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The tamarins are
squirrel Squirrels are members of the family Sciuridae, a family that includes small or medium-size rodents. The squirrel family includes tree squirrels, ground squirrels (including chipmunks and prairie dogs, among others), and flying squirrels. Squ ...
-sized New World monkeys from the family Callitrichidae in the genus ''Saguinus''. They are the first offshoot in the Callitrichidae tree, and therefore are the sister group of a
clade A clade (), also known as a monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that are monophyletic – that is, composed of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants – on a phylogenetic tree. Rather than the English term, ...
formed by the lion tamarins, Goeldi's monkeys and marmosets.


Taxonomy and evolutionary history

Hershkovitz (1977) recognised ten species in the genus ''Saguinus'', further divided into 33 morphotypes based on facial pelage. A later classification into two clades was based on variations in dental measurements. A taxonomic review (Rylands et al., 2016) showed the tamarins are a sister group to all other callitrichids, branching off 15–13 million years ago. Within this clade, six species groups are historically recognised, ''nigricollis'', ''mystax'', ''midas'', ''inustus'', ''bicolor'' and ''oedipus'', five of which were shown to be valid with ''Sanguinus inustus'' placed within the ''midas'' group. The review noted that the smaller-bodied ''nigricollis'' group began diverging 11–8 million years ago, leading the authors to move them to a separate genus, '' Leontocebus'' (saddle-back tamarins). While a 2018 study proposed that ''Leontocebus'' does not have sufficient enough divergence from ''Saguinus'' to be in its own genus, and thus should be reclassified it as a
subgenus In biology, a subgenus (plural: subgenera) is a taxonomic rank directly below genus. In the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, a subgeneric name can be used independently or included in a species name, in parentheses, placed between t ...
of ''Saguinus'', this proposal has since found significant traction. The same study found the ''mystax'' group of tamarins to be distinct enough to be classified in the subgenus ''Tamarinus.'' As of 2021 this proposal has not been universally accepted by primatologists.


Taxonomic classification

Following the taxonomic review of tamarins by Rylands et al. (2016) and Garbino & Martins-Junior (2018), there are 22 species in the genus ''Saguinus'' with 19 subspecies. *Genus ''Saguinus'' **Subgenus ''Saguinus''
Hoffmannsegg Johann Centurius Hoffmann Graf von Hoffmannsegg (23 August 1766 – 13 December 1849) was a German botanist, entomologist and ornithologist. Hoffmannsegg was born at Rammenau and studied at Leipzig and Göttingen. He travelled through Europe a ...
, 1807
***''S. midas'' group ****
Golden-handed tamarin The golden-handed tamarin (''Saguinus midas''), also known as the red-handed tamarin or Midas tamarin, is a New World monkey belonging to the family Callitrichidae. Distribution and habitat This species is native to wooded areas north of the Am ...
, midas tamarin, or red-handed tamarin, '' Saguinus midas'' **** Western black-handed tamarin or black tamarin, ''
Saguinus niger The black tamarin (''Saguinus niger'') or western black-handed tamarin, is a species of tamarin endemic to Brazil. Taxonomy Based on mitochondrial DNA analysis, black tamarins were found to be more closely related to populations on the same sid ...
'' ****
Eastern black-handed tamarin The eastern black-handed tamarin (''Saguinus ursulus'') is a species of tamarin endemic to Brazil. Taxonomy ''Saguinus ursulus'' was described in 1807 by the German zoologist Johann Centurius Hoffmannsegg. It was later synonymised, first with ' ...
, ''
Saguinus ursulus The eastern black-handed tamarin (''Saguinus ursulus'') is a species of tamarin endemic to Brazil. Taxonomy ''Saguinus ursulus'' was described in 1807 by the German zoologist Johann Centurius Hoffmannsegg. It was later synonymised, first with ' ...
'' *** ''S. bicolor'' group **** Pied tamarin, ''
Saguinus bicolor The pied tamarin (''Saguinus bicolor''), sometimes referred to as the Brazilian bare-faced tamarin, is a Critically Endangered primate species found in a restricted area of the Brazilian Amazon Rainforest. It was named the mascot of Manaus, Braz ...
'' ****
Martins's tamarin Martins's tamarin (''Saguinus martinsi'') or Martin's ochraceous bare-face tamarin, is a species of tamarin endemic to Brazil. Taxonomy Martin's tamarin is a monkey in the genus ''Saguinus''. It has two subspecies: '' S. m. martinsi'' and '' ...
, ''
Saguinus martinsi Martins's tamarin (''Saguinus martinsi'') or Martin's ochraceous bare-face tamarin, is a species of tamarin endemic to Brazil. Taxonomy Martin's tamarin is a monkey in the genus ''Saguinus''. It has two subspecies: '' S. m. martinsi'' and '' ...
'' ***** Martins's bare-face tamarin, ''Saguinus martinsi martinsi'' ***** Ochraceus bare-face tamarin, ''Saguinus martinsi ochraceus'' *** ''S. oedipus'' group **** Cotton-top tamarin or Pinché tamarin, '' Saguinus oedipus'' **** Geoffroy's tamarin, '' Saguinus geoffroyi'' ****
White-footed tamarin The white-footed tamarin (''Saguinus leucopus'') is a tamarin species endemic to Colombia. It is a silvery brown colour with pale streaks and russet underparts, and is very similar in appearance to the cotton-top tamarin, from which it is separat ...
, '' Saguinus leucopus'' **Subgenus ''Tamarinus'' Trouessart, 1904 *** Moustached tamarin, ''
Saguinus mystax The moustached tamarin (''Saguinus mystax'') is a New World monkey and a species of tamarin. The moustached tamarin is named for the lack of coloring in the facial hair surrounding their mouth, appearing similar to a moustache. As with all New Wo ...
'' **** Spix's moustached tamarin, ''Saguinus mystax mystax'' ****
Red-capped tamarin The red-capped tamarin (''Saguinus mystax pileatus'')'','' is subspecies of moustached tamarin from South America. They are found in Brazil, on the eastern margin of the Tefé and Coari rivers. Previously recognised as a separate species, ''Sagui ...
, ''Saguinus mystax pileatus'' **** White-rump moustached tamarin, ''Saguinus mystax pluto'' ***
White-lipped tamarin The white-lipped tamarin (''Saguinus labiatus''), also known as the red-bellied tamarin, is a tamarin which lives in the Amazon area of Brazil and Bolivia. The red belly of these New World monkeys is its most remarkable outward characteristic. ...
, ''
Saguinus labiatus The white-lipped tamarin (''Saguinus labiatus''), also known as the red-bellied tamarin, is a tamarin which lives in the Amazon area of Brazil and Bolivia. The red belly of these New World monkeys is its most remarkable outward characteristic. ...
'' **** Geoffroy's red-bellied tamarin, ''Saguinus labiatus labiatus'' **** Thomas's red-bellied tamarin, ''Saguinus labiatus labiatus'' **** Gray's red-bellied tamarin, ''Saguinus labiatus labiatus'' *** Emperor tamarin, ''
Saguinus imperator The emperor tamarin (''Saguinus imperator'') is a species of tamarin allegedly named for its resemblance to the German Empire, German List_of_German_monarchs#German_Empire,_1871–1918, emperor Wilhelm II, German Emperor, Wilhelm II. It lives in ...
'' **** Black-chinned emperor tamarin, ''Saguinus imperator imperator'' **** Bearded emperor tamarin, ''Saguinus imperator subgrisescens'' ***
Mottle-faced tamarin The mottle-faced tamarin (''Saguinus inustus'') is a species of tamarin from South America. It is found in Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South Am ...
, ''
Saguinus inustus The mottle-faced tamarin (''Saguinus inustus'') is a species of tamarin from South America. It is found in Brazil and Colombia. Interaction With Humans Mottle-faced tamarins are not hunted by locals, due to their "small size" and instead some ...
''


Description

Tamarin species vary considerably in appearance, ranging from nearly all black through mixtures of black, brown and white. Mustache-like facial hairs are typical for many species. Their body size ranges from (plus a tail). They weigh from . In
captivity Captivity, or being held captive, is a state wherein humans or other animals are confined to a particular space and prevented from leaving or moving freely. An example in humans is imprisonment. Prisoners of war are usually held in captivity by a ...
, red-bellied tamarins have been recorded living up to 20.5 years, while cotton-top tamarins can live up to 23 years old.


Distribution

Tamarins range from southern Central America through central South America, where they are found in northwestern
Colombia Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...
, the
Amazon basin The Amazon basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributaries. The Amazon drainage basin covers an area of about , or about 35.5 percent of the South American continent. It is located in the countries of Bolivi ...
, and the Guianas.


Behavior and reproduction

Tamarins are inhabitants of tropical rainforests and open forest areas. They are diurnal and arboreal, and run and jump quickly through the trees. Tamarins live together in groups of up to 40 members consisting of one or more families. More frequently, though, groups are composed of just three to nine members. Tamarins are
omnivore An omnivore () is an animal that has the ability to eat and survive on both plant and animal matter. Obtaining energy and nutrients from plant and animal matter, omnivores digest carbohydrates, protein, fat, and fiber, and metabolize the nutr ...
s, eating fruits and other plant parts as well as spiders, insects, small vertebrates and bird eggs.
Gestation Gestation is the period of development during the carrying of an embryo, and later fetus, inside viviparous animals (the embryo develops within the parent). It is typical for mammals, but also occurs for some non-mammals. Mammals during pregna ...
is typically 140 days, and births are normally twins. The adult males, subadults, and juveniles in the group assist with caring for the young, bringing them to their mother to nurse. After approximately one month the young begin to eat solid food, although they aren't fully weaned for another two to three months. They reach full maturity in their second year. Tamarins are almost exclusively polyandrous. Cottontop tamarins (''Saguinus oedipus'') breed cooperatively in the wild. Cronin, Kurian, and Snowdon tested eight cottontop tamarins in a series of cooperative pulling experiments. Two monkeys were put on opposite sides of a transparent apparatus containing food. Only if both monkeys pulled a handle on their side of the apparatus towards themselves at the same time would food drop down for them to obtain. The results showed that tamarins pulled the handles at a lower rate when alone with the apparatus than when in the presence of a partner. Cronin, Kurian, and Snowdon concluded from this that cottontop tamarins have a good understanding of cooperation. They suggest that cottontop tamarins have developed cooperative behaviour as a cognitive adaptation. In some locations, saddle-back tamarins (subgenus ''Leontocebus'') live
sympatrically In biology, two related species or populations are considered sympatric when they exist in the same geographic area and thus frequently encounter one another. An initially interbreeding population that splits into two or more distinct species s ...
with tamarins of the subgenus ''Sanguinus'', but the saddle-back tamarins typically occupy lower strata of the forest than do the ''Sanguinus'' species. Saddle-back tamarins have longer and narrower hands than ''Sanguinus'' species, possibly adaption to differing foraging behavior, as saddle-back tamarins are more likely to search for insects that are hidden in knotholes, crevices,
bromeliad The Bromeliaceae (the bromeliads) are a family of monocot flowering plants of about 80 genera and 3700 known species, native mainly to the tropical Americas, with several species found in the American subtropics and one in tropical west Africa, ...
tanks and leaf litter, while ''Sanguinus'' species are more likely to forage for insects that are exposed on surfaces such as leaves or branches. This differentiation in lifestyles was why both were formerly considered different genera.


Predators

While tamarins spend much of their day foraging, they must be on high alert for aerial and terrestrial predators. Due to their small size compared to other primates, they are an easy target for predatory birds, snakes, and mammals.


References


External links

*
Primate Info Net ''Saguinus'' Factsheets
{{Taxonbar, from=Q240034 Tamarins ^ ^