Hôtel-Dieu, Paris
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The Hôtel-Dieu () is a hospital located on the
Île de la Cité Île de la Cité (; English: City Island) is an island in the river Seine in the center of Paris. In the 4th century, it was the site of the fortress of the Roman governor. In 508, Clovis I, the first King of the Franks, established his palace ...
in the 4th arrondissement of
Paris Paris () is the capital and most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), making it the 30th most densely populated city in the world in 2020. S ...
, on the parvis of Notre-Dame. Tradition has it that the hospital was founded by Saint Landry in 651 AD, but the first official records date it to 829, making it the oldest in France and possibly the oldest continuously operating hospital in the world. The Hôtel-Dieu was the only hospital in the city until the beginning of 17th century. The original Hôtel-Dieu stood on the banks of the
Seine ) , mouth_location = Le Havre/Honfleur , mouth_coordinates = , mouth_elevation = , progression = , river_system = Seine basin , basin_size = , tributaries_left = Yonne, Loing, Eure, Risle , tributarie ...
on the southern side of the
Île de la Cité Île de la Cité (; English: City Island) is an island in the river Seine in the center of Paris. In the 4th century, it was the site of the fortress of the Roman governor. In 508, Clovis I, the first King of the Franks, established his palace ...
. It was ravaged by fire several times and was rebuilt for the last time at its present location on the north side of the parvis of Notre Dame between 1867 and 1878, as part of
Haussmann's renovation of Paris Haussmann's renovation of Paris was a vast public works programme commissioned by Emperor Napoleon III and directed by his prefect of Seine, Georges-Eugène Haussmann, between 1853 and 1870. It included the demolition of medieval neighbourho ...
. Nowadays operated by Assistance publique – Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), the Hôtel-Dieu is a
teaching hospital A teaching hospital is a hospital or medical centre that provides medical education and training to future and current health professionals. Teaching hospitals are almost always affiliated with one or more universities and are often co-located ...
associated with the Faculté de Médecine Paris-Descartes.


History


Overview

Originally, the Hôtel-Dieu admitted a wide range of people: not only the sick and injured, but also needy travellers and pilgrims, and indigents. Run by the
Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
for many centuries, the hospital's original mission was to provide "Christian charity dedicated to the shelter, spiritual comfort and treatment of the ailing poor.":44 An 18th century essayist, Louis Rondonneau de la Motte, wrote in his ''Essai Historique sur l'Hôtel-Dieu'' (1787): "the citizen and the foreigner, the Christian and the Turk, the Jew and the Idolater are all equally welcome." This broad, charitable mission was to dominate until the end of the
Ancien Regime ''Ancien'' may refer to * the French word for "ancient, old" ** Société des anciens textes français * the French for "former, senior" ** Virelai ancien ** Ancien Régime ** Ancien Régime in France ''Ancien'' may refer to * the French word fo ...
. By 1789, the
Age of Enlightenment The Age of Enlightenment or the Enlightenment; german: Aufklärung, "Enlightenment"; it, L'Illuminismo, "Enlightenment"; pl, Oświecenie, "Enlightenment"; pt, Iluminismo, "Enlightenment"; es, La Ilustración, "Enlightenment" was an intel ...
-- with its focus on the pursuit of knowledge via reason and evidence and on ideals such as progress, fraternity, and government dedicated to the well-being of the people -- had left its mark on the agenda for hospital reform. This ushered in a more scientific approach to hospital design that was to influence medical practice and management for more than a century. During this process, the role of the Catholic Church was diminished and then eliminated and the Hôtel-Dieu became a publicly run institution.


Middle Ages

Although tradition dates the founding of the Hôtel-Dieu back to Saint Landry, 28th bishop of Paris around 650, the first official records of an institution whose mission was to care for the destitute, infirm and sick date to 829. In 1157, letters patent mention a “Hôtel-Dieu-Saint-Christophe”, referring to a chapel dedicated to this saint. Shortly thereafter, in 1165,
Maurice de Sully Maurice de Sully (died 11 September 1196) was Bishop of Paris from 1160 until his retirement in 1196. He was responsible for the construction of the Cathedral of Notre-Dame. Biography He was born to poor parents at Sully-sur-Loire (Soliacum), ne ...
, bishop of Paris, undertook the reconstruction of this hospital: the old buildings were destroyed in 1195 and the new constructions were completed in 1255. At that time, the buildings of the Hotel Dieu occupied the south side of the Ile de la Cité near Notre Dame. In its first several hundred years, the Hôtel-Dieu functioned as a general purpose charitable institution operated by religious orders — it offered food and shelter in addition to medical care to needy people. This mixed social mission characterised its services for many centuries and was imitated by many other cities (for example, the Hôtel-Dieu de Beaune, founded in 1443).. However, by the 16th century, admission to the hospital was available only to the sick and injured and to pregnant woman. From the time of
Louis IX Louis IX (25 April 1214 – 25 August 1270), commonly known as Saint Louis or Louis the Saint, was King of France from 1226 to 1270, and the most illustrious of the Direct Capetians. He was crowned in Reims at the age of 12, following the d ...
onwards, the Hôtel-Dieu often housed more patients than it was designed to hold, leading to serious problems of overcrowding that would characterised the hospital for centuries. From the 15th to the 16th centuries, the hospital went from 303 beds to about 500 beds, but the number of patients was normally about 700 and would often exceed 1500 during times of conflict, food shortages or epidemics. It is estimated that the number of admissions was 25,000 per year during the 16th century. Conditions in the hospital were often deplorable, especially toward the end of the Middle Ages when the growth of Paris’ poor populations outstripped the hospital’s capacity. Vast halls held 80 to 100 beds apiece. Although the halls usually had fireplaces or stoves, they were almost impossible to heat. At one point, beds had a width of 1.3 metres, and each was meant to hold 2 or 3 patients arranged heal to head. Later, beds meant for one or two patients were installed, but these often had to accommodate more patients. For much of the Middle Ages, there was no surgical ward and surgical operations were performed in the patient’s bed, with fellow patients looking on. An incomplete but emerging understanding of contagion gave rise to rules for isolating patients with contagious diseases, but it was often impossible to apply these rules in practice. The question of how much patients were given to eat was also an issue due to lack of funds, though people of the time understood that an appropriate diet would improve health outcomes. By the end of the Middle Ages, only people who could not afford other sources of care would go to the Hôtel-Dieu. But because of the masses of destitute people in the Paris area at the time, there was no shortage of patients. As a result of high demand and finite resources, the Hôtel-Dieu faced a financial crisis. This brought about the first step in the laïcisation of the hospital, the creation in 1505 of a council of lay governors: the Presidents of Parliament, the
Chambre des Comptes Under the French monarchy, the Courts of Accounts (in French ''Chambres des comptes'') were sovereign courts specialising in financial affairs. The Court of Accounts in Paris was the oldest and the forerunner of today's French Court of Audit. ...
, the
Cour des Aides The Courts of Aids (French: ''Cours des aides'') were sovereign courts in ''Ancien Régime'' France, primarily concerned with customs, but also other matters of public finance. They exercised some control over certain excise taxes and octroi dutie ...
and the Prévôt des Marchands.


17th century

Poverty continued to be widespread during the17th century, and the Hôtel-Dieu offered an opportunity for many of the
bourgeois The bourgeoisie ( , ) is a social class, equivalent to the middle or upper middle class. They are distinguished from, and traditionally contrasted with, the proletariat by their affluence, and their great cultural and financial capital. They ...
and
nobility Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy (class), aristocracy. It is normally ranked immediately below Royal family, royalty. Nobility has often been an Estates of the realm, estate of the realm with many e ...
to come to the aid of the poor. Nevertheless, conditions in the hospital remained horrendous and overcrowding continued to be a problem, with daily patient numbers ranging from 2000 to 4000. Hundreds of hospital staff were also lodged there. Although the Hôtel-Dieu was a large hospital, poverty, conflict and disease engendered high demand for its services. During the
Fronde The Fronde () was a series of civil wars in France between 1648 and 1653, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635. King Louis XIV confronted the combined opposition of the princes, the nobility, the law cour ...
, patient admissions were so high that the canopies of the beds were used for the most valid patients, allowing as many as 14 patients to be placed in a single bed. Numerous episodes of the plague carried away thousands of patients and hospital workers, including 17 Sisters of Saint Augustine, the order of nuns charged with patient care at the Hôtel-Dieu. Later in the century, hospital-derived
scurvy Scurvy is a disease resulting from a lack of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Early symptoms of deficiency include weakness, feeling tired and sore arms and legs. Without treatment, decreased red blood cells, gum disease, changes to hair, and bleeding ...
, which was thought to be a communicable disease at the time, killed as many as 97% of the patients suffering from it. In 1670 alone, 250 patients suffered from scurvy. The serious problems of overcrowding were recognised at the time and steps were taken to address them. In 1602,
Marie de' Medici Marie de' Medici (french: link=no, Marie de Médicis, it, link=no, Maria de' Medici; 26 April 1575 – 3 July 1642) was Queen of France and Navarre as the second wife of King Henry IV of France of the House of Bourbon, and Regent of the Kingdom ...
, second wife of Henry IV, brought five brothers of the Congregation of Saint-Jean-de-Dieu to found the
Hôpital de la Charité Hôpital de la Charité (, "Charity Hospital") was a hospital in Paris founded in the 17th century and closed in 1935. History In 1606, Marie de Médicis invited the Brothers Hospitallers of St. John of God to come to France. The Abbot of Sain ...
. Shortly thereafter, Henry IV founded the
Hôpital Saint-Louis Hôpital Saint-Louis is a hospital in Paris, France. It was built in 1611 by architect Claude Vellefaux at the request of Henry IV of France. It is part of the Assistance publique - Hôpitaux de Paris hospital system, and it is located at 1 avenue ...
to unclog the Hôtel-Dieu during the plague epidemic in 1605-1606. The Hôtel-Dieu enjoyed some tax privileges. On August 5, 1626, it was authorized to build, at its own expense, a stone bridge over the southern arm of the Seine, upstream from the Petit-Pont. Hospital wards were built on top of the bridge. A decree of the Council of State of April 24, 1634 created a toll of a ''double denier'' for each man on foot, with revenues going to the hospital. This toll gave the bridge its name — the
Pont au Double The Pont au Double is a bridge over the Seine in Paris, France. Location The bridge links the 4th and 5th arrondissements of Paris, from the Île de la Cité to the quai de Montebello. History In 1515, Francis I was asked to build a brid ...
— and it survived until 1789. The hospital wards surmounting the bridge were a major source of pollution in the
Seine ) , mouth_location = Le Havre/Honfleur , mouth_coordinates = , mouth_elevation = , progression = , river_system = Seine basin , basin_size = , tributaries_left = Yonne, Loing, Eure, Risle , tributarie ...
. Hospitals took the name of "''Hôpital Général''" (General hospital) or "''Hôpital d'enfermement''" (
Asylum Asylum may refer to: Types of asylum * Asylum (antiquity), places of refuge in ancient Greece and Rome * Benevolent Asylum, a 19th-century Australian institution for housing the destitute * Cities of Refuge, places of refuge in ancient Judea ...
), of which the Hôtel-Dieu was one. The centralized approach to extreme poverty in France was based on the premise that medical care was a right for those without family or income, and formalized the admission process to attempt to mitigate overcrowding and unsanitary conditions. The Lieutenant Général de Police became a member of the ''Bureau de l’Hôtel-Dieu de Paris'' (Bureau for the Hôtel-Dieu in Paris) in 1690.


18th century

The problem of overcrowding continued into the 18th century. Although almost 50 hospitals and similar institutions were operating in Paris by the second half of the century, demand outpaced the supply of medical services, largely because of very rapid growth of both population and poverty. According to a census of 1791, Paris had a population of 118,884 indigents out of a total population of 650,000.


The Hôtel-Dieu's bad reputation

As always, overcrowding was accompanied by poor outcomes — including hospital-derived infections and high mortality rates. The hospital statistics developed later suggest that the Hôtel-Dieu's record was worse than that of other Parisian institutions. In his ''Encyclopédie'' of 1765,
Denis Diderot Denis Diderot (; ; 5 October 171331 July 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer, best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the ''Encyclopédie'' along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert. He was a promine ...
stated that the Hôtel-Dieu was "the largest, the most numerous, the richest and the most dreadful of any of our hospitals." Similarly, Jacques Tenon, a influential anatomist and surgeon, stated in his ''Mémoires sur les hôpitaux de Paris'' (1788) that the Hôtel-Dieu was "the most unhealthy and uncomfortable of all hospitals", with a mortality rate of almost 25 percent, which, he noted, was much higher than the rates of other Parisian hospitals. The Hôtel-Dieu continued to be a place that only patients who could not afford something better would go to. Its 1,200 beds were completely inadequate for housing its daily average of 3,500 patients. Women gave birth in shared beds and the average maternity stay was 35 days, mainly because of the time needed to recover from infections contracted in the maternity wars, including epidemics of
puerperal fever Postpartum infections, also known as childbed fever and puerperal fever, are any bacterial infections of the female reproductive tract following childbirth or miscarriage. Signs and symptoms usually include a fever greater than , chills, lower ab ...
. In-hospital epidemics of typhus and smallpox were also common. As in earlier centuries, there was insufficient effective separation of patients with communicable diseases, though the hospital was divided into wards.


Official enquiry is launched

Two serious fires occurred in 1737 and 1772. The 1772 fire destroyed a large part of the Hôtel-Dieu and killed many patients. Public outrage at the loss of life amplified ongoing public debate about what was to be done with the hospital, a debate that naturally evolved into broader discussions of possible reforms to Paris' hospital system.
Louis XV Louis XV (15 February 1710 – 10 May 1774), known as Louis the Beloved (french: le Bien-Aimé), was King of France from 1 September 1715 until his death in 1774. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five. Until he reache ...
ordered the demolition of the Hôtel-Dieu in 1773 after hearing of its poor patient conditions. However, the execution of the order was delayed due to the King's death. In 1785, the project of the architect
Bernard Poyet Bernard Poyet (3 May 1742, Dijon - 6 December 1824, Paris was a French architect; best known for his work on the Palais Bourbon. Biography He was a student of Charles De Wailly who, in 1766, charged him with supervising the construction of a b ...
(1742-1824) was presented in a memoir entitled "On the need to transfer and rebuild the Hôtel-Dieu." Poyet proposed to build a circular hospital on an island on the Seine. Its exterior was to be a replica of the
Colosseum The Colosseum ( ; it, Colosseo ) is an oval amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, just east of the Roman Forum. It is the largest ancient amphitheatre ever built, and is still the largest standing amphitheatre in the world to ...
in Rome and it was to house over 5,000 beds and an efficient system of air circulation (constant renewal of the air). The Baron de Breteuil (1730-1807), acting for Louis XVI, instructed the Royal Academy of Sciences to evaluate the Poyet project. For this purpose, a hospital commission of 9 members was established. Members included Jacques Tenon (1724-1816) as well as other renowned scientists such as Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (1743–1794),
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (; ; 14 June 1736 – 23 August 1806) was a French officer, engineer, and physicist. He is best known as the eponymous discoverer of what is now called Coulomb's law, the description of the electrostatic force of attrac ...
(1736–1806), and
Pierre-Simon Laplace Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace (; ; 23 March 1749 – 5 March 1827) was a French scholar and polymath whose work was important to the development of engineering, mathematics, statistics, physics, astronomy, and philosophy. He summarized ...
(1749–1827). The ensuing analysis of the Hôtel-Dieu and other Parisian hospitals was transformed into a productive discussion about broader reform of Paris's hospital system. The commission published three consecutive reports. The 1786 report concluded that the situation of the Hôtel-Dieu was irremediable and that the hospital should be moved outside of Paris. The 1787 report recommended that the Hôtel-Dieu be dismantled and that four smaller hospitals be established in various locations around Paris. The 1788 proposed that the pavilion-style of hospital be adopted, with each ward occupying a separate building to reduce disease transmission and to facilitate ventilation. The third report drew heavily on information collected by Tenon and Coulomb during their official study mission to England in the summer of 1787, during which they visited 52 hospitals, prisons and workhouses.


Publication of Tenon's Memoir

At the request of the hospital commission Tenon published his 500-page ''Mémoires sur les hôpitaux de Paris,'' which documented in detail the scandalous conditions in the Hôtel-Dieu. The Memoires criticized virtually everything about the hospital: the space, the circulation, the arrangement of the beds, the number and the mixture of the sick, the dirtiness, the rot and the bad smells, inhumanity and mortality. He notes that one in 15 mothers died in the Hôtel-Dieu's maternity ward, compared to one in 128 in Manchester. Thus, Tenon’s publication, combined with the work of the Academy, provided convincing scientific evidence in support of the Parisian's long standing prejudices against the Hôtel-Dieu. The ''Memoir'' went further by also setting a complete agenda for the reform of hospitals. The agenda covered all aspects of hospital practice including hospital architecture and grounds, furnishing of wards, management and qualifications of staff, publication of reports on hospital outcomes and finances, as well as the keeping of individual patient charts and case histories. Tenon's Memoir would influence European and American hospital practice for at least a century. In 1787, the Hôtel-Dieu implemented a code of medical services that transformed the hospital from a charitable establishment run by religious orders to a medical and surgical establishment run by doctors.
Jacques Necker Jacques Necker (; 30 September 1732 – 9 April 1804) was a Genevan banker and statesman who served as finance minister for Louis XVI. He was a reformer, but his innovations sometimes caused great discontent. Necker was a constitutional monarchi ...
created the positions of ''Inspecteur général des hôpitaux civils et des maisons de force'' (General Inspector for civil hospitals and jails) and ''Commissaire du roi pour tout ce qui a trait aux hôpitaux'' (Royal Commissioner for all that relates to hospitals). The use of hospitals as teaching institutions was also reinforced as part of the reform movement, which studied medical practice and policy in other European countries. The Hôtel-Dieu achieved renown as a surgical training institution with the appointment of
Pierre-Joseph Desault Pierre-Joseph Desault (6 February 1738 – 1 June 1795) was a French anatomist and surgeon. Biography Pierre-Joseph Desault was born in Vouhenans, Franche-Comté. He was destined for a career in the Church, but his own inclination was towards the ...
as ''chef de service'' in 1785. Desault established a successful educational clinic for surgical interns to supplement what had previously been limited to academic training. Generally, though, the progress anticipated by the reform movement initiated under the last of the French kings was hampered by the massive changes that were occurring in broader French society during the
French Revolution The French Revolution ( ) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. Many of its ideas are considere ...
. Major reforms to the system of government itself needed to take place before the narrower reforms to the Parisian medical system could receive fuller attention.


19th century

By the 19th century, hospitals were playing a central role in medical instruction and research.
Xavier Bichat Marie François Xavier Bichat (; ; 14 November 1771 – 22 July 1802) was a French anatomist and pathologist, known as the father of modern histology. Although he worked without a microscope, Bichat distinguished 21 types of elementary tissues ...
, a pupil of Desault, expounded on his new "membrane theory" during a course taught in 1801–1802 at the Hôtel-Dieu. In 1801, the Parisian hospitals adopted a new administrative framework: the ''Conseil général des hôpitaux et hospices civils de Paris'' (General Council for Parisian hospitals and civil
hospice Hospice care is a type of health care that focuses on the palliation of a terminally ill patient's pain and symptoms and attending to their emotional and spiritual needs at the end of life. Hospice care prioritizes comfort and quality of life by ...
s). The objective of improving hospital management brought about the creation of new services: the ''Bureau d'admission '' (Admissions office) and the ''Pharmacie centrale ''(Central Pharmacy).
Napoleon I Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
finally rebuilt the portions of the Hôtel-Dieu that were destroyed in the fire of 1772. Also during this period, the Hôtel-Dieu advocated the practice of
vaccination Vaccination is the administration of a vaccine to help the immune system develop immunity from a disease. Vaccines contain a microorganism or virus in a weakened, live or killed state, or proteins or toxins from the organism. In stimulating ...
, of which Duc de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt was a fervent supporter. Similarly, the discoveries of René-Théophile-Hyacinthe Laennec permitted the refinement of methods of
diagnosis Diagnosis is the identification of the nature and cause of a certain phenomenon. Diagnosis is used in many different disciplines, with variations in the use of logic, analytics, and experience, to determine " cause and effect". In systems engin ...
,
auscultation Auscultation (based on the Latin verb ''auscultare'' "to listen") is listening to the internal sounds of the body, usually using a stethoscope. Auscultation is performed for the purposes of examining the circulatory and respiratory systems (hea ...
, and
aetiology Etiology (pronounced ; alternatively: aetiology or ætiology) is the study of causation or origination. The word is derived from the Greek (''aitiología'') "giving a reason for" (, ''aitía'', "cause"); and ('' -logía''). More completely, e ...
of illnesses. The Pont au Double was demolished in 1847 and rebuilt without covering. The Hôtel-Dieu was rebuilt between 1867 and 1878 on the opposite side of the
parvise A parvis or parvise is the open space in front of and around a cathedral or church, especially when surrounded by either colonnades or porticoes, as at St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. It is thus a church-specific type of forecourt, front yard or a ...
of Notre Dame, as part of
Haussmann's renovation of Paris Haussmann's renovation of Paris was a vast public works programme commissioned by Emperor Napoleon III and directed by his prefect of Seine, Georges-Eugène Haussmann, between 1853 and 1870. It included the demolition of medieval neighbourho ...
commissioned by
Napoleon III Napoleon III (Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte; 20 April 18089 January 1873) was the first President of France (as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte) from 1848 to 1852 and the last monarch of France as Emperor of the French from 1852 to 1870. A nephew ...
. The reconstruction followed plans by architects Émile Jacques Gilbert and Arthur-Stanislas Diet. It was not until 1908 that the Augustinian nuns left the Hôtel-Dieu for good.


Role within the current hospital system of Paris

The Hôtel-Dieu is the top casualty centre for dealing with emergency cases, being the only emergency centre for the first nine
arrondissement An arrondissement (, , ) is any of various administrative divisions of France, Belgium, Haiti, certain other Francophone countries, as well as the Netherlands. Europe France The 101 French departments are divided into 342 ''arrondissements' ...
s and being the local centre for the first four. For the last 50 years it has been home to the
diabetes Diabetes, also known as diabetes mellitus, is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by a high blood sugar level ( hyperglycemia) over a prolonged period of time. Symptoms often include frequent urination, increased thirst and increased ap ...
and
endocrine The endocrine system is a messenger system comprising feedback loops of the hormones released by internal glands of an organism directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neu ...
illnesses clinical department. It deals almost exclusively with the screening, treatment and prevention of the complications associated with
diabetes mellitus Diabetes, also known as diabetes mellitus, is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by a high blood sugar level ( hyperglycemia) over a prolonged period of time. Symptoms often include frequent urination, increased thirst and increased ap ...
. It is also a referral service for
hypoglycemia Hypoglycemia, also called low blood sugar, is a fall in blood sugar to levels below normal, typically below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L). Whipple's triad is used to properly identify hypoglycemic episodes. It is defined as blood glucose belo ...
. Oriented towards informing the patient (therapeutic education) and technological innovation, it offers a large choice of care facilities for all levels of complications. It is also at the forefront of research in diabetes in areas such as new
insulin Insulin (, from Latin ''insula'', 'island') is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets encoded in humans by the ''INS'' gene. It is considered to be the main anabolic hormone of the body. It regulates the metabolism o ...
s and new drugs, effects of nutrition, external and implanted pumps,
glucose Glucose is a simple sugar with the molecular formula . Glucose is overall the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates. Glucose is mainly made by plants and most algae during photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, using ...
sensors and
artificial pancreas Automated insulin delivery systems are automated (or semi-automated) systems designed to assist people with diabetes, primarily type 1, by automatically adjusting insulin delivery to help them control their blood glucose levels. Currently availabl ...
. More recently, a major department for
ophthalmology Ophthalmology ( ) is a surgical subspecialty within medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders. An ophthalmologist is a physician who undergoes subspecialty training in medical and surgical eye care. Following a medic ...
(emergencies, surgery and research) has been developed at the Hôtel-Dieu, under the supervision of
Yves Pouliquen Yves Pouliquen (17 February 1931 – 5 February 2020) was a French ophthalmologist. His work focused on the pathology of the cornea. Pouliquen was born in Mortain. In 1992, he was made a member of the Académie nationale de médecine. In 1994 ...
.


Notable figures

In 1748, Hyacinthe Théodore Baron, dean of the Faculty of Medicine in Paris from 1750 to 1753 and member of the
Academy of Sciences An academy of sciences is a type of learned society or academy (as special scientific institution) dedicated to sciences that may or may not be state funded. Some state funded academies are tuned into national or royal (in case of the Unite ...
, practised at this hospital.. Other notable physicians, researchers, and surgeons who practised at the hospital include Jean Méry, Forlenze,
Bichat Marie François Xavier Bichat (; ; 14 November 1771 – 22 July 1802) was a French anatomist and pathologist, known as the father of modern histology. Although he worked without a microscope, Bichat distinguished 21 types of elementary tissues ...
,
Dupuytren Baron Guillaume Dupuytren (; 5 October 1777 – 8 February 1835) was a French anatomist and military surgeon. Although he gained much esteem for treating Napoleon Bonaparte's hemorrhoids, he is best known today for his description of Dupuytren' ...
,
Adrien Proust Adrien Achille Proust (18 March 1834 – 26 November 1903) was a French epidemiologist and hygienist. He was the father of novelist Marcel Proust and doctor Robert Proust. He studied medicine in Paris, where in 1862 he obtained his medical doct ...
, Hartmann, Desault, Récamier, Cholmen, Dieulafoy,
Trousseau Trousseau may refer to: *A dowry *The wardrobe of a bride, including the wedding dress or similar clothing *A hope chest, glory box or its contents *Trousseau (grape), a wine grape also known as Bastardo ** Trousseau Gris, a white mutation of the ...
,
Ambroise Paré Ambroise Paré (c. 1510 – 20 December 1590) was a French barber surgeon who served in that role for kings Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III. He is considered one of the fathers of surgery and modern forensic pathology and a p ...
, Marc Tiffeneau, Augustin Gilbert.


References


External links

*
Hotel Hospital Dieu concepção artística do East Villa Graphics
Jun. 2012 {{DEFAULTSORT:Hotel-Dieu De Paris Hospital buildings completed in the 7th century Buildings and structures completed in 651 Hospital buildings completed in 1877 Hospitals in Paris Teaching hospitals in France Hospitals established in the 7th century Île de la Cité Buildings and structures in the 4th arrondissement of Paris 7th-century establishments in Francia