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A votive offering or votive deposit is one or more objects displayed or deposited, without the intention of recovery or use, in a sacred place for religious purposes. Such items are a feature of modern and ancient societies and are generally made in order to gain favor with
supernatural Supernatural refers to phenomena or entities that are beyond the laws of nature. The term is derived from Medieval Latin , from Latin (above, beyond, or outside of) + (nature) Though the corollary term "nature", has had multiple meanings si ...
forces. While some offerings were apparently made in anticipation of the achievement of a particular wish, in Western cultures from which documentary evidence survives it was more typical to wait until the wish has been fulfilled before making the offering, for which the more specific term ex-voto may be used. Other offerings were very likely regarded just as gifts to the deity, not linked to any particular need. In Buddhism, votive offering such as construction of
stupa A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as ''śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation. In Buddhism, circumamb ...
s was a prevalent practice in Ancient India, an example of which can be observed in the ruins of the ancient
Vikramshila University Vikramashila (Sanskrit: विक्रमशिला, IAST: , Bengali:- বিক্রমশিলা, Romanisation:- Bikrômôśilā ) was one of the three most important Buddhist monasteries in India during the Pala Empire, along with N ...
and other contemporary structures. Votive offerings have been described in historical Roman era and Greek sources, although similar acts continue into the present day, for example in traditional Catholic culture and, arguably, in the modern-day practice of tossing coins into a wishing well or fountain. The modern construction practice called topping out can be considered an example of a votive practice that has very ancient roots. In archaeology, votive deposits differ from
hoard A hoard or "wealth deposit" is an archaeological term for a collection of valuable objects or artifacts, sometimes purposely buried in the ground, in which case it is sometimes also known as a cache. This would usually be with the intention of ...
s in that although they may contain similar items, votive deposits were not intended for later recovery.


Ancient offerings

In Europe, votive deposits are known from as early as the Neolithic, with polished axe
hoard A hoard or "wealth deposit" is an archaeological term for a collection of valuable objects or artifacts, sometimes purposely buried in the ground, in which case it is sometimes also known as a cache. This would usually be with the intention of ...
s, reaching a peak in the late Bronze Age. High status
artifact Artifact, or artefact, may refer to: Science and technology * Artifact (error), misleading or confusing alteration in data or observation, commonly in experimental science, resulting from flaws in technique or equipment ** Compression artifact, a ...
s such as armor and weaponry (mostly
shield A shield is a piece of personal armour held in the hand, which may or may not be strapped to the wrist or forearm. Shields are used to intercept specific attacks, whether from close-ranged weaponry or projectiles such as arrows, by means of a ...
s,
sword A sword is an edged, bladed weapon intended for manual cutting or thrusting. Its blade, longer than a knife or dagger, is attached to a hilt and can be straight or curved. A thrusting sword tends to have a straighter blade with a pointed ti ...
s, spears and arrows), fertility and
cult In modern English, ''cult'' is usually a pejorative term for a social group that is defined by its unusual religious, spiritual, or philosophical beliefs and rituals, or its common interest in a particular personality, object, or goal. This ...
symbols, coins, various treasures and animal statuettes (often dogs, oxen and in later periods horses) were common offerings in antiquity. The votive offerings were sacrificed and buried or more commonly cast into bodies of water or peat
bog A bog or bogland is a wetland that accumulates peat as a deposit of dead plant materials often mosses, typically sphagnum moss. It is one of the four main types of wetlands. Other names for bogs include mire, mosses, quagmire, and muskeg; a ...
s, whence they could not possibly have been recovered. In certain cases entire ships have been sacrificed, as in the Danish bog Nydam Mose. Often all the objects in a ritual hoard are broken, possibly 'killing' the objects to put them even further beyond utilitarian use before deposition. The purposeful discarding of valuable items such as swords and spearheads is thought to have had ritual overtones. The items have since been discovered in rivers, lakes and present or former wetlands by construction workers, peat diggers, metal-detectorists, members of the public and archaeologists. A saying by Diogenes of Sinope as quoted by
Diogenes Laërtius Diogenes Laërtius ( ; grc-gre, Διογένης Λαέρτιος, ; ) was a biographer of the Ancient Greece, Greek philosophers. Nothing is definitively known about his life, but his surviving ''Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers'' is a ...
, indicates the high level of votive offering in Ancient Greece: The Treasuries at Olympia and
Delphi Delphi (; ), in legend previously called Pytho (Πυθώ), in ancient times was a sacred precinct that served as the seat of Pythia, the major oracle who was consulted about important decisions throughout the ancient classical world. The oracle ...
(including the
Athenian Treasury The Athenian Treasury (Greek: Θησαυρός των Αθηναίων) at Delphi was constructed by the Athenians to house dedications and votive offerings made by their city and citizens to the sanctuary of Apollo. The entire treasury including ...
and Siphnian Treasury) were buildings by the various Greek city-states to hold their own votive offerings in money and precious metal; the sites also contained large quantities of votive sculptures, although these were clearly intended to glorify each city in view of its rivals as well as to give thanks to the gods. Votive offerings were also used as atonement for sins committed against a god or goddess. The offerings were in certain cases created by a separate person due to the gifter having an injury or other circumstances, which was allowed. Some Greek offerings, such as bronze tripods at
Delphi Delphi (; ), in legend previously called Pytho (Πυθώ), in ancient times was a sacred precinct that served as the seat of Pythia, the major oracle who was consulted about important decisions throughout the ancient classical world. The oracle ...
, were apparently displayed for a period and then buried in groups. At
Olympia The name Olympia may refer to: Arts and entertainment Film * ''Olympia'' (1938 film), by Leni Riefenstahl, documenting the Berlin-hosted Olympic Games * ''Olympia'' (1998 film), about a Mexican soap opera star who pursues a career as an athlet ...
many small figurines, mostly of animals, were thrown onto the huge pile of ashes from
animal sacrifice Animal sacrifice is the ritual killing and offering of one or more animals, usually as part of a religious ritual or to appease or maintain favour with a deity. Animal sacrifices were common throughout Europe and the Ancient Near East until the spr ...
s at the altar outside the
Temple of Zeus Temple of Zeus may refer to: Greece * Temple of Zeus, Olympia * Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens * Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus, Athens Italy * Temple of Olympian Zeus, Agrigento * Temple G, Selinunte Selinunte (; grc, Σελῑνοῦς, Sel ...
. Much of our knowledge of
ancient Greek art Ancient Greek art stands out among that of other ancient cultures for its development of naturalistic but idealized depictions of the human body, in which largely nude male figures were generally the focus of innovation. The rate of stylistic d ...
in base metal comes from these and other excavated deposits of offerings. Arms and armour, especially helmets, were also given after a victory. In Mesoamerica, votive deposits have been recovered from the Olmec site of
El Manati EL, El or el may refer to: Religion * El (deity), a Semitic word for "God" People * EL (rapper) (born 1983), stage name of Elorm Adablah, a Ghanaian rapper and sound engineer * El DeBarge, music artist * El Franco Lee (1949–2016), American ...
(dated to 1600–1200 BC) and the Maya
Sacred Cenote The Sacred Cenote ( es, cenote sagrado, , "sacred well"; alternatively known as the "Well of Sacrifice") is a water-filled sinkhole in limestone at the pre-Columbian Maya archaeological site of Chichen Itza, in the northern Yucatán Peninsula. It ...
at
Chichen Itza Chichen Itza , es, Chichén Itzá , often with the emphasis reversed in English to ; from yua, Chiʼchʼèen Ìitshaʼ () "at the mouth of the well of the Itza people" was a large pre-Columbian city built by the Maya people of the Terminal ...
(850–1550 AD). Archaeologists have recovered some votive offerings in ancient Sparta from the 5th century BC. These votive offerings give evidence to the presence of literacy in Spartan culture. Placing greater emphasis on inscriptions which seem to have been made by the individual making the offering, archaeologists can interpret that, of the early dedicators, there were very few in number and that most, if not all, were from the upper classes. One piece of pottery was found that may have had measurement signs on it. This would indicate an everyday literacy among the Spartans if this is true. Unfortunately, scholars have not recovered any other piece of pottery with a similar inscription to support that single find. The 13 Ancient Votive Stones of Pesaro were unearthed in 1737 on a local
Pesaro Pesaro () is a city and ''comune'' in the Italian region of Marche, capital of the Province of Pesaro e Urbino, on the Adriatic Sea. According to the 2011 census, its population was 95,011, making it the second most populous city in the Marche, ...
farm in the Province of Pesaro e Urbino, Italy, and date to pre-Etruscan times. They are inscribed with the names of various Roman gods such as APOLLO, MAT RMATVTA, SALVS,
FIDE The International Chess Federation or World Chess Federation, commonly referred to by its French acronym FIDE ( Fédération Internationale des Échecs), is an international organization based in Switzerland that connects the various national c ...
, and IVNONII (
Juno Juno commonly refers to: *Juno (mythology), the Roman goddess of marriage and queen of the gods *Juno (film), ''Juno'' (film), 2007 Juno may also refer to: Arts, entertainment and media Fictional characters *Juno, in the film ''Jenny, Juno'' *Ju ...
).


Curse tablets

A curse tablet or defixio is a small sheet of tin or lead on which a message wishing misfortune upon someone else was inscribed. Usually found rolled up and deliberately deposited, there are five main reasons for dedicating a curse tablet: 1 – Litigation, 2 – Competition, 3 – Trade, 4 – Erotic Ambition, 5 – Theft Of those in Britain the vast majority are of type 5. The two largest concentrations are from the sacred springs at Aquae Sulis, where 130 examples are recorded, and at Uley, where over 140 examples are visible. The use of the curse-tablet in seeking restoration of stolen property is strong evidence of invoking divine power through a non-traditional religious ceremony, often involving some form of water-deposition. The usual form of divine invocation was through prayer, sacrifice and altar dedication so access to this information provides useful insights into Roman provincial culture.


Threats

Many unrecovered ancient votive offerings are threatened in today's world, especially those submerged in wetlands or other bodies of water. Wetlands and other aquatic sites often protect and preserve materials for thousands of years, because of their natural occurring anaerobic environments. However, many seabeds have been disturbed, rivers and streams have been stretched out or re-routed in the landscape, and many wetlands have been fully or partially drained or landfilled for various reasons in the last 100–200 years. Therefore, many remaining objects are in danger of oxidation and eventual rapid deterioration. The leading causes of the disturbances are
dredging Dredging is the excavation of material from a water environment. Possible reasons for dredging include improving existing water features; reshaping land and water features to alter drainage, navigability, and commercial use; constructing da ...
, bottom trawling fishing boats, agricultural activities, peat cutting, groundwater extraction by water wells and establishments of larger infrastructural facilities like expressways, water treatment plants, and in some instances, large-scale nature re-establishment projects.


Judaism

The Torah makes provision for "free-will offerings" which may be made by any individual. These are different from votive offerings which are linked to a vow. cf Leviticus 22.23 where the Hebrew root letters for a freewill offering are נדב (nadab), but for a votive offering are נדר (nadar). In this verse a clear differentiation is made between the two. See Strongs numbers H5068 where the Hitpael is to volunteer, or make a free will offering and H5087 where the Qal is to vow a vow. When
Solomon Solomon (; , ),, ; ar, سُلَيْمَان, ', , ; el, Σολομών, ; la, Salomon also called Jedidiah (Hebrew language, Hebrew: , Modern Hebrew, Modern: , Tiberian Hebrew, Tiberian: ''Yăḏīḏăyāh'', "beloved of Yahweh, Yah"), ...
built the first temple he provided a number of furnishings above and beyond what had been commanded to
Moses Moses hbo, מֹשֶׁה, Mōše; also known as Moshe or Moshe Rabbeinu (Mishnaic Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּינוּ, ); syr, ܡܘܫܐ, Mūše; ar, موسى, Mūsā; grc, Mωϋσῆς, Mōÿsēs () is considered the most important pro ...
on Mount Sinai (see Temple of Solomon). Oral tradition in Rabbinic Judaism also speaks of a huge golden grape vine
artifact Artifact, or artefact, may refer to: Science and technology * Artifact (error), misleading or confusing alteration in data or observation, commonly in experimental science, resulting from flaws in technique or equipment ** Compression artifact, a ...
outside of the holy site of the Temple in Jerusalem before its destruction by the Romans.


Christianity

The tradition of votive offerings has been carried into Christianity in both the East and the West. The particular type of the
votive crown A votive crown is a votive offering in the form of a crown, normally in precious metals and often adorned with jewels. Especially in the Early Middle Ages, they are of a special form, designed to be suspended by chains at an altar, shrine or imag ...
, originally Byzantine, was also adopted in the West.


Eastern Christianity

According to Sacred Tradition, after
Constantine the Great Constantine I ( , ; la, Flavius Valerius Constantinus, ; ; 27 February 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337, the first one to Constantine the Great and Christianity, convert to Christiani ...
's conversion and subsequent victory at the
Battle of the Milvian Bridge The Battle of the Milvian Bridge took place between the Roman Emperors Constantine I and Maxentius on 28 October 312. It takes its name from the Milvian Bridge, an important route over the Tiber. Constantine won the battle and started on the pa ...
, he donated one of the crosses he carried in battle to the Church. This cross is reputed to be preserved on
Mount Athos Mount Athos (; el, Ἄθως, ) is a mountain in the distal part of the eponymous Athos peninsula and site of an important centre of Eastern Orthodox monasticism in northeastern Greece. The mountain along with the respective part of the penins ...
. One of the most famous
Orthodox Orthodox, Orthodoxy, or Orthodoxism may refer to: Religion * Orthodoxy, adherence to accepted norms, more specifically adherence to creeds, especially within Christianity and Judaism, but also less commonly in non-Abrahamic religions like Neo-pag ...
votive offerings is that by
Saint In religious belief, a saint is a person who is recognized as having an exceptional degree of Q-D-Š, holiness, likeness, or closeness to God. However, the use of the term ''saint'' depends on the context and Christian denomination, denominat ...
John of Damascus John of Damascus ( ar, يوحنا الدمشقي, Yūḥanna ad-Dimashqī; gr, Ἰωάννης ὁ Δαμασκηνός, Ioánnēs ho Damaskēnós, ; la, Ioannes Damascenus) or John Damascene was a Christian monk, priest, hymnographer, and a ...
. According to tradition, while he was serving as Vizier to Caliph
Al-Walid I Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan ( ar, الوليد بن عبد الملك بن مروان, al-Walīd ibn ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān; ), commonly known as al-Walid I ( ar, الوليد الأول), was the sixth Umayyad Caliphate, Umayyad ca ...
, he was falsely accused of treachery and his hand was cut off. Upon praying in front of an icon of the
Theotokos ''Theotokos'' (Greek: ) is a title of Mary, mother of Jesus, used especially in Eastern Christianity. The usual Latin translations are ''Dei Genitrix'' or ''Deipara'' (approximately "parent (fem.) of God"). Familiar English translations are " ...
his hand was miraculously restored. In thanksgiving, he had a silver replica of his hand fashioned and attached it to the icon (''see image at right''). This icon, now called " Trojeručica" (The Three-handed) is preserved at Hilandar Monastery on
Mount Athos Mount Athos (; el, Ἄθως, ) is a mountain in the distal part of the eponymous Athos peninsula and site of an important centre of Eastern Orthodox monasticism in northeastern Greece. The mountain along with the respective part of the penins ...
. Orthodox Christians continue to make votive offerings to this day, often in the form of '' tamata'', metal plaques symbolizing the subject of their prayers. Other offerings include, candles, prosphora, wine, oil, or incense. In addition, many will leave something of personal value, such as jewelry, a pectoral cross or
military decoration Military awards and decorations are distinctions given as a mark of honor for military heroism, meritorious or outstanding service or achievement. DoD Manual 1348.33, 2010, Vol. 3 A decoration is often a medal consisting of a ribbon and a medal ...
as a sign of devotion.


Western Christianity


Roman Catholicism

In the Roman Catholic Church, offerings were made either to fulfill a
vow A vow ( Lat. ''votum'', vow, promise; see vote) is a promise or oath. A vow is used as a promise, a promise solemn rather than casual. Marriage vows Marriage vows are binding promises each partner in a couple makes to the other during a wedd ...
made to God for deliverance, or a thing left to a Church in gratitude for some favor that was granted. Today, votives can be lit votive candles, offered flowers, statues, vestments, and, monetary donations. Traditional special forms of votive offering
ex voto An ex-voto is a votive offering to a saint or to a divinity; the term is usually restricted to Christian examples. It is given in fulfillment of a vow (hence the Latin term, short for ''ex voto suscepto'', "from the vow made") or in gratitude o ...
s include small silver models of the afflicted part of the body, inscribed stone tablets, folk art paintings of an incident of danger such as the
votive paintings of Mexico Votive paintings in Mexico go by several names in Spanish such as “ex voto,” “ retablo” or “lámina,” which refer to their purpose, place often found, or material from which they are traditionally made respectively. The painting of ...
, and model ships donated by sailors who have survived a dangerous voyage. In the Spanish-speaking world a
milagro Milagro means "miracle" in Spanish language, Spanish. Milagro may refer to: Places: *Milagro, Ecuador, a city *Milagro Canton, Ecuador, of which the city is the canton seat *Milagro River, Ecuador *Milagro, Navarre, Spain, a town and municipality ...
is a small metal offering, equivalent to the Orthodox tamata. Many Catholic churches still have areas where such offerings are displayed. Notre-Dame-des-Victoires, Paris, displays over 10,000, with a military specialization, and including many military decorations given by their recipients. The Votive Church, Vienna is a late example of many churches which are themselves votive offerings, in this case built to give thanks for a narrow escape from assassination by Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria in 1853. Medieval examples include: * Several
votive crown A votive crown is a votive offering in the form of a crown, normally in precious metals and often adorned with jewels. Especially in the Early Middle Ages, they are of a special form, designed to be suspended by chains at an altar, shrine or imag ...
s, such as those in the Treasure of Guarrazar * Probably the Iron Crown of Lombardy * Henry III of England had a golden statue of his queen made and placed on the shrine of St. Edward at Westminster * A falcon in wax at the shrine of
Saint Wulstan Wulfstan ( – 20 January 1095) was Bishop of Worcester from 1062 to 1095. He was the last surviving pre-Conquest bishop. Wulfstan is a saint in the Western Christian churches. Denomination His denomination as Wulfstan II is to indicate tha ...
by
Edward I Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1272 to 1307. Concurrently, he ruled the duchies of Aquitaine and Gascony as a vassal o ...
* A diamond and a ruby, adorning the tomb of
St. Thomas Becket Thomas Becket (), also known as Saint Thomas of Canterbury, Thomas of London and later Thomas à Becket (21 December 1119 or 1120 – 29 December 1170), was an English nobleman who served as Lord Chancellor from 1155 to 1162, and then ...
at Canterbury * Numerous crutches, left in the grotto at Lourdes * The song "O Wilhelme, pastor bone" composed by
John Taverner John Taverner ( – 18 October 1545) was an English composer and organist, regarded as one of the most important English composers of his era. He is best-known for ''Missa Gloria tibi Trinitas'' and ''The Western Wynde Mass'', and ''Missa Coro ...
is a Votive Antiphon dedicated to
Cardinal Wolsey Thomas Wolsey ( – 29 November 1530) was an English statesman and Catholic bishop. When Henry VIII became King of England in 1509, Wolsey became the king's almoner. Wolsey's affairs prospered and by 1514 he had become the controlling figur ...
Especially in the Latin world, there is a tradition of votive paintings, typically depicting a dangerous incident which the offeror survived. The
votive paintings of Mexico Votive paintings in Mexico go by several names in Spanish such as “ex voto,” “ retablo” or “lámina,” which refer to their purpose, place often found, or material from which they are traditionally made respectively. The painting of ...
are paralleled in other countries. In Italy, where more than 15,000 ex-voto paintings are thought to survive from before 1600, these began to appear in the 1490s, probably modelled on the small predella panels below
altarpiece An altarpiece is an artwork such as a painting, sculpture or relief representing a religious subject made for placing at the back of or behind the altar of a Christian church. Though most commonly used for a single work of art such as a painting o ...
s. These are a form of folk art, typically painted on tin plates salvaged from packaging. Other examples may be large and grand paintings, such as Titian's ''
Jacopo Pesaro being presented by Pope Alexander VI to Saint Peter ''Jacopo Pesaro being presented by Pope Alexander VI to Saint Peter'' is an oil painting on canvas by Titian, now in the Royal Museum of Fine Arts in Antwerp. It was commissioned by Bishop Jacopo Pesaro (b. 1460) as an ex-voto for the Venet ...
'', given in thanks for a naval victory.


Lutheranism

The practice of votive offerings in
Lutheran Church Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism, identifying primarily with the theology of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German monk and reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched th ...
es, such as the Church of Sweden, continued after the Reformation.


Buddhism

In Buddhism, votive offerings usually take the form of a small clay or terracotta tablet bearing Buddhist images, usually Buddharupa, and contain text. These tablets are left in sacred Buddhist sites by devotees as an offering during their pilgrimage. An example are Buddhist Tibetan votive tablets made for a pilgrimage to Bodhgaya. Votive tablets served both as meritorious offerings and as souvenirs. Most were made of clay, while a more rare and expensive tablet was made from metal. Historically, votive tablets can be found in Asian Buddhist lands, from Japan, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, China, Indonesia and Malaysia. In Thailand, votive tablets are known as Thai Buddha amulets, a kind of Thai Buddhist blessed item used to raise temple funds by producing the amulets.


Jainism

Ayagapata is a type of votive slab associated with worship in Jainism. Numerous such stone tablets were discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like Kankali Tila near Mathura in India. Some of them date back to the 1st century. These slabs are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as the ''
stupa A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as ''śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation. In Buddhism, circumamb ...
'', '' dharmacakra'' and '' triratna''. A large number of ''ayagapata'' (tablet of homage) votive tablets for offerings and the worship of ''tirthankara'' were found at Mathura. These stone tablets bear a resemblance to the earlier ''Shilapatas'', stone tablets that were placed under trees to worship '' Yakshas''. However, this was done by indigenous folk communities before Jainism originated, suggesting that both have commonalities in rituals. A scholar on Jain art wrote about an ''Ayagapata'' discovered around Kankali Tila: "The technical name of such a tablet was ''Ayagapata'' meaning homage panel."


See also

* Anathema * Devotional articles *
Fire worship Worship or deification of fire (also pyrodulia, pyrolatry or pyrolatria) is known from various religions. Fire has been an important part of human culture since the Lower Paleolithic. Religious or animist notions connected to fire are assumed ...
* Grave goods *
Pinax In the modern study of the culture of ancient Greece and Magna Graecia, a ''pinax'' (πίναξ) (plural ''pinakes'' - πίνακες), meaning "board", is a votive tablet of painted wood, or terracotta, marble or bronze relief that served as a v ...
*
Ralaghan Man The Ralaghan idol, also known as the "Ralaghan figure", is a late Bronze Age anthropomorphic, carved wooden figure found in a bog in the townland of Ralaghan, County Cavan, Ireland. It is held by the National Museum of Ireland. A sample of wood f ...
*
Senjafuda are votive slips, stickers or placards posted on the gates or buildings of Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples in Japan. Unlike , which bear the name of the shrine, bear the name of the worshipper, and can be purchased pre-printed with com ...
* Sin offering * Votive candle *
Votive site Votive sites are sites where animal sacrifice, in the form of bones deposited in a split in a block of stone or beneath a cairn, are made. The sites strongly resemble graves or tombs; however, no human bones are found. Such finds are made in Hal ...


Notes


References

* Alan Dundes. ''The Walled-up Wife''. University of Wisconsin Press (1996). *
John V. Robinson John V. Robinson (born 1960) is an American writer and photojournalist who specializes in photographing heavy construction work with a focus on bridge construction and the men and women who do the work. Robinson goes onto construction sites and d ...
(2001)
"The 'topping out' traditions of the high-steel ironworkers"
''Western Folklore'', Fall 2001. * Weinryb, Ittai (ed.). ''Ex Voto: Votive Giving Across Cultures'' (New York, 2016) * Weinryb, Ittai (ed.), ''Agents of Faith: Votive Giving in Time and Place'' (New York, 2018) * Mikalson, Jon (2009). ''Ancient Greek Religion''. Chicester: Wiley-Blackwell.pp. 1–31.


External links




The Santa Heduwiges Retablo in my family (Nuevo Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, Mexico)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Votive Offering Archaeological artefact types