fail to defeat Gongsun Yuan. However, as we are separated by land and water from Liaodong, if we attack Liaodong, we must ensure that we conquer it swiftly, or else Sun Quan might send lightly armed forces to launch small raids at our borders. This is something we should be wary of."(濟曰：「彼知官備以固，利不可得，深入則非力所能，淺入則勞而無獲；權雖子弟在危，猶將不動，況異域之人，兼以往者之辱乎！今所以外揚此聲者，譎其行人疑於我，我之不克，兾折後事已耳。然沓渚之間，去淵尚遠，若大軍相持，事不速決，則權之淺規，或能輕兵掩襲，未可測也。」) ''Han Jin Chunqiu'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Service under Cao Fang

In 239, following Cao Rui's death, his adopted son
Cao Fang Cao Fang () (232–274), courtesy name Lanqing, was the third emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period. He was an adopted son of Cao Rui, the second ruler of Wei. Cao Fang ruled from 239 to 254 as a nominal emperor bef ...
succeeded him as the next emperor of Wei. After his coronation, Cao Fang reassigned Jiang Ji to serve as General Who Leads the Army () and enfeoffed him as the Marquis of Changling Village (). On 1 September 242, he promoted Jiang Ji to the position of Grand Commandant ()(齊王即位，徙為領軍將軍，進爵昌陵亭侯，遷太尉。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. to replace
Man Chong Man Chong () (before 175According to the chronology of Man Chong's biography in ''Records of the Three Kingdoms'', he was older than 17 when he was recruited by Cao Cao during Cao's tenure as Governor of Yan Province between 191 and 192. By calc ...
, who died some months earlier.


Debate on the Cao clan's ancestry

When there was a discussion in the imperial court on the ritual for
ancestor veneration The veneration of the dead, including one's ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, and may possess the ability to influence the fortune of t ...
in outdoor settings, Gaotang Long suggested that the emperor should also worship the mythical
Emperor Shun Emperor Shun () was a legendary leader of ancient China, regarded by some sources as one of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors being the last of the Five Emperors. Tradition holds that he lived sometime between 2294 and 2184 BC. Tradition a ...
, who was believed to be the ancestor of the
Cao Cao or CAO may refer to: Mythology *Cao (bull), a legendary bull in Meitei mythology Companies or organizations * Air China Cargo, ICAO airline designator CAO *CA Oradea, Romanian football club *CA Osasuna, Spanish football club *Canadian Assoc ...
clan, the imperial clan of Wei. Jiang Ji, however, disagreed and wrote a
memorial A memorial is an object or place which serves as a focus for the memory or the commemoration of something, usually an influential, deceased person or a historical, tragic event. Popular forms of memorials include landmark objects or works of a ...
to point out that Gaotang Long was wrong. He noted that the mythical emperor's family name was actually
Gui The GUI ( "UI" by itself is still usually pronounced . or ), graphical user interface, is a form of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices through graphical icons and audio indicator such as primary notation, inste ...
() and that his descendants later adopted
Tian ''Tiān'' () is one of the oldest Chinese terms for heaven and a key concept in Chinese mythology, Chinese philosophy, philosophy, and Chinese folk religion, religion. During the Shang dynasty (17th―11th century BCE), the Chinese referred to ...
() as their family name, therefore he was not an ancestor of the Cao clan.(初，侍中高堂隆論郊祀事，以魏為舜後，推舜配天。濟以為舜本姓媯，其苗曰田，非曹之先，著文以追詰隆。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. In his
annotations An annotation is extra information associated with a particular point in a document or other piece of information. It can be a note that includes a comment or explanation. Annotations are sometimes presented in the margin of book pages. For anno ...
to Jiang Ji's biography in the ''
Sanguozhi The ''Records or History of the Three Kingdoms'', also known by its Chinese name as the Sanguo Zhi, is a Chinese historical text which covers the history of the late Eastern Han dynasty (c. 184–220 AD) and the Three Kingdoms period (220 ...
'',
Pei Songzhi Pei Songzhi (372–451), courtesy name Shiqi, was a Chinese historian and politician who lived in the late Eastern Jin dynasty and Liu Song dynasty. His ancestral home was in Wenxi County, Shanxi, but he moved to the Jiangnan region later. He i ...
recorded that Jiang Ji claimed that there was a line on
Cao Teng Cao Teng (died late 150s), courtesy name Jixing, was a eunuch who lived during the Eastern Han dynasty of China. He served four Han emperors (Shun, Chong, Zhi, and Huan). Through his adopted son Cao Song, he was the grandfather of Cao Cao, wh ...
's tombstone which read: "The Cao clan originated from Zhu". Pei Songzhi also noted that the ''Book of Wei'' (), the official history of the Cao Wei state, confirmed Jiang Ji's claim.(臣松之案蔣濟立郊議稱曹騰碑文云「曹氏族出自邾」，魏書述曹氏胤緒亦如之。) Pei Songzhi's annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. However, Pei Songzhi also pointed out that there was evidence which contradicted Jiang Ji's claim. When
Cao Cao Cao Cao () (; 155 – 15 March 220), courtesy name Mengde (), was a Chinese statesman, warlord and poet. He was the penultimate Grand chancellor (China), grand chancellor of the Eastern Han dynasty, and he amassed immense power in the End of ...
wrote his own family history, he mentioned that he descended from Cao Shu Zhenduo (), the first ruler of the vassal state of
Cao Cao or CAO may refer to: Mythology *Cao (bull), a legendary bull in Meitei mythology Companies or organizations * Air China Cargo, ICAO airline designator CAO *CA Oradea, Romanian football club *CA Osasuna, Spanish football club *Canadian Assoc ...
and a member of the royal clan of the
Zhou dynasty The Zhou dynasty ( ; Old Chinese ( B&S): *''tiw'') was a royal dynasty of China that followed the Shang dynasty. Having lasted 789 years, the Zhou dynasty was the longest dynastic regime in Chinese history. The military control of China by th ...
. Cao Cao's son
Cao Zhi Cao Zhi (; ; 192 – 27 December 232), courtesy name Zijian (), posthumously known as Prince Si of Chen (陈思王), was a prince of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period of China, and an accomplished poet in his time. His style o ...
also wrote in a eulogy for his father that they descended from the royal clan of the Zhou dynasty.(魏武作家傳，自云曹叔振鐸之後。故陳思王作武帝誄曰：「於穆武王，胄稷胤周。」此其不同者也。) Pei Songzhi's annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. In the early Jingchu era (237–239),
Cao Rui Cao Rui () (204 or 206 – 22 January 239), courtesy name Yuanzhong, was the second emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period. His parentage is in dispute: his mother, Lady Zhen, was Yuan Xi's wife, but she later remarr ...
accepted Gaotang Long's claim that the Wei emperors descended from
Emperor Shun Emperor Shun () was a legendary leader of ancient China, regarded by some sources as one of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors being the last of the Five Emperors. Tradition holds that he lived sometime between 2294 and 2184 BC. Tradition a ...
. When the Jin dynasty replaced the Cao Wei state,
Cao Huan Cao Huan () (245/246–302/303), courtesy name Jingming, was the fifth and last emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period. On 4 February 266, he abdicated the throne in favour of Sima Yan (later Emperor Wu of the Jin dyn ...
's abdication statement contained the following line: "my imperial ancestor was Yu (Shun)". This resulted in greater discrepancies between sources on the Cao clan's ancestry.(及至景初，明帝從高堂隆議，謂魏為舜後，後魏為禪晉文，稱「昔我皇祖有虞」，則其異彌甚。) Pei Songzhi's annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Gaotang Long was not the only person whom Jiang Ji argued with over the ancestry of the Cao clan. Jiang Ji also debated extensively with Miao Xi () and they wrote to each other several times throughout the debate. Their writings, however, were not recorded in history as there were too many. Although Jiang Ji ultimately could not determine the Cao clan's ancestry, he concluded that it was nonsensical and disrespectful to honour Emperor Shun as the Cao clan's ancestor when he was not, and that doing so would be equivalent to insulting Cao Cao. The mistake was not corrected at the time.(尋濟難隆，及與尚書繆襲往反，並有理據，文多不載。濟亦未能定氏族所出，但謂「魏非舜後而橫祀非族，降黜太祖，不配正天，皆為繆妄」。然于時竟莫能正。) Pei Songzhi's annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Speaking up against Cao Shuang's abuses of power

Between 239 and 249, the regent
Cao Shuang Cao Shuang (died 9 February 249), courtesy name Zhaobo, was a Chinese military general and regent of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the eldest son of Cao Zhen, a prominent general of Wei. He initially held ...
effectively controlled the central government and monopolised power. His supporters, who included Ding Mi () and
Deng Yang Deng Yang (died 9 February 249), courtesy name Xuanmao, was an official of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period of China. Life Deng Yang was a descendant of Deng Yu, an official who lived in the early Eastern Han dynasty. He was f ...
, changed the laws to suit their purposes whenever they wanted.(是時，曹爽專政，丁謐、鄧颺等輕改法度。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. When there was a
solar eclipse A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby obscuring the view of the Sun from a small part of the Earth, totally or partially. Such an alignment occurs during an eclipse season, approximately every six month ...
, Cao Fang summoned all the officials to ask them if it was a bad omen.(會有日蝕變，詔群臣問其得失， ...) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. In response to the emperor's question, Jiang Ji wrote a
memorial A memorial is an object or place which serves as a focus for the memory or the commemoration of something, usually an influential, deceased person or a historical, tragic event. Popular forms of memorials include landmark objects or works of a ...
as follows:


Incident at Gaoping Tombs

On 5 February 249, Jiang Ji joined
Sima Yi Sima Yi ( ; 179 CE – 7 September 251 CE), courtesy name Zhongda, was a Chinese military general, politician, and regent of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He formally began his political career in 208 un ...
,
Cao Shuang Cao Shuang (died 9 February 249), courtesy name Zhaobo, was a Chinese military general and regent of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the eldest son of Cao Zhen, a prominent general of Wei. He initially held ...
's co-regent, in staging a ''coup d'état'' against Cao Shuang when Cao Shuang was away with Cao Fang on a visit to the Gaoping Tombs (). After Sima Yi and his supporters seized control of the imperial capital
Luoyang Luoyang is a city located in the confluence area of Luo River (Henan), Luo River and Yellow River in the west of Henan province. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the ...
, Jiang Ji accompanied them as they led their troops to the floating bridge above the Luo River outside Luoyang. There, Sima Yi sent a memorial to Cao Fang, listing out Cao Shuang's "crimes" (e.g., not fulfilling his duty as regent, corrupting the government) and requesting the emperor to remove Cao Shuang and his brothers from their positions of power.(帝親帥太尉蔣濟等勒兵出迎天子，屯于洛水浮橋，上奏曰：「先帝詔陛下、 ... 伺察非常。」) ''Jin Shu'' vol. 1. Cao Shuang ultimately surrendered and relinquished his powers as regent to Sima Yi. On 9 February 249, a powerless Cao Shuang, along with his family, his supporters and their families, were rounded up and executed on charges of treason.(以隨太傅司馬宣王屯洛水浮橋，誅曹爽等， ...) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Later life and death

After the ''coup d'état'', Cao Fang issued an edict to elevate Jiang Ji from the status of a village marquis to a Marquis of a Chief District () and award him a marquisate comprising 700 taxable households.(進封都鄉侯，邑七百戶。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. However, Jiang Ji declined the honour and wrote a memorial as follows: Cao Fang denied him permission and insisted that he accept the peerage and marquisate.(固辭，不許。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. The Jin dynasty historian Sun Sheng praised Jiang Ji for showing good conscience when he declined the honour. He remarked that Jiang Ji's behaviour fit the saying: "neither was he tempted by greed nor did he feel ashamed of being righteous".(孫盛曰：蔣濟之辭邑，可謂不負心矣。語曰「不為利回，不為義疚」，蔣濟其有焉。) Sun Sheng's annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Jiang Ji died on 18 May 249 and was honoured with the
posthumous title A posthumous name is an honorary name given mostly to the notable dead in East Asian culture. It is predominantly practiced in East Asian countries such as China, Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and Thailand. Reflecting on the person's accomplishments or ...
"Marquis Jing" ().(是歲薨，謚曰景侯。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. The ''Shiyu'' () recorded that during the
Incident at Gaoping Tombs The Incident at the Gaoping Tombs was a ''coup d'état'' that took place on 5 February 249 in the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period (220–280) of China. The parties involved were Sima Yi and Cao Shuang, who were both regents for ...
, Jiang Ji wrote to
Cao Shuang Cao Shuang (died 9 February 249), courtesy name Zhaobo, was a Chinese military general and regent of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the eldest son of Cao Zhen, a prominent general of Wei. He initially held ...
and promised him that
Sima Yi Sima Yi ( ; 179 CE – 7 September 251 CE), courtesy name Zhongda, was a Chinese military general, politician, and regent of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He formally began his political career in 208 un ...
only wanted him to give up his powers as regent. When Cao Shuang was executed after his downfall, Jiang Ji felt so upset for failing to keep his promise that he fell sick and eventually died a few months later.(世語曰：初，濟隨司馬宣王屯洛水浮橋，濟書與曹爽，言宣王旨「惟免官而已」，爽遂誅滅。濟病其言之失信，發病卒。) ''Shiyu'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Family and descendants

Jiang Ji's son, Jiang Xiu (), inherited his father's peerage as a Marquis of a Chief District (). After Jiang Xiu died, his son Jiang Kai () inherited the peerage in turn. During the Xianxi era (264–265), the Cao Wei government established a new five-rank nobility system and converted Jiang Kai's peerage to the Viscount of Xiacai ().(子秀嗣。秀薨，子凱嗣。咸熈中，開建五等，以濟著勳前朝，改封凱為下蔡子。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


Encounter with the supernatural

When Jiang Ji held the position of General Who Leads the Army (), his wife dreamt about their deceased son crying out to her: "I am separated from you by death. When I was still alive, I was a son of a government official and general. Now when I am in the netherworld, I have become a lowly servant to the gods of
Mount Tai Mount Tai () is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai'an. It is the highest point in Shandong province, China. The tallest peak is the '' Jade Emperor Peak'' (), which is commonly reported as being t ...
. I feel so depressed and humiliated! There is a scholar-official called Sun E (孫阿) who lives west of the imperial ancestral temple. He will soon be summoned to the netherworld to serve as the magistrate of Mount Tai. I hope that you, Mother, can help me ask Father to inform Sun E and request him to reassign me to a better place."(列異傳曰：濟為領軍，其婦夢見亡兒涕泣曰：「死生異路，我生時為卿相子孫，今在地下為泰山五伯，憔悴困辱，不可復言。今太廟西謳士孫阿，今見召為泰山令，願母為白侯，屬阿令轉我得樂處。」) ''Lieyi Zhuan'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. After Jiang Ji's wife woke up, she told her husband about her dream, but he dismissed it and said, "It's just a dream. There's nothing to worry about."(言訖，母忽然驚寤，明日以白濟。濟曰：「夢為爾耳，不足恠也。」) ''Lieyi Zhuan'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. The following night, Jiang Ji's wife dreamt about her son again. This time, he told her: "I am here to welcome the new magistrate from the imperial ancestral temple. I am able to visit you now as I still have some free time before my mission starts. The new magistrate will be leaving tomorrow at noon. As I will be very busy tomorrow, I won't be able to visit you. I hope that you will speak to Father again. There is no harm trying." He then described Sun E's physical appearance in detail.(明日暮，復夢曰：「我來迎新君，止在廟下。未發之頃，暫得來歸。新君明日日中當發，臨發多事，不復得歸，永辭於此。侯氣彊，難感悟，故自訴於母，願重啟侯，何惜不一試驗之？」遂道阿之形狀，言甚備悉。) ''Lieyi Zhuan'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. In the morning, Jiang Ji's wife told her husband: "As you said, there's nothing to worry about since it's a dream. However, this is too much of a coincidence. Besides, there is no harm trying."(天明，母重啟侯：「雖云夢不足恠，此何太適？適亦何惜不一驗之？」) ''Lieyi Zhuan'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Jiang Ji then sent his men to find Sun E, and they found him near the imperial ancestral temple. He looked exactly like how Jiang Ji's son described him.(濟乃遣人詣太廟下，推問孫阿，果得之，形狀證驗悉如兒言。) ''Lieyi Zhuan'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Jiang Ji shed tears and said, "I nearly let my son down!" He then told Sun E about his wife's dreams.(濟涕泣曰：「幾負吾兒！」於是乃見孫阿，具語其事。) ''Lieyi Zhuan'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. When Sun E heard that he was going to die soon, he was not afraid at all and even felt delighted when he heard that he would become a magistrate in the netherworld. He told Jiang Ji, "If what you said is true, I am most willing to help him. However, I don't know what your son wants." Jiang Ji replied, "Maybe you can just assign him to a job that he enjoys doing." After Sun E promised Jiang Ji that he would do so, Jiang Ji presented him expensive gifts and returned to his office.(阿不懼當死，而喜得為泰山令，惟恐濟言不信也。曰：「若如節下言，阿之願也。不知賢子欲得何職？」濟曰：「隨地下樂者與之。」阿曰：「輒當奉教。」乃厚賞之，言訖遣還。) ''Lieyi Zhuan'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. As Jiang Ji was eager to verify his wife's dreams, he deployed a line of guards from his office to the imperial ancestral temple, with a space of 10 steps between every two guards, so that they could relay any information from the temple to him in the shortest time possible. Later that morning, he heard that Sun E suffered a heart attack. By noon, he received news that Sun E was dead.(濟欲速知其驗，從領軍門至廟下，十步安一人，以傳消息。辰時傳阿心痛，巳時傳阿劇，日中傳阿亡。) ''Lieyi Zhuan'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. He wept and said, "Although I feel sad that my son died early, I am also pleased to know that he will be doing well in the netherworld." A month later, Jiang Ji's wife told her husband that she dreamt about their son again, and he told her that Sun E had reassigned him to be a secretary/scribe.(濟泣曰：「雖哀吾兒之不幸，自喜亡者有知。」後月餘，兒復來語母曰：「已得轉為錄事矣。」) ''Lieyi Zhuan'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.


See also

*
Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms The following are lists of people significant to the Three Kingdoms period (220–280) of Chinese history. Their names in Mandarin pinyin are sorted in alphabetical order. Fictional characters in the 14th-century historical novel ''Romance of ...


Notes


References

;Citations from the ''Sanguozhi'' ;Citations from the ''Sanguozhi zhu'' ;Other citations * Chen, Shou (3rd century). ''
Records of the Three Kingdoms The ''Records or History of the Three Kingdoms'', also known by its Chinese name as the Sanguo Zhi, is a Chinese historical text which covers the history of the late Eastern Han dynasty (c. 184–220 AD) and the Three Kingdoms period (220– ...
'' (''Sanguozhi''). * * Fang, Xuanling (648). ''
Book of Jin The ''Book of Jin'' is an official Chinese historical text covering the history of the Jin dynasty from 266 to 420. It was compiled in 648 by a number of officials commissioned by the imperial court of the Tang dynasty, with chancellor Fang X ...
'' (''Jin Shu''). * Pei, Songzhi (5th century). ''
Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms () by Pei Songzhi (372-451) is an annotation completed in the 5th century of the 3rd century historical text ''Records of the Three Kingdoms'', compiled by Chen Shou. After leaving his native land, Pei ...
'' (''Sanguozhi zhu''). * {{DEFAULTSORT:Jiang, Ji Year of birth unknown 249 deaths Cao Wei politicians Officials under Cao Cao Politicians from Bengbu Han dynasty politicians from Anhui