Cabbage field in Oshimizu-cho, Toyohashi city ac (1).jpg
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Cabbage, comprising several cultivars of '' Brassica oleracea'', is a leafy green, red (purple), or white (pale green)
biennial plant A biennial plant is a flowering plant that, generally in a temperate climate, takes two years to complete its biological life cycle. Life cycle In its first year, the biennal plant undergoes primary growth, during which its vegetative structures ...
grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the wild cabbage ( ''B. oleracea'' var. ''oleracea''), and belongs to the " cole crops" or brassicas, meaning it is closely related to broccoli and
cauliflower Cauliflower is one of several vegetables in the species ''Brassica oleracea'' in the genus ''Brassica'', which is in the Brassicaceae (or mustard) family. It is an annual plant that reproduces by seed. Typically, only the head is eaten – the ...
(var. ''botrytis'');
Brussels sprouts The Brussels sprout is a member of the Gemmifera cultivar group of cabbages (''Brassica oleracea''), grown for its edible buds. The leaf vegetables are typically 1.5–4.0 cm (0.6–1.6 in) in diameter and resemble miniature cabbages ...
(var. ''gemmifera''); and
Savoy cabbage Savoy cabbage (''Brassica oleracea'' var. ''sabauda'' L. or ''Brassica oleracea'' Savoy Cabbage Group) is a variety of the plant species ''Brassica oleracea''. Savoy cabbage is a winter vegetable and one of several cabbage varieties. It is named ...
(var. ''sabauda''). A cabbage generally weighs between . Smooth-leafed, firm-headed green cabbages are the most common, with smooth-leafed purple cabbages and crinkle-leafed savoy cabbages of both colours being rarer. Under conditions of long sunny days, such as those found at high northern latitudes in summer, cabbages can grow quite large. , the heaviest cabbage was . Cabbage heads are generally picked during the first year of the plant's life cycle, but plants intended for seed are allowed to grow a second year and must be kept separate from other cole crops to prevent cross-pollination. Cabbage is prone to several
nutrient deficiencies Malnutrition occurs when an organism gets too few or too many nutrients, resulting in health problems. Specifically, it is "a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of energy, protein and other nutrients" which adversely affects the body's tissues ...
, as well as to multiple
pests PESTS was an anonymous American activist group formed in 1986 to critique racism, tokenism, and exclusion in the art world. PESTS produced newsletters, posters, and other print material highlighting examples of discrimination in gallery represent ...
, and bacterial and fungal diseases. Cabbage was most likely domesticated somewhere in Europe in Ancient history before 1000 BC. Cabbage in the cuisine has been documented since
Antiquity Antiquity or Antiquities may refer to: Historical objects or periods Artifacts *Antiquities, objects or artifacts surviving from ancient cultures Eras Any period before the European Middle Ages (5th to 15th centuries) but still within the histo ...
.A brief historical sketch is in Toussaint-Samat, pp. 622ff. It was described as a table luxury in the Roman Empire. By the Middle Ages, cabbage had become a prominent part of
European cuisine European cuisine comprises the cuisines of Europe "European Cuisine."manuscript illumination An illuminated manuscript is a formally prepared document where the text is often supplemented with flourishes such as borders and miniature illustrations. Often used in the Roman Catholic Church for prayers, liturgical services and psalms, the ...
s. New variates were introduced from the Renaissance on, mostly by Germanic-speaking peoples.
Savoy cabbage Savoy cabbage (''Brassica oleracea'' var. ''sabauda'' L. or ''Brassica oleracea'' Savoy Cabbage Group) is a variety of the plant species ''Brassica oleracea''. Savoy cabbage is a winter vegetable and one of several cabbage varieties. It is named ...
was developed in the 16th century. By the 17th and 18th centuries, cabbage was popularised as
staple food A staple food, food staple, or simply a staple, is a food that is eaten often and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of a standard diet for a given person or group of people, supplying a large fraction of energy needs and ...
in central, northern, and eastern Europe.
Tannahill Tannahill may refer to: * Jordan Tannahill, Canadian playwright and filmmaker * Mary Tannahill, (1863-1951) American artist * Reay Tannahill, author of ''Food in History'' (1973) and other works * Robert Tannahill (1774 — 1810), Scottish poet * T ...
, pp. 289–291
It was also employed by European sailors to prevent scurvy during long ship voyages at sea. Starting in the Early Modern Era, cabbage was exported to the
Americas The Americas, which are sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North and South America. The Americas make up most of the land in Earth's Western Hemisphere and comprise the New World. Along with th ...
, Asia, and around the world. They can be prepared many different ways for eating; they can be pickled, fermented (for dishes such as sauerkraut), steamed,
stewed A stew is a combination of solid food ingredients that have been cooked in liquid and served in the resultant gravy. A stew needs to have raw ingredients added to the gravy. Ingredients in a stew can include any combination of vegetables and m ...
,
roasted Roasting is a cooking method that uses dry heat where hot air covers the food, cooking it evenly on all sides with temperatures of at least from an open flame, oven, or other heat source. Roasting can enhance the flavor through caramelization ...
, sautéed,
braised Braising (from the French word ''braiser'') is a combination-cooking method that uses both wet and dry heats: typically, the food is first browned at a high temperature, then simmered in a covered pot in cooking liquid (such as wine, broth, coco ...
, or eaten
raw Raw is an adjective usually describing: * Raw materials, basic materials from which products are manufactured or made * Raw food, uncooked food Raw or RAW may also refer to: Computing and electronics * .RAW, a proprietary mass spectrometry dat ...
. Raw cabbage is a rich source of vitamin K, vitamin C, and
dietary fiber Dietary fiber (in British English fibre) or roughage is the portion of plant-derived food that cannot be completely broken down by human digestive enzymes. Dietary fibers are diverse in chemical composition, and can be grouped generally by the ...
. World production of cabbage and other brassicas in 2020 was 71 million tonnes, led by
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
with 48% of the total.


Taxonomy and etymology

Cabbage (''Brassica oleracea'' or ''B. oleracea'' var. ''capitata'', var. ''tuba'', var. ''sabauda'' or var. ''acephala'') is a member of the genus '' Brassica'' and the mustard family, Brassicaceae. Several other cruciferous vegetables (sometimes known as ''cole crops'') are cultivars of ''B. oleracea'', including broccoli, collard greens,
brussels sprouts The Brussels sprout is a member of the Gemmifera cultivar group of cabbages (''Brassica oleracea''), grown for its edible buds. The leaf vegetables are typically 1.5–4.0 cm (0.6–1.6 in) in diameter and resemble miniature cabbages ...
,
kohlrabi Kohlrabi (pronounced ; scientific name ''Brassica oleracea'' Gongylodes Group), also called German turnip or turnip cabbage, is a biennial vegetable, a low, stout cultivar of wild cabbage. It is a cultivar of the same species as cabbage, broccol ...
and sprouting broccoli. All of these developed from the wild cabbage ''B. oleracea'' var. ''oleracea'', also called
colewort ''Brassica oleracea'' is a plant species from family Brassicaceae that includes many common cultivars used as vegetables, such as cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, Brussels sprouts, collard greens, Savoy cabbage, kohlrabi, and gai lan. It ...
or field cabbage. This original species evolved over thousands of years into those seen today, as selection resulted in cultivars having different characteristics, such as large heads for cabbage, large leaves for kale and thick stems with flower buds for broccoli. The varietal
epithet An epithet (, ), also byname, is a descriptive term (word or phrase) known for accompanying or occurring in place of a name and having entered common usage. It has various shades of meaning when applied to seemingly real or fictitious people, di ...
''capitata'' is derived from the Latin word for "having a head". "Cabbage" was originally used to refer to multiple forms of ''B. oleracea'', including those with loose or non-existent heads. A related species, '' Brassica rapa'', is commonly named Chinese, napa or celery cabbage, and has many of the same uses. It is also a part of common names for several unrelated species. These include cabbage bark or cabbage tree (a member of the genus ''
Andira ''Andira'' is a genus of flowering plants in the legume family, Fabaceae. It is distributed in the tropical Americas, except for ''A. inermis'', which also occurs in Africa. It was formerly assigned to the tribe Dalbergieae, but recent molecul ...
'') and cabbage palms, which include several genera of palms such as ''
Mauritia ''Mauritia'' is a genus of fan palms which is native to northern South America and to the Island of Trinidad in the Caribbean. Only two species are currently accepted. References

Mauritia, Trees of South America Trees of Trinidad ...
'', ''
Roystonea oleracea ''Roystonea oleracea'', sometimes known as the Caribbean royal palm, palmiste, imperial palm or cabbage palm, is a species of palm which is native to the Lesser Antilles, Colombia, Venezuela, and Trinidad and Tobago. It is also reportedly natural ...
'', '' Acrocomia'' and ''Euterpe oenocarpus''. The original family name of brassicas was ''Cruciferae'', which derived from the flower petal pattern thought by medieval Europeans to resemble a crucifix. Katz and Weaver, p. 279 The word ''brassica'' derives from ''bresic'', a
Celtic Celtic, Celtics or Keltic may refer to: Language and ethnicity *pertaining to Celts, a collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia **Celts (modern) *Celtic languages **Proto-Celtic language * Celtic music *Celtic nations Sports Fo ...
word for cabbage. Many European and Asiatic names for cabbage are derived from the Celto-Slavic root ''cap'' or ''kap'', meaning "head". The late Middle English word ''cabbage'' derives from the word ''caboche'' ("head"), from the
Picard dialect Picard (, also , ) is a ''langue d'oïl'' of the Romance language family spoken in the northernmost part of France and Hainaut province in Belgium. Administratively, this area is divided between the French Hauts-de-France region and the Belgian ...
of Old French. This in turn is a variant of the Old French ''caboce''. Through the centuries, "cabbage" and its derivatives have been used as slang for numerous items, occupations and activities. Cash and tobacco have both been described by the slang "cabbage", while "cabbage-head" means a fool or stupid person and "cabbaged" means to be exhausted or, vulgarly, in a vegetative state.


Description

Cabbage seedlings have a thin taproot and cordate (heart-shaped) cotyledons. The first leaves produced are ovate (egg-shaped) with a lobed petiole. Plants are tall in their first year at the mature vegetative stage, and tall when flowering in the second year.
Dixon Dixon may refer to: Places International * Dixon Entrance, part of the Inside Passage between Alaska and British Columbia Canada * Dixon, Ontario United States * Dixon, California * Dixon, Illinois * Dixon, Greene County, Indiana * Dixon, Indi ...
, p. 19
Heads average between , with fast-growing, earlier-maturing varieties producing smaller heads. Most cabbages have thick, alternating leaves, with margins that range from wavy or lobed to highly dissected; some varieties have a waxy bloom on the leaves. Plants have root systems that are fibrous and shallow. About 90 percent of the root mass is in the upper of soil; some lateral roots can penetrate up to deep. The inflorescence is an unbranched and
indeterminate Indeterminate may refer to: In mathematics * Indeterminate (variable), a symbol that is treated as a variable * Indeterminate system, a system of simultaneous equations that has more than one solution * Indeterminate equation, an equation that ha ...
terminal
raceme A raceme ( or ) or racemoid is an unbranched, indeterminate type of inflorescence bearing flowers having short floral stalks along the shoots that bear the flowers. The oldest flowers grow close to the base and new flowers are produced as the s ...
measuring tall, with flowers that are yellow or white. Each flower has four
petal Petals are modified Leaf, leaves that surround the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often advertising coloration, brightly colored or unusually shaped to attract pollinators. All of the petals of a flower are collectively known as the ''c ...
s set in a perpendicular pattern, as well as four sepals, six
stamen The stamen (plural ''stamina'' or ''stamens'') is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium., p. 10 Morphology and terminology A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filame ...
s, and a superior ovary that is two-celled and contains a single stigma and style. Two of the six stamens have shorter filaments. The fruit is a silique that opens at maturity through dehiscence to reveal brown or black seeds that are small and round in shape. Self-pollination is impossible, and plants are cross-pollinated by insects. The initial leaves form a rosette shape comprising 7 to 15 leaves, each measuring by ; after this, leaves with shorter petioles develop and heads form through the leaves cupping inward. Many shapes, colors and leaf textures are found in various cultivated varieties of cabbage. Leaf types are generally divided between crinkled-leaf, loose-head savoys and smooth-leaf firm-head cabbages, while the color spectrum includes white and a range of greens and purples. Oblate, round and pointed shapes are found. Katz and Weaver, p. 280 Cabbage has been
selectively bred Selective breeding (also called artificial selection) is the process by which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to selectively develop particular phenotypic traits (characteristics) by choosing which typically animal or plant mal ...
for head weight and morphological characteristics, frost hardiness, fast growth and storage ability. The appearance of the cabbage head has been given importance in selective breeding, with varieties being chosen for shape, color, firmness and other physical characteristics.
Breeding Breeding is sexual reproduction that produces offspring, usually animals or plants. It can only occur between a male and a female animal or plant. Breeding may refer to: * Animal husbandry, through selected specimens such as dogs, horses, and rab ...
objectives are now focused on increasing resistance to various insects and diseases and improving the nutritional content of cabbage. Scientific research into the genetic modification of ''B. oleracea'' crops, including cabbage, has included European Union and United States explorations of greater insect and
herbicide Herbicides (, ), also commonly known as weedkillers, are substances used to control undesired plants, also known as weeds.EPA. February 201Pesticides Industry. Sales and Usage 2006 and 2007: Market Estimates. Summary in press releasMain page fo ...
resistance. There are several ''
Guinness Book of World Records ''Guinness World Records'', known from its inception in 1955 until 1999 as ''The Guinness Book of Records'' and in previous United States editions as ''The Guinness Book of World Records'', is a reference book published annually, listing world ...
'' entries related to cabbage. These include the heaviest cabbage, at , heaviest red cabbage, at , longest
cabbage roll A cabbage roll is a dish consisting of cooked cabbage leaves wrapped around a variety of fillings. It is common to the cuisines of Central, Northern, Eastern and Southeastern Europe and much of Western Asia, Northern China, as well as parts ...
, at , and the largest cabbage dish, at .


History

Although cabbage has an extensive history, it is difficult to trace its exact origins owing to the many varieties of leafy greens classified as "brassicas". A possible wild ancestor of cabbage, '' Brassica oleracea'', originally found in Britain and continental Europe, is tolerant of salt but not encroachment by other plants and consequently inhabits rocky cliffs in cool damp coastal habitats, retaining water and nutrients in its slightly thickened, turgid leaves. However, genetic analysis is consistent with feral origin of this population, deriving from plants escaped from field and gardens. According to the
triangle of U The triangle of U ( ) is a theory about the evolution and relationships among the six most commonly known members of the plant genus ''Brassica''. The theory states that the genomes of three ancestral diploid species of ''Brassica'' combined to c ...
theory of the evolution and relationships between ''Brassica'' species, ''B. oleracea'' and other closely related kale vegetables (cabbages, kale, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and cauliflower) represent one of three ancestral lines from which all other brassicas originated. Cabbage was probably domesticated later in history than
Near East The ''Near East''; he, המזרח הקרוב; arc, ܕܢܚܐ ܩܪܒ; fa, خاور نزدیک, Xāvar-e nazdik; tr, Yakın Doğu is a geographical term which roughly encompasses a transcontinental region in Western Asia, that was once the hist ...
ern crops such as lentils and summer wheat. Because of the wide range of crops developed from the wild ''B. oleracea'', multiple broadly contemporaneous domestications of cabbage may have occurred throughout Europe. Nonheading cabbages and kale were probably the first to be domesticated, before 1000 BC, Katz and Weaver, p. 284 perhaps by the Celts of central and western Europe, although recent linguistic and genetic evidence enforces a Mediterranean origin of cultivated brassicas. While unidentified brassicas were part of the highly conservative unchanging Mesopotamian garden repertory, it is believed that the ancient Egyptians did not cultivate cabbage, which is not native to the Nile valley, though the word ''shaw't'' in
Papyrus Harris Papyrus Harris I is also known as the Great Harris Papyrus and (less accurately) simply the Harris Papyrus (though there are a number of other papyri in the Harris collection). Its technical designation is ''Papyrus British Museum EA 9999''. At 41 ...
of the time of Ramesses III has been interpreted as "cabbage". Janick, p. 51 The ancient Greeks had some varieties of cabbage, as mentioned by Theophrastus, although whether they were more closely related to today's cabbage or to one of the other ''Brassica'' crops is unknown. The headed cabbage variety was known to the Greeks as ''krambe'' and to the Romans as ''brassica'' or ''olus''; the open, leafy variety (kale) was known in Greek as ''raphanos'' and in Latin as ''caulis''. Ptolemaic Egyptians knew the cole crops as ''gramb'', under the influence of Greek ''krambe'', which had been a familiar plant to the Macedonian antecedents of the Ptolemies. By early Roman times, Egyptian artisans and children were eating cabbage and turnips among a wide variety of other vegetables and
pulses In medicine, a pulse represents the tactile arterial palpation of the cardiac cycle (heartbeat) by trained fingertips. The pulse may be palpated in any place that allows an artery to be compressed near the surface of the body, such as at the nec ...
.
Chrysippus of Cnidos Chrysippus of Cnidos ( grc-gre, Χρύσιππος ὁ Κνίδιος, 4th century BC) was a Greek physician. He was the son of Erineus, Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 89 and a contemporary of Praxagoras, a pupil of Eudoxus of Cnidos and Philistion of ...
wrote a treatise on cabbage, which Pliny knew, but it has not survived. The Greeks were convinced that cabbages and grapevines were inimical, and that cabbage planted too near the vine would impart its unwelcome odor to the grapes; this Mediterranean sense of antipathy survives today. Toussaint-Samat, p. 622. ''Brassica'' was considered by some Romans a table luxury, although Lucullus considered it unfit for the senatorial table. The more traditionalist Cato the Elder, espousing a simple Republican life, ate his cabbage cooked or raw and dressed with vinegar; he said it surpassed all other vegetables, and approvingly distinguished three varieties; he also gave directions for its medicinal use, which extended to the cabbage-eater's urine, in which infants might be rinsed. Pliny the Elder listed seven varieties, including
Pompeii Pompeii (, ) was an ancient city located in what is now the ''comune'' of Pompei near Naples in the Campania region of Italy. Pompeii, along with Herculaneum and many villas in the surrounding area (e.g. at Boscoreale, Stabiae), was buried ...
cabbage, Cumae cabbage and Sabellian cabbage. According to Pliny, the Pompeii cabbage, which could not stand cold, is "taller, and has a thick stock near the root, but grows thicker between the leaves, these being scantier and narrower, but their tenderness is a valuable quality". The Pompeii cabbage was also mentioned by Columella in ''De Re Rustica''. Apicius gives several recipes for ''cauliculi'', tender cabbage shoots. The Greeks and Romans claimed medicinal usages for their cabbage varieties that included relief from gout, headaches and the symptoms of poisonous mushroom ingestion. The antipathy towards the vine made it seem that eating cabbage would enable one to avoid drunkenness. Cabbage continued to figure in the '' materia medica'' of antiquity as well as at table: in the first century AD Dioscorides mentions two kinds of coleworts with medical uses, the cultivated and the wild, and his opinions continued to be paraphrased in herbals right through the 17th century. At the end of Antiquity cabbage is mentioned in ''De observatione ciborum'' ("On the Observance of Foods") by Anthimus, a Greek doctor at the court of Theodoric the Great. Cabbage appears among vegetables directed to be cultivated in the ''
Capitulare de villis Capitulare may mean: * a legislative text in separate chapters - see capitularium * certain liturgical books, notably: ** Evangeliarium ** Collectarium ** Antiphonary An antiphonary or antiphonal is one of the liturgical books intended for use ...
'', composed in 771–800 AD, that guided the governance of the royal estates of Charlemagne. In Britain, the Anglo-Saxons cultivated ''cawel''. When round-headed cabbages appeared in 14th-century England they were called ''cabaches'' and ''caboches'', words drawn from Old French and applied at first to refer to the ball of unopened leaves, the contemporaneous recipe that commences "Take cabbages and quarter them, and seethe them in good broth", also suggests the tightly headed cabbage.
Manuscript illumination An illuminated manuscript is a formally prepared document where the text is often supplemented with flourishes such as borders and miniature illustrations. Often used in the Roman Catholic Church for prayers, liturgical services and psalms, the ...
s show the prominence of cabbage in the cuisine of the High Middle Ages, and cabbage seeds feature among the seed list of purchases for the use of
King John II of France John II (french: Jean II; 26 April 1319 – 8 April 1364), called John the Good (French: ''Jean le Bon''), was King of France from 1350 until his death in 1364. When he came to power, France faced several disasters: the Black Death, which killed ...
when captive in England in 1360, but cabbages were also a familiar staple of the poor: in the lean year of 1420 the "Bourgeois of Paris" noted that "poor people ate no bread, nothing but cabbages and turnips and such dishes, without any bread or salt". French naturalist
Jean Ruel Jean Ruel (1474 – 24 September 1537), also known as Jean Ruelle or Ioannes Ruellius in its Latinised form, was a French physician and botanist noted for the 1536 publication in Paris of ''De Natura Stirpium'', a Renaissance treatise on botany. ...
made what is considered the first explicit mention of head cabbage in his 1536 botanical treatise ''De Natura Stirpium'', referring to it as ''capucos coles'' ("head-coles"). In Istanbul, Sultan
Selim III Selim III ( ota, سليم ثالث, Selim-i sâlis; tr, III. Selim; was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807. Regarded as an enlightened ruler, the Janissaries eventually deposed and imprisoned him, and placed his cousin Mustafa ...
penned a tongue-in-cheek ode to cabbage: without cabbage, the halva feast was not complete. In India, cabbage was one of several vegetable crops introduced by colonizing traders from Portugal, who established trade routes from the 14th to 17th centuries.
Carl Peter Thunberg Carl Peter Thunberg, also known as Karl Peter von Thunberg, Carl Pehr Thunberg, or Carl Per Thunberg (11 November 1743 – 8 August 1828), was a Swedish naturalist and an "apostle" of Carl Linnaeus. After studying under Linnaeus at Uppsala Un ...
reported that cabbage was not yet known in Japan in 1775. Many cabbage varieties—including some still commonly grown—were introduced in Germany, France, and the Low Countries. During the 16th century, German gardeners developed the
savoy cabbage Savoy cabbage (''Brassica oleracea'' var. ''sabauda'' L. or ''Brassica oleracea'' Savoy Cabbage Group) is a variety of the plant species ''Brassica oleracea''. Savoy cabbage is a winter vegetable and one of several cabbage varieties. It is named ...
. During the 17th and 18th centuries, cabbage was a food
staple Staple may refer to: *Staple food, a foodstuff that forms the basic constituent of a diet *Staple (fastener), a small formed metal fastener **Surgical staple Arts, entertainment, and media * Staple (band), a Christian post-hardcore band ** ''Stap ...
in such countries as Germany, England, Ireland and Russia, and pickled cabbage was frequently eaten. Sauerkraut was used by Dutch, Scandinavian and German sailors to prevent scurvy during long ship voyages.
Jacques Cartier Jacques Cartier ( , also , , ; br, Jakez Karter; 31 December 14911 September 1557) was a French-Breton maritime explorer for France. Jacques Cartier was the first European to describe and map the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the shores of th ...
first brought cabbage to the Americas in 1541–42, and it was probably planted by the early English colonists, despite the lack of written evidence of its existence there until the mid-17th century. By the 18th century, it was commonly planted by both colonists and native American Indians. Cabbage seeds traveled to Australia in 1788 with the
First Fleet The First Fleet was a fleet of 11 ships that brought the first European and African settlers to Australia. It was made up of two Royal Navy vessels, three store ships and six convict transports. On 13 May 1787 the fleet under the command ...
, and were planted the same year on
Norfolk Island Norfolk Island (, ; Norfuk: ''Norf'k Ailen'') is an external territory of Australia located in the Pacific Ocean between New Zealand and New Caledonia, directly east of Australia's Evans Head and about from Lord Howe Island. Together with ...
. It became a favorite vegetable of Australians by the 1830s and was frequently seen at the Sydney Markets. A traditional and very old, street, open air market: Zelný trh (Cabbage market) in Brno, Moravia, Czech republic is named only by cabbage since 1325 (700 year) years.


Cultivation

Cabbage is generally grown for its densely leaved heads, produced during the first year of its biennial cycle. Plants perform best when grown in well-drained soil in a location that receives full sun. Different varieties prefer different soil types, ranging from lighter sand to heavier clay, but all prefer fertile ground with a pH between 6.0 and 6.8. For optimal growth, there must be adequate levels of nitrogen in the soil, especially during the early head formation stage, and sufficient phosphorus and potassium during the early stages of expansion of the outer leaves. Wien and Wurr, p. 533 Temperatures between prompt the best growth, and extended periods of higher or lower temperatures may result in premature bolting (flowering). Bradley et al., pp. 56–57 Flowering induced by periods of low temperatures (a process called
vernalization Vernalization (from Latin ''vernus'', "of the spring") is the induction of a plant's flowering process by exposure to the prolonged cold of winter, or by an artificial equivalent. After vernalization, plants have acquired the ability to flower, ...
) only occurs if the plant is past the juvenile period. The transition from a juvenile to adult state happens when the stem diameter is about . Vernalization allows the plant to grow to an adequate size before flowering. In certain climates, cabbage can be planted at the beginning of the cold period and survive until a later warm period without being induced to flower, a practice that was common in the eastern US. Plants are generally started in protected locations early in the growing season before being
transplanted ''A.N.T. Farm'' is a Disney Channel original series that follows Chyna Parks (China Anne McClain) and her two best friends, Olive Doyle (Sierra McCormick) and Fletcher Quimby (Jake Short), who are in the "Advanced Natural Talents" (A.N.T.) program ...
outside, although some are seeded directly into the ground from which they will be harvested. Seedlings typically emerge in about 4–6 days from seeds planted deep at a soil temperature between . Growers normally place plants apart. Closer spacing reduces the resources available to each plant (especially the amount of light) and increases the time taken to reach maturity. Some varieties of cabbage have been developed for ornamental use; these are generally called "flowering cabbage". They do not produce heads and feature purple or green outer leaves surrounding an inner grouping of smaller leaves in white, red, or pink. Early varieties of cabbage take about 70 days from planting to reach maturity, while late varieties take about 120 days. Cabbages are mature when they are firm and solid to the touch. They are harvested by cutting the stalk just below the bottom leaves with a blade. The outer leaves are trimmed, and any diseased, damaged, or necrotic leaves are removed. Delays in harvest can result in the head splitting as a result of expansion of the inner leaves and continued stem growth. When being grown for seed, cabbages must be isolated from other ''B. oleracea'' subspecies, including the wild varieties, by to prevent cross-pollination. Other ''Brassica'' species, such as '' B. rapa'', '' B. juncea'', '' B. nigra'', '' B. napus'' and '' Raphanus sativus'', do not readily cross-pollinate.


Cultivars

There are several
cultivar group A Group (previously cultivar-groupInternational Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, 4th edition (1969), 5th edition (1980) and 6th edition (1995)) is a formal category in the ''International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants'' ('' ...
s of cabbage, each including many cultivars: *
Savoy Savoy (; frp, Savouè ; french: Savoie ) is a cultural-historical region in the Western Alps. Situated on the cultural boundary between Occitania and Piedmont, the area extends from Lake Geneva in the north to the Dauphiné in the south. Savo ...
 – Characterized by crimped or curly leaves, mild flavor and tender texture *
Spring greens (Brassica oleracea) Spring greens are a cultivar of ''Brassica oleracea'' in the cultivar acephala group, similar to kale, in which the central leaves do not form a head or form only a very loose one. It is considered to be closer to wild cabbage than most other ...
 – Loose-headed, commonly sliced and steamed * Green – Light to dark green, slightly pointed heads. * Red – Smooth red leaves, often used for pickling or stewing * White, also called Dutch – Smooth, pale green leaves Some sources only delineate three cultivars: savoy, red and white, with spring greens and green cabbage being subsumed under the last.


Cultivation problems

Due to its high level of nutrient requirements, cabbage is prone to
nutrient deficiencies Malnutrition occurs when an organism gets too few or too many nutrients, resulting in health problems. Specifically, it is "a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of energy, protein and other nutrients" which adversely affects the body's tissues ...
, including
boron Boron is a chemical element with the symbol B and atomic number 5. In its crystalline form it is a brittle, dark, lustrous metalloid; in its amorphous form it is a brown powder. As the lightest element of the ''boron group'' it has th ...
, calcium, phosphorus and potassium. There are several physiological disorders that can affect the postharvest appearance of cabbage. Internal tip burn occurs when the margins of inside leaves turn brown, but the outer leaves look normal. Necrotic spot is where there are oval sunken spots a few millimeters across that are often grouped around the midrib. In pepper spot, tiny black spots occur on the areas between the veins, which can increase during storage. Fungal diseases include wirestem, which causes weak or dying transplants; ''Fusarium'' yellows, which result in stunted and twisted plants with yellow leaves; and blackleg (see '' Leptosphaeria maculans''), which leads to sunken areas on stems and gray-brown spotted leaves. The fungi '' Alternaria brassicae'' and '' A. brassicicola'' cause dark leaf spots in affected plants. They are both seedborne and airborne, and typically propagate from spores in infected plant debris left on the soil surface for up to twelve weeks after harvest. ''
Rhizoctonia solani ''Rhizoctonia solani'' is a species of fungus in the order Cantharellales. Basidiocarps (fruit bodies) are thin, effused, and web-like, but the fungus is more typically encountered in its anamorphic state, as hyphae and sclerotia. The name ''Rhi ...
'' causes the post-emergence disease wirestem, resulting in killed seedlings ("damping-off"), root rot or stunted growth and smaller heads. One of the most common bacterial diseases to affect cabbage is black rot, caused by '' Xanthomonas campestris'', which causes chlorotic and necrotic lesions that start at the leaf margins, and wilting of plants. Clubroot, caused by the soilborne slime mold-like organism ''Plasmodiophora brassicae'', results in swollen, club-like roots. Downy mildew, a parasitic disease caused by the oomycete '' Peronospora parasitica'', produces pale leaves with white, brownish or olive mildew on the lower leaf surfaces; this is often confused with the fungal disease powdery mildew. Pests include root-knot nematodes and cabbage maggots, which produce stunted and wilted plants with yellow leaves; aphids, which induce stunted plants with curled and yellow leaves;
harlequin cabbage bug The harlequin cabbage bug (''Murgantia histrionica''), also known as calico bug, fire bug or harlequin bug, is a black stinkbug of the family Pentatomidae, brilliantly marked with red, orange, yellow and white markings. It is a major pest of ca ...
s, which cause white and yellow leaves; thrips, which lead to leaves with white-bronze spots;
striped flea beetle The striped flea beetle (''Phyllotreta striolata'') is a small flea beetle, shiny black with a greenish tinge, 1.5 to 2.5 mm long, having a wavy amber (color), amber line running the length of each elytron (wing cover). It is a Pest (organi ...
s, which riddle leaves with small holes; and
caterpillar Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths). As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder Sym ...
s, which leave behind large, ragged holes in leaves. Bradley et al., pp. 57–59 The caterpillar stage of the "small cabbage white butterfly" ('' Pieris rapae''), commonly known in the United States as the "imported cabbage worm", is a major cabbage pest in most countries. The large white butterfly (''
Pieris brassicae ''Pieris brassicae'', the large white, also called cabbage butterfly, cabbage white, cabbage moth (erroneously), or in India the large cabbage white, is a butterfly in the family Pieridae. It is a close relative of the small white, ''Pieris ra ...
'') is prevalent in eastern European countries. The diamondback moth (''
Plutella xylostella The diamondback moth (''Plutella xylostella''), sometimes called the cabbage moth, is a moth species of the family Plutellidae and genus '' Plutella''. The small, grayish-brown moth sometimes has a cream-colored band that forms a diamond along ...
'') and the cabbage moth (''
Mamestra brassicae The cabbage moth (''Mamestra brassicae'') is primarily known as a pest that is responsible for severe crop damage of a wide variety of plant species. The common name, cabbage moth, is a misnomer as the species feeds on many fruits, vegetables, ...
'') thrive in the higher summer temperatures of continental Europe, where they cause considerable damage to cabbage crops. The cabbage looper ('' Trichoplusia ni'') is infamous in North America for its voracious appetite and for producing frass that contaminates plants. In India, the diamondback moth has caused losses up to 90 percent in crops that were not treated with insecticide. Destructive soil insects include the cabbage root fly ('' Delia radicum'') and the cabbage maggot (''
Hylemya brassicae ''Hylemya'' is a genus of root-maggot flies in the family Anthomyiidae. There are at least 30 described species in ''Hylemya''. Species These 31 species belong to the genus ''Hylemya'': *'' H. agrestis'' ( Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830) *'' H. alcath ...
''), whose larvae can burrow into the part of plant consumed by humans. Planting near other members of the cabbage family, or where these plants have been placed in previous years, can prompt the spread of pests and disease. Excessive water and excessive heat can also cause cultivation problems. Factors that contribute to reduced head weight include: growth in the compacted soils that result from no-till farming practices, drought, waterlogging, insect and disease incidence, and shading and nutrient stress caused by weeds.


Production

In 2020, world production of cabbages (combined with other brassicas) was 71 million tonnes, led by China with 48% of the world total (table). Other substantial producers were India, Russia, and South Korea.


Culinary use


Local market and storage

Cabbages sold for market are generally smaller, and different varieties are used for those sold immediately upon harvest and those stored before sale. Those used for processing, especially sauerkraut, are larger and have a lower percentage of water. Both hand and mechanical harvesting are used, and hand-harvesting is generally used for cabbages destined for market sales. In commercial-scale operations, hand-harvested cabbages are trimmed, sorted, and packed directly in the field to increase efficiency. Katz and Weaver, p. 285
Vacuum cooling Vacuum cooling is a rapid cooling technique for any porous product that has free water and uses the principle of evaporative cooling. Vacuum cooling is generally used for cooling food products that have a high water content and large porosities, ...
rapidly refrigerates the vegetable, allowing for earlier shipping and a fresher product. Cabbage can be stored the longest at with a humidity of 90–100 percent; these conditions will result in up to six months of longevity. When stored under less ideal conditions, cabbage can still last up to four months.


Consumption

Cabbage consumption varies widely around the world: Russia has the highest annual per capita consumption at , followed by Belgium at and the Netherlands at . Americans consume annually per capita.


Food preparation

Cabbage is prepared and consumed in many ways. The simplest options include eating the vegetable raw or
steaming Steaming is a method of cooking using steam. This is often done with a food steamer, a kitchen appliance made specifically to cook food with steam, but food can also be steamed in a wok. In the American southwest, steam pits used for cooking ha ...
it, though many cuisines pickle,
stew A stew is a combination of solid food ingredients that have been cooked in liquid and served in the resultant gravy. A stew needs to have raw ingredients added to the gravy. Ingredients in a stew can include any combination of vegetables and ...
, sautée or
braise Braising (from the French word ''braiser'') is a combination-cooking method that uses both wet and dry heats: typically, the food is first browned at a high temperature, then simmered in a covered pot in cooking liquid (such as wine, broth, coc ...
cabbage. Pickling is a common way of preserving cabbage, creating dishes such as sauerkraut and kimchi, although kimchi is more often made from Chinese cabbage (''B. rapa subsp. pekinensis''). Savoy cabbages are usually used in salads, while smooth-leaf types are utilized for both market sales and processing.
Bean curd A bean is the seed of several plants in the family Fabaceae, which are used as vegetables for human or animal food. They can be cooked in many different ways, including boiling, frying, and baking, and are used in many traditional dishes thr ...
and cabbage is a staple of Chinese cooking, while the British dish bubble and squeak is made primarily with leftover potato and boiled cabbage and eaten with cold meat. In Poland, cabbage is one of the main food crops, and it features prominently in Polish cuisine. It is frequently eaten, either cooked or as sauerkraut, as a side dish or as an ingredient in such dishes as bigos (cabbage, sauerkraut, meat, and wild mushrooms, among other ingredients) gołąbki (stuffed cabbage) and
pierogi Pierogi are filled dumplings made by wrapping unleavened dough around a savory or sweet filling and cooking in boiling water. They are often pan-fried before serving. Pierogi or their varieties are associated with the cuisines of Central, Easter ...
(filled dumplings). Other eastern European countries, such as Hungary and Romania, also have traditional dishes that feature cabbage as a main ingredient. In India and Ethiopia, cabbage is often included in spicy salads and braises. In the United States, cabbage is used primarily for the production of coleslaw, followed by market use and sauerkraut production.


Flavor

The characteristic flavor of cabbage is caused by
glucosinolate Glucosinolates are natural components of many pungent plants such as mustard, cabbage, and horseradish. The pungency of those plants is due to mustard oils produced from glucosinolates when the plant material is chewed, cut, or otherwise damaged. T ...
s, a class of
sulfur Sulfur (or sulphur in British English) is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with a chemical formula ...
-containing
glucoside A glucoside is a glycoside that is derived from glucose. Glucosides are common in plants, but rare in animals. Glucose is produced when a glucoside is hydrolysed by purely chemical means, or decomposed by fermentation or enzymes. The name was o ...
s. Although found throughout the plant, these compounds are concentrated in the highest quantities in the seeds; lesser quantities are found in young vegetative tissue, and they decrease as the tissue ages. Cooked cabbage is often criticized for its pungent, unpleasant odor and taste. These develop when cabbage is overcooked and
hydrogen sulfide Hydrogen sulfide is a chemical compound with the formula . It is a colorless chalcogen-hydride gas, and is poisonous, corrosive, and flammable, with trace amounts in ambient atmosphere having a characteristic foul odor of rotten eggs. The unde ...
gas is produced.


Nutrients and phytochemicals

Raw cabbage is 92% water, 6% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, raw cabbage is a rich source of vitamin C and vitamin K, containing 44% and 72%, respectively, of the Daily Value (DV). Cabbage is also a moderate source (10–19% DV) of vitamin B6 and folate, with no other nutrients having significant content per 100-gram serving (table). Basic research on cabbage phytochemicals is ongoing to discern if certain cabbage compounds may affect health or have potential for anti-disease effects, such as sulforaphane and other
glucosinolate Glucosinolates are natural components of many pungent plants such as mustard, cabbage, and horseradish. The pungency of those plants is due to mustard oils produced from glucosinolates when the plant material is chewed, cut, or otherwise damaged. T ...
s. Studies on cruciferous vegetables, including cabbage, include whether they may lower the risk against
colon cancer Colorectal cancer (CRC), also known as bowel cancer, colon cancer, or rectal cancer, is the development of cancer from the colon or rectum (parts of the large intestine). Signs and symptoms may include blood in the stool, a change in bowel mo ...
. Cabbage is a source of
indole-3-carbinol Indole-3-carbinol ( C9 H9 N O), sometimes referred to as I3C, is produced by the breakdown of the glucosinolate glucobrassicin, which can be found at relatively high levels in cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, brussel ...
, a chemical under basic research for its possible properties.


Herbalism

In addition to its usual purpose as an edible vegetable, cabbage has been used historically in herbalism. The Ancient Greeks recommended consuming the vegetable as a laxative, and used cabbage juice as an antidote for
mushroom poisoning Mushroom poisoning is poisoning resulting from the ingestion of mushrooms that contain toxic substances. Its symptoms can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death in about 10 days. Mushroom toxins are secondary metabolites produced by ...
, for eye salves, and for
liniment Liniment (from la, linere, meaning "to anoint"), also called embrocation and heat rub, is a medicated topical preparation for application to the skin. Some liniments have viscosity similar to that of water; others are lotion or balm; still other ...
s for bruises. The ancient Roman, Pliny the Elder, described both culinary and medicinal properties of the vegetable. Ancient Egyptians ate cooked cabbage at the beginning of meals to reduce the intoxicating effects of wine. This traditional usage persisted in European literature until the mid-20th century. The cooling properties of the leaves were used in Britain as a treatment for trench foot in World War I, and as compresses for ulcers and breast abscesses. Other medicinal uses recorded in European folk medicine include treatments for
rheumatism Rheumatism or rheumatic disorders are conditions causing chronic, often intermittent pain affecting the joints or connective tissue. Rheumatism does not designate any specific disorder, but covers at least 200 different conditions, including art ...
, sore throat, hoarseness, colic, and melancholy. Both mashed cabbage and cabbage juice have been used in poultices to remove
boil A boil, also called a furuncle, is a deep folliculitis, which is an infection of the hair follicle. It is most commonly caused by infection by the bacterium ''Staphylococcus aureus'', resulting in a painful swollen area on the skin caused by an ...
s and treat warts, pneumonia, appendicitis, and ulcers.


Disadvantages

Excessive consumption of cabbage may lead to increased intestinal gas which causes bloating and
flatulence Flatulence, in humans, is the expulsion of gas from the intestines via the anus, commonly referred to as farting. "Flatus" is the medical word for gas generated in the stomach or bowels. A proportion of intestinal gas may be swallowed environm ...
due to the
trisaccharide ''Trisaccharides'' are oligosaccharides composed of three monosaccharides with two glycosidic bonds connecting them. Similar to the disaccharides, each glycosidic bond can be formed between any hydroxyl group on the component monosaccharides. Even ...
raffinose, which the human
small intestine The small intestine or small bowel is an organ in the gastrointestinal tract where most of the absorption of nutrients from food takes place. It lies between the stomach and large intestine, and receives bile and pancreatic juice through the p ...
cannot
digest Digest may refer to: Biology *Digestion of food *Restriction digest Literature and publications *''The Digest'', formerly the English and Empire Digest *Digest size magazine format * ''Digest'' (Roman law), also known as ''Pandects'', a digest ...
, but is digested by bacteria in the large intestine. Cabbage has been linked to outbreaks of some
food-borne illness Foodborne illness (also foodborne disease and food poisoning) is any illness resulting from the spoilage of contaminated food by pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites that contaminate food, as well as prions (the agents of mad cow disease) ...
es, including '' Listeria monocytogenes'' and '' Clostridium botulinum''. The latter toxin has been traced to pre-made, packaged coleslaw mixes, while the spores were found on whole cabbages that were otherwise acceptable in appearance. '' Shigella'' species are able to survive in shredded cabbage. Two outbreaks of '' E. coli'' in the United States have been linked to cabbage consumption. Biological risk assessments have concluded that there is the potential for further outbreaks linked to uncooked cabbage, due to contamination at many stages of the growing, harvesting and packaging processes. Contaminants from water, humans, animals and soil have the potential to be transferred to cabbage, and from there to the end consumer. Whilst not a toxic vegetable, an increase in intestinal gas can lead to the death of many small animals like rabbits due to Gastrointestinal Stasis. Cabbage and other cruciferous vegetables contain small amounts of thiocyanate, a compound associated with goiter formation when
iodine Iodine is a chemical element with the symbol I and atomic number 53. The heaviest of the stable halogens, it exists as a semi-lustrous, non-metallic solid at standard conditions that melts to form a deep violet liquid at , and boils to a vi ...
intake is deficient.


See also

* * ''''


References


Works cited

* * * * * * * * *


External links


''Cabbages and Cauliflowers: How to Grow Them'' by James John Howard Gregory – Project Gutenberg.
{{Authority control Food plant cultivars Leaf vegetables Medicinal plants