The Xianbei (; ) were a

Proto-Mongolic Proto-Mongolic is the hypothetical ancestor language of the modern Mongolic languages. It is very close to the Middle Mongol language, the language spoken at the time of Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire. Most features of modern Mongolic languag ...

ancient nomadic people that once resided in the eastern Eurasian steppes in what is today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Northeastern China. They originated from the Donghu people who splintered into the Wuhuan and Xianbei when they were defeated by the

Xiongnu The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 209 ...

at the end of the third century BC. The Xianbei were largely subordinate to larger nomadic powers and the Han dynasty until they gained prominence in 87 AD by killing the Xiongnu

chanyu Chanyu () or Shanyu (), short for Chengli Gutu Chanyu (), was the title used by the supreme rulers of Inner Asian nomads for eight centuries until superseded by the title "''Khagan''" in 402 CE. The title was most famously used by the ruling L ...

Youliu. However unlike the Xiongnu, the Xianbei political structure lacked the organization to pose a concerted challenge to the Chinese for most of their time as a nomadic people. After suffering several defeats by the end of the Three Kingdoms period, the Xianbei migrated south and settled in close proximity to Han society and submitted as vassals, being granted the titles of dukes. As the Xianbei Murong, Tuoba, and Duan tribes were one of the Five Barbarians who were vassals of the Western Jin and Eastern Jin dynasties, they took part in the Uprising of the Five Barbarians as allies of the Eastern Jin against the other four barbarians, the

, Jie, Di and Qiang. The Xianbei were at one point all defeated and conquered by the Di-led Former Qin dynasty before it fell apart not long after its defeat in the

Battle of Fei River The Battle of Fei River, also known as the Battle of Feishui (), was a battle in AD 383 in China, where forces of the Di-led Former Qin dynasty was decisively defeated by the outnumbered army of the Eastern Jin dynasty. The location of the bat ...

by the Eastern Jin. The Xianbei later founded their own dynasties and reunited northern China under the Northern Wei dynasty. These states opposed and promoted sinicization at one point or another but trended towards the latter and had merged with the general Chinese population by the Tang dynasty. The

Northern Wei Wei (), known in historiography as the Northern Wei (), Tuoba Wei (), Yuan Wei () and Later Wei (), was founded by the Tuoba (Tabgach) clan of the Xianbei. The first of the Northern and Southern dynasties#Northern dynasties, Northern dynasties ...

also arranged for ethnic Han elites to marry daughters of the Tuoba imperial clan in the 480s. More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Han men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of the Southern dynasties who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei.

Etymology

CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - figure of a Xianbei warrior

Paul Pelliot tentatively reconstructs the Later Han Chinese pronunciation of 鮮卑 as */serbi/, from *Särpi, after noting that Chinese scribes used 鮮 to transcribe Middle Persian sēr (

lion The lion (''Panthera leo'') is a large Felidae, cat of the genus ''Panthera'' native to Africa and India. It has a muscular, broad-chested body; short, rounded head; round ears; and a hairy tuft at the end of its tail. It is sexually dimorphi ...

) and 卑 to transcribe foreign syllable /pi/; for instance, Sanskrit गोपी ''gopī'' "milkmaid, cowherdess" became Middle Chinese 瞿卑 (''ɡɨo-piᴇ'') (> Mand. ''qúbēi''). On the one hand, *Särpi may be linked to Mongolic root ''*ser'' ~''*sir'' which means "crest, bristle, sticking out, projecting, etc." (cf. Khalkha сэрвэн ''serven''), possibly referring to the Xianbei's horses (semantically analogous with the Turkic ethnonym ''Yabaqu'' < ''Yapağu'' 'matted hair or wool', later 'a matted-haired animal, i.e. a colt') On the other hand,

Book of Later Han The ''Book of the Later Han'', also known as the ''History of the Later Han'' and by its Chinese name ''Hou Hanshu'' (), is one of the Twenty-Four Histories and covers the history of the Han dynasty from 6 to 189 CE, a period known as the Later ...

and

Book of Wei The ''Book of Wei'', also known by its Chinese name as the ''Wei Shu'', is a classic Chinese historical text compiled by Wei Shou from 551 to 554, and is an important text describing the history of the Northern Wei and Eastern Wei from 386 to 5 ...

stated that: before becoming an ethnonym, Xianbei had been a toponym, referring to the Great Xianbei mountains (大鮮卑山), which is now identified as the Greater Khingan range (). Shimunek (2018) reconstructs *''serbi'' for Xiānbēi and *''širwi'' for 室韋 Shìwéi < MC ''*ɕiɪt̚-ɦʉi''. This same root might be the origin of ethnonym Sibe.

History

Origin

Warring States period's Chinese literature contains early mentions of Xianbei, as in the poem "

The Great Summons "The Great Summons" or ''"Da Zhao"'' () is one of the poems anthologized in the ancient Chinese poetry collection, the ''Chu ci'', also known as ''The Songs of the South''. "The Great Summons" consists of a single poem without introduction or epil ...

" () in the anthology Verses of Chu and the chapter "Discourses of Jin 8" in

Discourses of the States The ''Guoyu'' (), usually translated ''Discourses of the States'', is an ancient Chinese text that consists of a collection of speeches attributed to rulers and other men from the Spring and Autumn period (771–476). It comprises a total of ...

. When the Donghu "Eastern Barbarians" were defeated by Modu Chanyu around 208 BC, the Donghu splintered into the Xianbei and Wuhuan. According to the ''

Book of the Later Han The ''Book of the Later Han'', also known as the ''History of the Later Han'' and by its Chinese name ''Hou Hanshu'' (), is one of the Twenty-Four Histories and covers the history of the Han dynasty from 6 to 189 CE, a period known as the Later ...

'', "the language and culture of the Xianbei are the same as the Wuhuan". The first significant contact the Xianbei had with the Han dynasty was in 41 and 45, when they joined the Wuhuan and Xiongnu in raiding Han territory. In 49, the governor Ji Tong convinced the Xianbei chieftain Pianhe to turn on the Xiongnu with rewards for each Xiongnu head they collected. In 54, Yuchouben and Mantou of the Xianbei paid tribute to Emperor Guangwu of Han. In 58, the Xianbei chieftain Pianhe attacked and killed Xinzhiben, a Wuhuan leader causing trouble in Yuyang Commandery. In 85, the Xianbei secured an alliance with the Dingling and Southern Xiongnu. In 87, the Xianbei attacked the Xiongnu

Youliu and killed him. They flayed him and his followers and took the skins back as trophies.

Xianbei Confederation

After the downfall of the Xiongnu, the Xianbei established their confederation in Mongolia starting from AD 93. In 109, the Wuhuan and Xianbei attacked Wuyuan Commandery and defeated local Han forces. The Southern Xiongnu chanyu

Wanshishizhudi Wanshishizhudi (), born Tan (), was the son of Huxie Shizhu Houti. He succeeded Shizi in 98 AD and ruled until 124 AD. He was succeeded by his brother Wujihoushizhudi. In 107 AD, the Great Qiang Rebellion in conjunction with invasions by the ...

rebelled against the Han and attacked the Emissary Geng Chong but failed to oust him. Han forces under

Geng Kui Geng Kui (), born in Xianyang, Shaanxi, was a general sent by Dou Xian to defeat the unnamed Northern Chanyu, leader of the Xiongnu nomads. He achieved this in 91 AD, shortly after the Battle of Ikh Bayan. The Northern Chanyu was defeated once m ...

retaliated and defeated a force of 3,000 Xiongnu but could not take the Southern Xiongnu capital due to disease among the horses of their Xianbei allies. The Xianbei under Qizhijian raided Han territory four times from 121 to 138. . In 145, the Xianbei raided Dai Commandery. Around 155, the northern Xiongnu were "crushed and subjugated" by the Xianbei. Their chief, known by the Chinese as Tanshihuai, then advanced upon and defeated the

Wusun The Wusun (; Eastern Han Chinese *''ʔɑ-suən'' <

Old Chinese

(140 BCE < 436 BCE): *''Ɂâ-sûn'') were an ancient semi-

of the

Ili Ili, ILI, Illi may refer to: Abbreviations * Irish Life International, part of Irish Life and Permanent * Intuitive Logical Introvert, a personality type in socionics * Influenza-like illness * Iran Language Institute, a state-owned, non-profit ...

region by 166. Under Tanshihuai, the Xianbei extended their territory from the Ussuri to the Caspian Sea. He divided the Xianbei empire into three sections, each ruled by twenty clans. Tanshihuai then formed an alliance with the southern Xiongnu to attack Shaanxi and

Gansu Gansu (, ; alternately romanized as Kansu) is a province in Northwest China. Its capital and largest city is Lanzhou, in the southeast part of the province. The seventh-largest administrative district by area at , Gansu lies between the Tibet ...

. Han dynasty successfully repulsed their attacks in 158, 177. The Xianbei might have also attacked Wa (Japan) with some success. In 177 AD, Xia Yu, Tian Yan and the Tute Chanyu led a force of 30,000 against the Xianbei. They were defeated and returned with only a quarter of their original forces. A memorial made that year records that the Xianbei had taken all the lands previously held by the Xiongnu and their warriors numbered 100,000. Han deserters who sought refuge in their lands served as their advisers and refined metals as well as wrought iron came into their possession. Their weapons were sharper and their horses faster than those of the Xiongnu. Another memorial submitted in 185 states that the Xianbei were making raids on Han settlements nearly every year.

Three Kingdoms

The loose Xianbei confederacy lacked the organization of the Xiongnu but was highly aggressive until the death of their khan Tanshihuai in 182. Tanshihuai's son Helian lacked his father's abilities and was killed in a raid on Beidi in 186. Helian's brother Kuitou succeeded him, but when Helian's son Qianman came of age, he challenged his uncle to succession, destroying the last vestiges of unity among the Xianbei. By 190, the Xianbei had split into three groups with Kuitou ruling in Inner Mongolia,

Kebineng Kebineng (died 235) was a Xianbei chieftain who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of China. He rose to power during the late Eastern Han dynasty after the warlord Cao Cao defeated the Wuhuan tribes in northern Chi ...

in northern

Shanxi Shanxi (; ; formerly romanised as Shansi) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the North China region. The capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-lev ...

, and Suli and Mijia in northern Liaodong. In 205, Kuitou's brothers

Budugen Budugen (died 233) was a Xianbei chieftain who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of China. He retained his independence by pledging allegiance to the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period and sending t ...

and Fuluohan succeeded him. After

Cao Cao Cao Cao () (; 155 – 15 March 220), courtesy name Mengde (), was a Chinese statesman, warlord and poet. He was the penultimate Grand chancellor (China), grand chancellor of the Eastern Han dynasty, and he amassed immense power in the End of ...

defeated the Wuhuan at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain in 207, Budugen and Fuluohan paid tribute to him. In 218, Fuluohan met with the Wuhuan chieftain Nengchendi to form an alliance, but Nengchendi double crossed him and called in another Xianbei khan, Kebineng, who killed Fuluohan. Budugen went to the court of Cao Wei in 224 to ask for assistance against Kebineng, but he eventually betrayed them and allied with Kebineng in 233. Kebineng killed Budugen soon afterwards. Kebineng was from a minor Xianbei tribe. He rose to power west of Dai Commandery by taking in a number of Chinese refugees, who helped him drill his soldiers and make weapons. After the defeat of the Wuhuan in 207, he also sent tribute to Cao Cao, and even provided assistance against the rebel Tian Yin. In 218 he allied himself to the Wuhuan rebel Nengchendi but they were heavily defeated and forced back across the frontier by Cao Zhang. In 220, he acknowledged Cao Pi as emperor of Cao Wei. Eventually, he turned on the Wei for frustrating his advances on another Xianbei khan, Sui. Kebineng conducted raids on Cao Wei before he was killed in 235, after which his confederacy disintegrated. Many of the Xianbei tribes migrated south and settled on the borders of the Wei-Jin dynasties. In 258 Tuoba Liwei's people settled in Yanmen Commandery. The Yuwen tribe settled between the Luan River and

Liucheng Liucheng County (; Standard Zhuang: ) is under the administration of Liuzhou, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China. It covers a land area of and had a permanent population of 353,796 . Located north of Liuzhou's city proper, it borders the pre ...

. The

Murong Murong (; LHC: *''mɑC-joŋ''; EMC: *''mɔh-juawŋ'') or Muren refers to an ethnic Xianbei tribe who are attested from the time of Tanshihuai (reigned 156–181). Different strands of evidence exist linking the Murong to the MongolsТаск� ...

and Duan tribes became vassals of the Sima clan. An offshoot of the Murong tribe moved west into northern Qinghai and mixed with the native Qiang people, becoming Tuyuhun. In 279, the Xianbei made one last attack on

Liang Province Liang Province or Liangzhou () was a province in the northwest of ancient China, in the approximate location of the modern-day province of Gansu. It was bordered in the east by Sili Province. History Establishment The province was first con ...

but they were defeated by Ma Long.

Sixteen Kingdoms, Nirun and Northern Wei

Northern Dynasties Pottery Horse & Rider

The third century saw both the fragmentation of the Xianbei in 235 and the branching out of the various Xianbei tribes. Around 308 or 330 AD, the

Rouran The Rouran Khaganate, also Juan-Juan Khaganate (), was a tribal confederation and later state founded by a people of Proto-Mongolic Donghu origin.*Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (2000)"Ji 姬 and Jiang 姜: The Role of Exogamic Clans in the Organizati ...

tribe was founded by Mugulü, but formed by his son, Cheluhui.Grousset (1970), pp. 61, 585, n. 91. The Xianbei tribes Tuoba,

and Duan submitted to the Western Jin dynasty as vassals, the Tuoba were made Dukes of Dai (Sixteen Kingdoms), the Murong were made Dukes of Liaodong, and the Duan were made Dukes of

Liaoxi Liaoxi () was a former province in Northeast China, located in what is now part of Liaoning and Jilin provinces. It existed from 1949 to 1954, and its capital was Jinzhou Jinzhou (, ), formerly Chinchow, is a coastal prefecture-level city ...

. The three Xianbei tribes fought on the Western Jin side against the other four barbarians in the Uprising of the Five Barbarians after a

and Jie led slave revolt toppled Western Jin rule in northern China. Mass number of Chinese officers, soldiers and civilians fled south to join the Eastern Jin or north to join the Xianbei duchies which remained in direct communication with the Eastern Jin in southern China, receiving orders. The Xianbei later establish six significant empires of their own such as the

Former Yan The Former Yan (; 337–370) was a dynastic state ruled by the Xianbei during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Initially, Murong Huang and his son Murong Jun claimed the Jin dynasty-created title "Prince of Yan," but subsequently, in 352, ...

(281–370),

Western Yan Yan, known in historiography as the Western Yan (; 384–394) was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Xianbei ethnicity. The dynasty existed during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms, but it is not counted among the 16. It was founded by Murong Hong i ...

(384–394), Later Yan (384–407),

Southern Yan The Southern Yan (; 398–410) was a Xianbei-led dynastic state during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Its territory roughly coincided with modern Shandong. Its founder Murong De was a son of Murong Huang and brother of Murong Jun and Muron ...

(398–410), Western Qin (385–430) and Southern Liang (397–414). The Xianbei were all conquered by the Di

Former Qin The Former Qin, also called Fu Qin (苻秦), (351–394) was a dynastic state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in Chinese history ruled by the Di ethnicity. Founded by Fu Jian (posthumously Emperor Jingming) who originally served under the Later ...

empire in northern China before its defeat at the

and subsequent collapse. Most of them were unified by the Tuoba Xianbei, who established the Northern Wei (386–535), which was the first of the Northern Dynasties (386–581) founded by the Xianbei.

Sinicization and assimilation

Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei established a policy of systematic sinicization that was continued by his successors. Xianbei traditions were largely abandoned. The royal family took the sinicization a step further by changing their family name to Yuan. Marriages to Han elite families were encouraged. The Northern Wei started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the Xianbei Tuoba royal family in the 480s. More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Han Chinese men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of the Southern dynasties who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei. Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of the Xianbei

Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei ((北)魏孝文帝) (October 13, 467 – April 26, 499), personal name né Tuoba Hong (拓拔宏), later Yuan Hong (元宏), was an emperor of the Northern Wei from September 20, 471 to April 26, 499. Under the r ...

were married to Han Chinese elites, the Liu Song royal Liu Hui (刘辉), married Princess Lanling (蘭陵公主) of the Northern Wei, Princess Huayang (華陽公主) to Sima Fei (司馬朏), a descendant of Jin dynasty (266–420) royalty, Princess Jinan (濟南公主) to Lu Daoqian (盧道虔), Princess Nanyang (南阳长公主) to Xiao Baoyin (萧宝夤), a member of

Southern Qi Qi, known in historiography as the Southern Qi ( or ) or Xiao Qi (), was a Chinese imperial dynasty and the second of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties era. It followed the Liu Song dynasty and was succeede ...

royalty. Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei's sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to The Liang dynasty ruler Emperor Wu of Liang's son Xiao Zong 蕭綜. When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended, Northern Wei received the Han Chinese Jin prince Sima Chuzhi ( 司馬楚之) as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to

Sima Jinlong Sima Jinlong (; after 420-484), courtesy name Rongze (榮則), was a Han–Xianbei prince and general of the Xianbei-led Northern Wei dynasty of China, whose tomb was discovered in the village of Shijia, Datong, Shanxi. Sima Jinlong was of mixed ...

Northern Liang The Northern Liang (; 397–439) was a dynastic state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China. It was ruled by the Juqu family of Lushuihu origin (a branch of the Xiongnu). Although Duan Ye of Han ethnicity was initially enthroned as the Northern Liang ...

Xiongnu King

Juqu Mujian Juqu Mujian (; before 420 – 447), named Juqu Maoqian (沮渠茂虔) in some sources, formally Prince Ai of Hexi (河西哀王), was a king of the Xiongnu-led Northern Liang dynasty of China—with most Chinese historians considering him the last ...

's daughter married Sima Jinlong. In 534, the Northern Wei split into an Eastern Wei (534–550) and a Western Wei (535–556) after an uprising in the steppes of North China inhabited by Xianbei and other nomadic peoples. The former evolved into the Northern Qi (550-577), and the latter into the Northern Zhou (557-581), while the Southern Dynasties were pushed to the south of the Yangtze River. In 581, the Prime Minister of Northern Zhou, Yang Jian, founded the

Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty (, ) was a short-lived imperial dynasty of China that lasted from 581 to 618. The Sui unified the Northern and Southern dynasties, thus ending the long period of division following the fall of the Western Jin dynasty, and layi ...

(581–618). His son, the future

Emperor Yang of Sui Emperor Yang of Sui (隋煬帝, 569 – 11 April 618), personal name Yang Guang (), alternative name Ying (), Xianbei name Amo (), also known as Emperor Ming of Sui () during the brief reign of his grandson Yang Tong, was the second emperor of ...

, absorbed the Chen dynasty (557–589), the last kingdom of the Southern Dynasties, thereby unifying much of China. After the Sui came to an end amidst peasant

rebellions Rebellion, uprising, or insurrection is a refusal of obedience or order. It refers to the open resistance against the orders of an established authority. A rebellion originates from a sentiment of indignation and disapproval of a situation and ...

and renegade troops, his cousin,

Li Yuan Emperor Gaozu of Tang (7 April 566 – 25 June 635, born Li Yuan, courtesy name Shude) was the founding emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, reigning from 618 to 626. Under the Sui dynasty, Li Yuan was the governor in the area of modern-day ...

, founded the Tang dynasty (618–907). Sui and Tang dynasties were founded by Han generals who also served the Northern Wei dynasty. Through these political establishments, the Xianbei who entered China were largely merged with the Chinese, examples such as the wife of

Emperor Gaozu of Tang Emperor Gaozu of Tang (7 April 566 – 25 June 635, born Li Yuan, courtesy name Shude) was the founding emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, reigning from 618 to 626. Under the Sui dynasty, Li Yuan was the governor in the area of modern-day ...

, Duchess Dou and Emperor Taizong of Tang's wife, Empress Zhangsun, both have Xianbei ancestries, while those who remained behind in the northern grassland emerged as later powers to rule over China as Mongol Yuan dynasty and

Manchu The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) and ...

Qing dynasty. In the West, the Xianbei kingdom of Tuyuhun remained independent until it was defeated by the Tibetan Empire in 670. After the fall of the kingdom, the Xianbei people underwent a diaspora over a vast territory that stretched from the northwest into central and eastern parts of China. Murong Nuohebo led the Tuyuhun people eastward into central China, where they settled in modern Yinchuan, Ningxia.

Art

CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - gold horse head ornament

Art of the Xianbei portrayed their nomadic lifestyle and consisted primarily of metalwork and figurines. The style and subjects of Xianbei art were influenced by a variety of influences, and ultimately, the Xianbei were known for emphasizing unique nomadic motifs in artistic advancements such as leaf headdresses, crouching and geometricized animals depictions, animal pendant necklaces, and metal openwork.Watt, James C.Y. China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200–750 AD. Comp. An Jiayao, Angela F. Howard, Boris I. Marshak, Su Bai, and Zhao Feng. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2004. Print.

Leaf headdresses

The leaf headdresses were very characteristic of Xianbei culture, and they are found especially in Murong Xianbei tombs. Their corresponding ornamental style also links the Xianbei to Bactria. These gold hat ornaments represented trees and antlers and, in Chinese, they are referred to as buyao ("step sway") since the thin metal leaves move when the wearer moves. Sun Guoping first uncovered this type of artifact, and defined three main styles: "Blossoming Tree" (huashu), which is mounted on the front of a cap near the forehead and has one or more branches with hanging leaves that are circle or droplet shaped, "Blossoming Top" (dinghua), which is worn on top of the head and resembles a tree or animal with many leaf pendants, and the rare "Blossoming Vine" (huaman), which consists of "gold strips interwoven with wires with leaves." Leaf headdresses were made with hammered gold and decorated by punching out designs and hanging the leaf pendants with wire. The exact origin, use, and wear of these headdresses is still being investigated and determined. However, headdresses similar to those later also existed and were worn by women in the courts.

Animal iconography

Another key form of Xianbei art is animal iconography, which was implemented primarily in metalwork. The Xianbei stylistically portrayed crouching animals in geometricized, abstracted, repeated forms, and distinguished their culture and art by depicting animal predation and same-animal combat. Typically, sheep, deer, and horses were illustrated. The artifacts, usually plaques or pendants, were made from metal, and the backgrounds were decorated with openwork or mountainous landscapes, which harks back to the Xianbei nomadic lifestyle. With repeated animal imagery, an openwork background, and a rectangular frame, the included image of the three deer plaque is a paradigm of the Xianbei art style. Concave plaque backings imply that plaques were made using

lost-wax casting Lost-wax casting (also called "investment casting", "precision casting", or ''cire perdue'' which has been adopted into English from the French, ) is the process by which a duplicate metal sculpture (often silver, gold, brass, or bronze) is ...

, or raised designs were impressed on the back of hammered metal sheets.

Horses

The nomadic traditions of the Xianbei inspired them to portray horses in their artwork. The horse played a large role in the existence of the Xianbei as a nomadic people, and in one tomb, a horse skull lay atop Xianbei bells, buckles, ornaments, a saddle, and one gilded bronze stirrup. The Xianbei not only created art for their horses, but they also made art to depict horses. Another recurring motif was the winged horse. It has been suggested by archaeologist Su Bai that this symbol was a "heavenly beast in the shape of a horse" because of its prominence in Xianbei mythology. This symbol is thought to have guided an early Xianbei southern migration, and is a recurring image in many Xianbei art forms.

Figurines

Xianbei figurines help to portray the people of the society by representing pastimes, depicting specialized clothing, and implying various beliefs. Most figurines have been recovered from Xianbei tombs, so they are primarily military and musical figures meant to serve the deceased in afterlife processions and guard the tomb. Furthermore, the figurine clothing specifies the according social statuses: higher-ranking Xianbei wore long-sleeved robes with a straight neck shirt underneath, while lower-ranking Xianbei wore trousers and belted tunics.

Buddhist influences

Xianbei Buddhist influences were derived from interactions with Han culture. The Han bureaucrats initially helped the Xianbei run their state, but eventually the Xianbei became Sinophiles and promoted Buddhism. The beginning of this conversion is evidenced by the Buddha imagery that emerges in Xianbei art. For instance, the included Buddha imprinted leaf headdress perfectly represents the Xianbei conversion and Buddhist synthesis since it combines both the traditional nomadic Xianbei leaf headdress with the new imagery of Buddha. This Xianbei religious conversion continued to develop in the Northern Wei dynasty, and ultimately led to the creation of the Yungang Grottoes.

Language

The Xianbei are thought to have spoken Mongolic or

para-Mongolic Para-Mongolic is a proposed group of languages that is considered to be an extinct sister branch of the Mongolic languages. Para-Mongolic contains certain historically attested extinct languages, among them Khitan and Tuyuhun. Languages The ...

languages, with early and substantial

Turkic Turkic may refer to: * anything related to the country of Turkey * Turkic languages, a language family of at least thirty-five documented languages ** Turkic alphabets (disambiguation) ** Turkish language, the most widely spoken Turkic language * ...

influences; as Claus Schönig asserts: It is also possible that the Xianbei spoke more than one language.

Anthropology

According to Sinologist Penglin Wang, some Xianbei had mixed west Eurasian-featured traits such as blue eyes, blonde hair and white skin due to absorbing some Indo-European elements. The Xianbei were described as white on several occasions. The '' Book of Jin'' states that in the state of Cao Wei, Xianbei immigrants were known as the white tribe. The ruling Murong clan of

were referred to by their

adversaries as white slaves. According to Fan Wenlang et al. the Murong people were considered "white" by the Chinese due to the complexion of their skin color. In the Jin dynasty, Xianbei Murong women were sold off to many Han Chinese bureaucrat and aristocrats and they were also given to their servants and concubines. The mother of Emperor Ming of Jin,

Lady Xun Lady Xun (personal name unknown) (; died 335), formally Lady of Yuzhang (豫章君), was a concubine of Emperor Yuan of Jin (Sima Rui) while he was the Prince of Langye. Initially, he favored her greatly, and she bore him two sons – Sima Shao (E ...

, was a lowly concubine possibly of Xianbei stock. During a confrontation between Emperor Ming and a rebel force in 324, his enemies were confused by his appearance, and thought he was a Xianbei due to his yellow beard. Emperor Ming's yellowish hair could have been inherited from his mother, who was either Xianbei or Jie. During the Tang dynasty, the poet

Zhang Ji Zhang Ji may refer to: * Zhang Ji (Han dynasty) (張濟) (died 196), official under the warlord Dong Zhuo * Zhang Zhongjing (150–219), formal name Zhang Ji (張機), Han dynasty physician * Zhang Ji (Derong) (張既) (died 223), general of Cao Wei ...

described the Xianbei entering Luoyang as "yellow-headed". During the Song dynasty, the poet and painter Su Shi was inspired by a painting of a Xianbei riding a horse and wrote a poem describing an elderly Xianbei with reddish hair and blue eyes. There was undoubtedly some range of variation within their population. Yellow hair in Chinese sources could have meant brown rather than blonde and described other people such as the Jie rather than the Xianbei. Historian

Edward H. Schafer Edward Hetsel Schafer (23 August 1913 – 9 February 1991) was an American historian, sinologist, and writer noted for his expertise on the Tang Dynasty, and was a professor of Chinese at University of California, Berkeley for 35 years. Sc ...

believes many of the Xianbei were blondes, but others such as Charles Holcombe think it is "likely that the bulk of the Xianbei were not visibly very different in appearance from the general population of northeastern Asia." Chinese anthropologist Zhu Hong and Zhang Quan-chao studied Xianbei crania from several sites of Inner Mongolia and noticed that anthropological features of studied Xianbei crania show that the racial type is closely related to the modern East-Asians, and some physical characteristics of those skulls are closer to modern Mongols,

and Han Chinese.

Genetics

A genetic study published in '' The FEBS Journal'' in October 2006 examined the mtDNA of Twenty one Tuoba Xianbei buried at the Qilang Mountain Cemetery in Inner Mongolia, China. The Twenty one samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroups O (9 samples), D (7 samples), C (5 samples), B (2 samples) and A. These haplogroups are characteristic of Northeast Asians. Among modern populations they were found to be most closely related to the Oroqen people. A genetic study published in the

Russian Journal of Genetics The ''Russian Journal of Genetics'' is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering genetics. It was established in 1994 and is published by Springer Science+Business Media. The editor-in-chief is Nikolay Yankovsky (Vavilov Institute of G ...

in April 2014 examined the mtDNA of seventeen Tuoba Xianbei buried at the Shangdu Dongdajing cemetery in Inner Mongolia, China. The seventeen samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroups D4 (four samples), D5 (three samples), C (five samples), A (three samples), G and B. A genetic study published in the '' American Journal of Physical Anthropology'' in November 2007 examined of 17 individuals buried at a

Xianbei cemetery in Lamadong,

Liaoning Liaoning () is a coastal province in Northeast China that is the smallest, southernmost, and most populous province in the region. With its capital at Shenyang, it is located on the northern shore of the Yellow Sea, and is the northernmost ...

, China ca. 300 AD. They were determined to be carriers of the maternal haplogroups J1b1, D (three samples), F1a (three samples), M, B, B5b, C (three samples) and G2a. These haplogroups are common among East Asians and some Siberians. The maternal haplogroups of the Murong Xianbei were noticeably different from those of the Huns and Tuoba Xianbei. A genetic study published in the ''American Journal of Physical Anthropology'' in August 2018 noted that the paternal haplogroup C2b1a1b has been detected among the Xianbei and the

, and was probably an important lineage among the Donghu people.

Notable people

CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - figure of a female warrior

Pre-dynastic

Tanshihuai Tanshihuai (136–181) was a Xianbei chieftain who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty period of China. It was under Tanshihuai when the Xianbei became a Xianbei state, unified polity and posed a constant threat to the Han dynasty's northern ...

(檀石槐, 130–182), Xianbei leader who led the Xianbei State until his death in 182 *

(軻比能, died 235), a Xianbei chieftain who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period * Tufa Shujineng (禿髮樹機能, died 279), a Xianbei chieftain who lived during the Three Kingdoms period

Sixteen Kingdoms

Yan

* Murong Huang (慕容皝, 297–348), founder of the state

* Murong Jun (慕容儁, 319–360), was the second ruler of the state

* Murong Chui (慕容垂, 326–396), was a general of the state

who later became the founding emperor of Later Yan * Murong Ke (慕容恪, died 367), a famed general and statesman of the state

* Murong De (慕容德, 336–405), founder of the state

* Murong Chao (慕容超, 385–410), was the last emperor of the

Xianbei state

Dai

* Tuoba Yilu (拓跋猗盧, died 316), son of

Tuoba Shamohan The Tuoba (reconstructed Middle Chinese pronunciation: *''tʰak-bɛt''), also known as the Taugast or Tabgach ( otk, 𐱃𐰉𐰍𐰲 ''Tabγač''), was a Xianbei clan in Imperial China.Wei Shou. ''Book of Wei''. Vol. 1 During the Sixteen Kingdo ...

, who was head of the Tuoba clan, Duke of Dai, and later, Prince of Dai, being the founder of this Xianbei kingdom

Northern dynasties

Tuoba Gui Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei () (4 August 371 – 6 November 409''wuchen'' day of the 10th month of the 6th year of the ''Tian'ci'' era, per Emperor Daowu's biography in ''Book of Wei''), personal name Tuoba Gui (), né Tuoba Shegui (), was the fo ...

(拓跋珪, 371–409), founding emperor of the

Tuoba Tao Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei ((北)魏太武帝, 408 – 11 March 452), personal name Tuoba Tao (拓拔燾), Xianbei name Büri(佛貍),佛貍 should actually be pronounced Büri, and meant "wolf" in the Xianbei language, 罗新：《北魏太武 ...

(拓拔燾, 408–452), was the third emperor of the

* Tufa Poqiang (禿髮破羌, 407–479), a paramount general of the

Yuwen Tai Yuwen Tai () (505 – 21 November 556According to Yuwen Tai's biography in ''Book of Zhou'', he died aged 52 (by East Asian reckoning) on the ''yihai'' day of the 10th month of the 3rd year of the reign of Emperor Gong of Western Wei. This corre ...

(宇文泰, 507–556), a paramount general of the state Western Wei, a branch successor state of

Dugu Xin Dugu Xin (Chinese: 獨孤信; 503 – 24 April 557), Xianbei name Qimitou (期彌頭), known as Dugu Ruyuan (獨孤如願) before 540, was a prominent general and official during the chaotic Northern and Southern dynasties period of imperial China ...

(独孤信, 503–557), a paramount general of the state Western Wei * Yuchi Jiong (尉遲迥, died 580), a paramount general of the states Western Wei and Northern Zhou *

Lou Zhaojun Lou Zhaojun (; 501 – 20 May 562), formally Empress Ming (明皇后, literally "the understanding empress"), was an empress dowager of the Chinese dynasty Northern Qi. She was the wife of Gao Huan, the paramount general of Northern Wei and its ...

(婁昭君, 501–562), an

empress dowager Empress dowager (also dowager empress or empress mother) () is the English language translation of the title given to the mother or widow of a Chinese, Japanese, Korean, or Vietnamese emperor in the Chinese cultural sphere. The title was also g ...

of the state Northern Qi * Lu Lingxuan (陸令萱, died 577), a lady in waiting in the palace of the state Northern Qi * Yuwen Hu (宇文護, 513–572), a regent of the state Northern Zhou *

Mu Tipo Mu Tipo () (died 577), né Luo Tipo (), was a Xianbei official of the History of China, Chinese dynasty Northern Qi. He was a close associate of the emperor Gao Wei, and during the latter part of Gao Wei's reign controlled the political scene along ...

(穆提婆, 527–577), a paramount official of the state Northern Qi * Mu Yeli (穆邪利, 557–577), an empress of the state Northern Qi *

Gao Anagong Gao Anagong (高阿那肱) (died November 18, 580Academia Sinicabr>Chinese-Western Calendar Converter.''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 174.) was a Xianbei official of the Chinese Northern Qi dynasty. He was a close associate of the emperor Gao Wei, and lat ...

(高阿那肱, died 580), a paramount official and general of the state Northern Qi * Queen Dugu (獨孤王后, 536–558), a queen of the state Northern Zhou * Yuwen Yong (宇文邕, 543–578), emperor of the state Northern Zhou

''"Nirun"'' and Rouran

Tribe

Yujiulü Mugulü Yujiulü is a given surname, generally used by the Yujiulü clan, the ruling family of the Rouran Khaganate. Notable people with the name include: * Consort Yujiulü (died 452), formally Empress Gong, a consort of Tuoba Huang, a crown prince of the ...

(郁久閭木骨閭, ?–?), was a Xianbei slave and the ancestor the Yujiulü clan, from whom sprang the founders of the

Rouran Khaganate The Rouran Khaganate, also Juan-Juan Khaganate (), was a tribal confederation and later state founded by a people of Proto-Mongolic Donghu origin.*Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (2000)"Ji 姬 and Jiang 姜: The Role of Exogamic Clans in the Organizatio ...

Yujiulü Cheluhui Yujiulü Cheluhui () was ruler and tribal chief of the Rourans, succeeded Mùgǔlǘ (Mugului) and was the son of the same, his year of birth is unknown. He was a rough man and his government was marked by nomadism and peace. Government Mig ...

(郁久閭車鹿會, ?–?), was ruler and tribal chief of the

Rourans The Rouran Khaganate, also Juan-Juan Khaganate (), was a tribal confederation and later state founded by a people of Proto-Mongolic Donghu origin.*Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (2000)"Ji 姬 and Jiang 姜: The Role of Exogamic Clans in the Organizati ...

, succeeded Mùgǔlǘ ( Mugulü) and was the son of the same

Khaganate

Yujiulü Shelun Yujiulü Shelun (, Simplified Chinese: 郁久闾社仑; pinyin: Yùjiǔlǘ Shèlún, Wade–Giles: Yü-chiu-lü She-lun) (c. 391–410) or Qiudoufa Khagan (丘豆伐可汗) was khagan of the Rouran from 402 to 410. Early years After his brother ...

(郁久闾社仑, 391–410) was khagan of the

from 402 to 410 *

Yujiulü Datan Yujiulü Datan (; pinyin: Yùjiǔlǘ Dàtán) (?–429 AD) khan of the Rouran from 414 to July, 429 with the title of Mouhanheshenggai Khagan (牟汗紇升蓋可汗). Life He was a son of Yujiulü Puhun (郁久閭僕浑), thus a cousin of Yujiu ...

(郁久閭大檀, died 429)

khagan Khagan or Qaghan (Mongolian:; or ''Khagan''; otk, 𐰴𐰍𐰣 ), or , tr, Kağan or ; ug, قاغان, Qaghan, Mongolian Script: ; or ; fa, خاقان ''Khāqān'', alternatively spelled Kağan, Kagan, Khaghan, Kaghan, Khakan, Khakhan ...

of the

from 414 to July, 429 *

Yujiulu Anagui The Rouran Khaganate, also Juan-Juan Khaganate (), was a tribal confederation and later state founded by a people of Proto-Mongolic Donghu origin.*Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (2000)"Ji 姬 and Jiang 姜: The Role of Exogamic Clans in the Organizatio ...

(郁久閭阿那瓌, died 552) was ruler of the

(520–552) * Yujiulü Anluochen (郁久閭菴羅辰, died 554) was the last khagan of the

(553–554) in the east. He was the son of Anagui * Yujiulü Dengshuzi (郁久閭鄧叔子, died 555) was the last western khagan of the

. He was a cousin of Anagui

Sui Dynasty

* Dugu Qieluo (獨孤伽羅, 544–602), formally Empress Wenxian (文獻皇后), was an empress of the

* Yuchi Yichen (尉遲義臣, died 617), a prominent general of Sui Dynasty * Yuwen Shu (宇文述, died 616), a paramount general of

* Yuwen Huaji (宇文化及, 569–619), a paramount general of

Yuwen Zhiji Yuwen Zhiji (died 619) was a military officer of the Sui dynasty. He was the son of Yuwen Shu, the Duke of Xu. He was the younger brother of Yuwen Huaji and older brother of Yuwen Huiji (宇文惠及). He had another younger half-brother Yuwen S ...

(宇文智及, 572–619), a general of

Tang Dynasty

* Empress Zhangsun (長孫皇后, 601–636), was an empress of Tang dynasty. She was the wife of Emperor Taizong * Zhangsun Wuji (長孫無忌, died 659), a paramount official who served both as general and

chancellor Chancellor ( la, cancellarius) is a title of various official positions in the governments of many nations. The original chancellors were the of Roman courts of justice—ushers, who sat at the or lattice work screens of a basilica or law cou ...

in the early Tang dynasty *

Yuchi Jingde Yuchi Gong (尉遲恭) or Yuchi Rong (尉遲融) (585 – 25 December 658), courtesy name Jingde (敬德), also known by his posthumous name Duke Zhongwu of E, was a prominent general who lived in the early Tang dynasty. Yuchi Jingde and another ...

(尉遲敬德, 585–658), a famous general who lived in the early Tang dynasty, Yuchi Jingde and another general Qin Shubao are worshipped as door gods in Chinese folk religion *

Qutu Tong Qutu Tong (557 - 628), titled Duke of Jiang, Xianbei name Tandouba (坦豆拔), was a general in the Sui and Tang dynasties of China. He was listed as one of 24 founding officials of Tang Dynasty honored on the Lingyan Pavilion due to his contrib ...

(屈突通, 557–628), a general in Sui and

Tang Tang or TANG most often refers to: * Tang dynasty * Tang (drink mix) Tang or TANG may also refer to: Chinese states and dynasties * Jin (Chinese state) (11th century – 376 BC), a state during the Spring and Autumn period, called Tang (唐) b ...

dynasties of China. He was listed as one of 24 founding officials of Tang Dynasty honored on the

Lingyan Pavilion Lingyan Pavilion () was a small tower beside Sanqing Hall () in the southwest of Taiji Palace (), Chang'an, the capital of the Tang dynasty. Its location in modern China is roughly in the north of Xi'an, Shaanxi. The original 24 On 23 March 643, d ...

due to his contributions in wars during the transitional period from Sui to Tang *

Zhangsun Shunde Zhangsun Shunde (), titled Duke of Pi, was a general and officer in early Tang Dynasty. He is one of 24 honored founding officials of Tang Dynasty at Lingyan Pavilion, and also a distant relative to Zhangsun Wuji and Empress Zhangsun. They share ...

(長孫顺德, ?–?), a general in the early Tang dynasty * Yuwen Shiji (宇文士及, died 642), an official who served both as general and

in the early Tang dynasty * Yu Zhining (于志寧, 588–665), a chancellor of Tang dynasty, during the reigns of Emperor Taizong and Emperor Gaozong *

Dou Dexuan Dou Dexuan (; 598 – September 11, 666), formally Baron Gong of Julu (鉅鹿恭男), was an official of the Chinese Tang dynasty, serving as chancellor during the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang. Background Dou Dexuan was born in 598, during ...

(竇德玄, 598–666), a chancellor of Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Gaozong * Yuwen Jie (宇文節, ?–?), a chancellor of Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Gaozong *

Lou Shide Lou Shide (; 630–699), courtesy name Zongren (宗仁), formally Viscount Zhen of Qiao (譙貞子), was a Chinese military general and politician of the Chinese Tang Dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou Dynasty, twice serving as chancellor during Wu ...

(婁師德, 630–699), a scholar-general of Tang Dynasty, during the reign of Wu Zetian *

Doulu Qinwang Doulu Qinwang () (630?Doulu's biography in the '' Old Book of Tang'' indicated that he died "more than 79 years old," but his biography in the '' New Book of Tang'' indicated that he died at age 79. Compare ''Old Book of Tang'', vol. 90 with ''N ...

(豆盧欽望, 624–709), a chancellor of Tang Dynasty, during the reign of Wu Zetian *

Dou Huaizhen Dou Huaizhen (; died July 29, 713), known by his courtesy name Dou Congyi (竇從一) during the second reign of Emperor Zhongzong (r. 705–710), posthumously renamed Du Huaizhen (毒懷貞), was an official of the Chinese Tang dynasty and Wu Ze ...

(竇懷貞, died 713), a chancellor of Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong * Yuwen Rong (宇文融, died 731), a chancellor of Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong *

Yuan Qianyao Yuan Qianyao (源乾曜) (died December 22, 731), formally the Duke of Anyang (安陽公), was a Chinese politician during the Tang Dynasty, twice serving as chancellor during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong. Background Yuan Qianyao was from Xiang P ...

(源乾曜, died 731), a chancellor of Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong * Yu Di (于頔, died 818), a general and official of Tang dynasty * Tutu Chengcui (吐突承璀, died 820), a paramount eunuch official of the middle Tang dynasty * Yuan Zhen (元稹, 779–831), a poet and politician of the middle Tang dynasty *

Yu Cong Yu Cong (于琮) (died 881), courtesy name Liyong (禮用), was an official of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reign of his brother-in-law Emperor Yizong. After the agrarian rebel Huang Chao captured the imp ...

(于琮, died 881), a chancellor of late Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Yizong *

Doulu Zhuan Doulu Zhuan (豆盧瑑) (died January 24, 881), courtesy name Xizhen (希真), was an official of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reign of Emperor Xizong. When the agrarian rebel Huang Chao captured the Tang ...

(豆盧瑑, died 881), a chancellor of late Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Xizong

Modern descendants

Most Xianbei clans adopted Chinese family names during Northern Wei Dynasty. In particular, many were sinicized under

. The Northern Wei's Eight Noble Xianbei surnames 八大贵族 were the Buliugu 步六孤, Helai 賀賴, Dugu 獨孤, Helou 賀樓, Huniu 忽忸, Qiumu 丘穆, Gexi 紇奚, and Yuchi 尉遲. The " Monguor" (Tu) people in modern China may have descended from the Xianbei who were led by Tuyuhun Khan to migrate westward and establish the Tuyuhun Kingdom (284–670) in the third century and Western Xia (1038–1227) through the thirteenth century. Today they are primarily distributed in Qinghai and Gansu Province, and speak a Mongolic language. The Xibe or "Xibo" people also believe they are descendants of the Xianbei, with considerable controversies that have attributed their origins to the Jurchens, the Elunchun, and the Xianbei. Xianbei descendants among the Korean population carry surnames such as Mo 모 (shortened from

), Seok Sŏk Sek 석 (shortened from Wushilan 烏石蘭, Won Wŏn 원 (the adopted Chinese surname of the Tuoba), Dokgo 독고 (from Dugu).

References

Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * *

External links

鮮卑語言 The Xianbei language
(Chinese Traditional Big5 code page) via Internet Archive {{Authority control History of Mongolia History of Manchuria Ancient peoples of China Inner Asia Agglutinative languages Unclassified languages of Asia Donghu people