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''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. These herbaceous perennial plants are chiefly
native Native may refer to: People * Jus soli, citizenship by right of birth * Indigenous peoples, peoples with a set of specific rights based on their historical ties to a particular territory ** Native Americans (disambiguation) In arts and entert ...
to the mountainous parts of the
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in
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, Europe, and Asia; growing in the moisture-retentive but well-draining soils of mountain meadows. Most ''Aconitum'' species are extremely poisonous and must be handled very carefully. Several ''Aconitum''
hybrid Hybrid may refer to: Science * Hybrid (biology), an offspring resulting from cross-breeding ** Hybrid grape, grape varieties produced by cross-breeding two ''Vitis'' species ** Hybridity, the property of a hybrid plant which is a union of two dif ...
s, such as the Arendsii form of '' Aconitum carmichaelii'', have won gardening awards—such as the Royal Horticultural Society's
Award of Garden Merit The Award of Garden Merit (AGM) is a long-established annual award for plants by the British Royal Horticultural Society (RHS). It is based on assessment of the plants' performance under UK growing conditions. History The Award of Garden Merit ...
. Some are used by florists.


Etymology

The name ''aconitum'' comes from the Greek word , which may derive from the Greek ''akon'' for
dart Dart or DART may refer to: * Dart, the equipment in the game of darts Arts, entertainment and media * Dart (comics), an Image Comics superhero * Dart, a character from ''G.I. Joe'' * Dart, a ''Thomas & Friends'' railway engine character * Dar ...
or
javelin A javelin is a light spear designed primarily to be thrown, historically as a ranged weapon, but today predominantly for sport. The javelin is almost always thrown by hand, unlike the sling, bow, and crossbow, which launch projectiles with th ...
, the tips of which were poisoned with the substance, or from ''akonae'', because of the rocky ground on which the plant was thought to grow. The Greek name ''lycoctonum'', which translates literally to "wolf's bane", is thought to indicate the use of its juice to poison arrows or baits used to kill wolves. The English name monkshood refers to the cylindrical helmet, called the galea, distinguishing the flower.


Description

The dark green leaves of ''Aconitum'' species lack
stipules In botany, a stipule is an outgrowth typically borne on both sides (sometimes on just one side) of the base of a leafstalk (the petiole). Stipules are considered part of the anatomy of the leaf of a typical flowering plant, although in many speci ...
. They are
palmate The following is a list of terms which are used to describe leaf morphology in the description and taxonomy of plants. Leaves may be simple (a single leaf blade or lamina) or compound (with several leaflets). The edge of the leaf may be regular o ...
or deeply palmately lobed with five to seven segments. Each segment again is trilobed with coarse sharp teeth. The leaves have a spiral (alternate) arrangement. The lower leaves have long petioles. The tall, erect stem is crowned by
raceme A raceme ( or ) or racemoid is an unbranched, indeterminate type of inflorescence bearing flowers having short floral stalks along the shoots that bear the flowers. The oldest flowers grow close to the base and new flowers are produced as the s ...
s of large blue, purple, white, yellow, or pink zygomorphic flowers with numerous
stamen The stamen (plural ''stamina'' or ''stamens'') is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium., p. 10 Morphology and terminology A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filame ...
s. They are distinguishable by having one of the five petaloid sepals (the posterior one), called the galea, in the form of a cylindrical helmet, hence the English name monkshood. Two to 10
petal Petals are modified Leaf, leaves that surround the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often advertising coloration, brightly colored or unusually shaped to attract pollinators. All of the petals of a flower are collectively known as the ''c ...
s are present. The two upper petals are large and are placed under the hood of the calyx and are supported on long stalks. They have a hollow spur at their apex, containing the
nectar Nectar is a sugar-rich liquid produced by plants in glands called nectaries or nectarines, either within the flowers with which it attracts pollinating animals, or by extrafloral nectaries, which provide a nutrient source to animal mutualists ...
. The other petals are small and scale-like or nonforming. The three to five carpels are partially fused at the base. The fruit is an
aggregate Aggregate or aggregates may refer to: Computing and mathematics * collection of objects that are bound together by a root entity, otherwise known as an aggregate root. The aggregate root guarantees the consistency of changes being made within the ...
of follicles, a follicle being a dry, many-seeded structure. Unlike with many species from genera (and their hybrids) in '' Ranunculaceae'' (and the related ''
Papaveroideae Papaveroideae is a subfamily of the family Papaveraceae (the poppy family). Genera * Subfamily Papaveroideae Eaton :* Tribe Eschscholzieae Baill. ::* ''Dendromecon'' Benth. – California. ::* ''Eschscholzia'' Cham. – Western North America. ...
'' subfamily), there are no double-flowered forms.


Color range

A medium to dark semi-saturated blue-purple is the typical flower color for ''Aconitum'' species. ''Aconitum'' species tend to be variable enough in form and color in the wild to cause debate and confusion among experts when it comes to species classification boundaries. The overall color range of the genus is rather limited, although the palette has been extended a small amount with hybridization. In the wild, some ''Aconitum'' blue-purple shades can be very dark. In cultivation the shades do not reach this level of depth. Aside from blue-purple—white, very pale greenish-white, creamy white, and pale greenish-yellow are also somewhat common in nature. Wine red (or red-purple) occurs in a hybrid of the climber ''Aconitum hemsleyanum''. There is a pale semi-saturated pink produced by cultivation as well as bicolor hybrids (e.g. white centers with blue-purple edges). Purplish shades range from very dark blue-purple to a very pale lavender that is quite greyish. The latter occurs in the "Stainless Steel" hybrid. Neutral blue (rather than purplish or greenish), greenish-blue, and intense blues, available in some related '' Delphinium'' plants—particularly ''
Delphinium grandiflorum ''Delphinium grandiflorum'' is a species of ''Delphinium'' known by the common names Siberian larkspur and Chinese Delphinium. It is native to Russia and China. There are several popular cultivars in several colours which are grown as ornamental ...
''—do not occur in this genus. ''Aconitum'' plants that have purplish-blue flowers are often inaccurately referred to as having blue flowers, even though the purple tone dominates. If there are species with true (neutral) blue or greenish-blue flowers they are rare and do not occur in cultivation. Also unlike the genus ''Delphinium'', there are no bright red nor intense pink ''Aconitum'' flowers, as none known are pollinated by hummingbirds. There are no orange-flowered varieties nor any that are green. ''Aconitum'' is typically more intense in color than ''Helleborus'' but less intense than ''Delphinium''. There are no blackish flowers in ''Aconitum'', unlike with ''Helleborus''. Monkshood (''Aconitum napellus'') produces light indigo-blue flowers, while Wolf's Bane (''Aconitum vulparia'') produces whitish or straw-yellow flowers.


Horticultural trade morphology

The lack of double-flowered forms in the horticultural trade stands in contrast with the other genera of '' Ranunculaceae'' used regularly in gardens. This includes one major genus that is known solely by most gardeners for a double-flowered form of one species—''
Ranunculus asiaticus ''Ranunculus asiaticus'', the Persian buttercup, is a species of buttercup (''Ranunculus'') native to the eastern Mediterranean region in southwestern Asia, southeastern Europe (Crete, Karpathos and Rhodes), and northeastern Africa. It is a herb ...
'', known colloquially in the trade as "Ranunculus". The Ranunculus genus contains approximately 500 species. One other species of Ranunculus has seen minor use in gardens, the 'Flore Pleno' (doubled) form of '' Ranunculus acris''. Doubled forms of '' Consolida'' and '' Delphinium'' dominate the horticultural trade while single forms of '' Anemone'', '' Aquilegia'', '' Clematis'', ''
Helleborus Commonly known as hellebores (), the Eurasian genus ''Helleborus'' consists of approximately 20 species of herbaceous or evergreen perennial flowering plants in the family Ranunculaceae, within which it gave its name to the tribe of Helleboreae. ...
'', '' Pulsatilla''—and the related '' Papaver''—retain some popularity. No doubled forms of ''Aconitum'' are known.


Ecology

''Aconitum'' species have been recorded as food plant of the caterpillars of several
moths Moths are a paraphyletic group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not butterflies, with moths making up the vast majority of the order. There are thought to be approximately 160,000 species of moth, many of w ...
. The yellow tiger moth '' Arctia flavia'', and the purple-shaded gem ''
Euchalcia variabilis The purple-shaded gem (''Euchalcia variabilis'') is a moth of the family Noctuidae. Description The wingspan is 34–42 mm. The upperside of the forewings is varied with rosy in the basal area. Also, the transversal lines are bordered wit ...
'' are at home on ''A. vulparia''. The engrailed '' Ectropis crepuscularia'', yellow-tail ''
Euproctis similis The yellow-tail, goldtail moth or swan moth (''Sphrageidus similis'') is a moth of the family Erebidae. The species was first described by Johann Kaspar Füssli in 1775, and has commonly been placed within the related genus '' Euproctis''. It ...
'', mouse moth ''
Amphipyra tragopoginis The mouse moth (''Amphipyra tragopoginis'') is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is a widespread species with a Holarctic distribution. Distribution Europe (except the extreme north, and not occurring in the south of Spain, Sicily, or the Balka ...
'', pease blossom ''
Periphanes delphinii ''Periphanes'' is a monotypic moth genus of the family Noctuidae first described by Jacob Hübner in 1821. Its only species, ''Periphanes delphinii'', the pease blossom, was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of ''Systema ...
'', and ''
Mniotype ''Mniotype'' is a genus of moths of the family Noctuidae The Noctuidae, commonly known as owlet moths, cutworms or armyworms, are a family of moths. They are considered the most controversial family in the superfamily Noctuoidea because many of ...
bathensis'', have been observed feeding on ''A. napellus''. The purple-lined sallow ''
Pyrrhia exprimens ''Pyrrhia exprimens'', the purple-lined sallow, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Francis Walker (entomologist) in 1857. In North America it is found from Newfoundland and Labrador west across southern Canada ...
'', and ''
Blepharita amica ''Blepharita amica'' is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is found from northern Europe to the Russian plain, the Ural, Siberia (West Siberian Lowland and South Siberian Mountains), the Amur Oblast, Primorye Region and Kazakhstan. It has also b ...
'' were found eating from ''A. septentrionale''. The dot moth ''
Melanchra persicariae The dot moth (''Melanchra persicariae'') is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1761. It is a very distinctive species with very dark brown, almost black, forewings marked with a large white stigm ...
'' occurs both on ''A. septentrionale'' and ''A. intermedium''. The golden plusia ''
Polychrysia moneta ''Polychrysia moneta'', the golden plusia, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is found in the Palearctic realm (Europe, Asia Minor, Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Caucasus, and northwest Iran). Technical description and variation The wingspan ...
'' is hosted by ''A. vulparia'', ''A. napellus'', ''A. septentrionale'', and ''A. intermedium''. Other moths associated with ''Aconitum'' species include the wormwood pug ''
Eupithecia absinthiata The wormwood pug (''Eupithecia absinthiata'') is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species was first described by Carl Alexander Clerck in 1759. It is a common species across the Palearctic region as well as North America. The wingspan is ...
'', satyr pug '' E. satyrata'', ''
Aterpia ''Aterpia'' is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily Olethreutinae of the family Tortricidae. Species *'' Aterpia anderreggana'' ( Guenée, 1845) *'' Aterpia approximana'' (Heinrich, 1919) *'' Aterpia asema'' ( Diakonoff, 1973) *'' Aterpi ...
charpentierana'', and '' A. corticana''. It is also the primary food source for the Old World bumblebees ''
Bombus consobrinus ''Bombus consobrinus'' is a species of bumblebee found in Hungary, northern Scandinavia, Kazakhstan, Russia (Saghalien, Siberia), China ( Soyorei, Hebei, Liaoning), North and South Korea, and Japan. Description The bumblebee is large, with the ...
'' and ''Bombus gerstaeckeri''. Aconitum flowers are pollinated by long-tongued bumblebees. Bumblebees have the strength to open the flowers and reach the single nectary at the top of the flower on its inside. Some short-tongued bees will bore holes into the tops of the flowers to steal nectar. However, alkaloids in the nectar function as a deterrent for species unsuited to pollination. The effect is greater in certain species, such as ''
Aconitum napellus ''Aconitum napellus'', monkshood, aconite, Venus' chariot or wolfsbane, is a species of highly toxic flowering plant in the genus ''Aconitum'' of the family Ranunculaceae, native and endemic to western and central Europe. It is an herbaceous pere ...
'', than in others, such as ''
Aconitum lycoctonum ''Aconitum lycoctonum'' (wolf's-bane or northern wolf's-bane) is a species of flowering plant in the genus '' Aconitum'', of the family Ranunculaceae, native to much of Europe and northern Asia.Flora Europaea''Aconitum lycoctonum''/ref> It is fo ...
''. Unlike the species with blue-purple flowers such as ''A. napellus'', ''A. lycoctonum''—which has off-white to pale yellow flowers, has been found to be a nectar source for butterflies. This is likely due to the nectary flowers of the latter being more easily reachable by the butterflies; however, the differing alkaloid character of the two plants may also play a significant role or be the primary influence.


Cultivation

The species typically utilized by gardeners fare well in well-drained evenly moist "humus-rich" garden soils like many in the related
Helleborus Commonly known as hellebores (), the Eurasian genus ''Helleborus'' consists of approximately 20 species of herbaceous or evergreen perennial flowering plants in the family Ranunculaceae, within which it gave its name to the tribe of Helleboreae. ...
and Delphinium genera, and can grow in the partial shade. Species not used in gardens tend to require more exacting conditions (e.g. ''
Aconitum noveboracense ''Aconitum noveboracense'', also known as northern blue monkshood or northern wild monkshood, is a flowering plant belonging to the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae). Members of its genus ('' Aconitum'') are also known as wolfsbane. The United ...
''). Most ''Aconitum'' species prefer to have their roots cool and moist, with the majority of the leaves exposed to sun, like the related '' Clematis''. ''Aconitum'' species can be propagated by divisions of the root or by seeds, with care taken to avoid leaving pieces of the root where livestock might be poisoned. All parts of these plants should be handled while wearing protective disposable gloves. ''Aconitum'' plants are typically much longer-lived than the closely related delphinium plants, putting less energy into floral reproduction. As a result, they are not described as being "heavy feeders" (needing a higher quantity of fertilizer versus most other flowering plants)—unlike gardeners' delphiniums. As with most in the '' Ranunculaceae'' and '' Papaveraceae'' families, they dislike root disturbance. As with most in Ranunculaceae, seeds that are not planted soon after harvesting should be stored moist-packed in vermiculite to avoid dormancy and viability issues. The German seed company Jelitto offers "Gold Nugget" seeds that are advertised as utilizing a coating that enables the seed to germinate immediately, bypassing the double dormancy defect (from a typical gardener's point of view) ''Aconitum''—and many other species in Ranunculaceae genera—use as a reproductive strategy. By contrast, seeds that are not immediately planted or moist-packed are described as perhaps taking as long as two years to germinate, being prone to very erratic germination (in terms of time required per seed), and comparatively quick seed viability loss (e.g. '' Adonis''). These issues are typical for many species in Ranunculaceae, such as '' Pulsatilla'' ( pasqueflower).


Award-winning hybrids

In the UK, the following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit: * ''A.'' × ''cammarum'' 'Bicolor' * ''A. carmichaelii'' 'Arendsii' * ''A. carmichaelii'' 'Kelmscott' * ''A.'' 'Bressingham Spire' * ''A.'' 'Spark's Variety' * ''A.'' 'Stainless Steel'


Toxicology

Monkshood and other members of the genus ''Aconitum'' contain substantial amounts of the highly toxic aconitine and related alkaloids, especially in their roots and tubers. Aconitine is a potent neurotoxin and cardiotoxin that causes persistent depolarization of neuronal sodium channels in tetrodotoxin-sensitive tissues. The influx of sodium through these channels and the delay in their repolarization increases their excitability and may lead to diarrhea, convulsions,
ventricular arrhythmia Arrhythmias, also known as cardiac arrhythmias, heart arrhythmias, or dysrhythmias, are irregularities in the heartbeat, including when it is too fast or too slow. A resting heart rate that is too fast – above 100 beats per minute in adults ...
and death. Marked symptoms may appear almost immediately, usually not later than one hour, and "with large doses death is almost instantaneous". Death usually occurs within two to six hours in fatal poisoning (20 to 40 mL of tincture may prove fatal).''The Extra Pharmacopoeia Martindale''. Vol. 1, 24th edition. London: The Pharmaceutical Press, 1958, page 38. The initial signs are gastrointestinal, including nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. This is followed by a sensation of burning, tingling, and numbness in the mouth and face, and of burning in the abdomen. In severe poisonings, pronounced motor weakness occurs and cutaneous sensations of tingling and numbness spread to the limbs. Cardiovascular features include hypotension, sinus bradycardia, and ventricular
arrhythmia Arrhythmias, also known as cardiac arrhythmias, heart arrhythmias, or dysrhythmias, are irregularities in the heartbeat, including when it is too fast or too slow. A resting heart rate that is too fast – above 100 beats per minute in adults ...
s. Other features may include sweating, dizziness, difficulty in breathing, headache, and confusion. The main causes of death are ventricular arrhythmias and asystole, or paralysis of the heart or respiratory center. The only ''post mortem'' signs are those of asphyxia. Treatment of poisoning is mainly supportive. All patients require close monitoring of
blood pressure Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure of circulating blood against the walls of blood vessels. Most of this pressure results from the heart pumping blood through the circulatory system. When used without qualification, the term "blood pressure" r ...
and
cardiac rhythm The cardiac conduction system (CCS) (also called the electrical conduction system of the heart) transmits the signals generated by the sinoatrial node – the heart's pacemaker, to cause the heart muscle to contract, and pump blood through the b ...
. Gastrointestinal decontamination with
activated charcoal "Activated" is a song by English singer Cher Lloyd. It was released on 22 July 2016 through Vixen Records. The song was made available to stream exclusively on ''Rolling Stone'' a day before to release (on 21 July 2016). Background In an interv ...
can be used if given within one hour of ingestion. The major physiological antidote is
atropine Atropine is a tropane alkaloid and anticholinergic medication used to treat certain types of nerve agent and pesticide poisonings as well as some types of slow heart rate, and to decrease saliva production during surgery. It is typically given i ...
, which is used to treat bradycardia. Other drugs used for ventricular arrhythmia include
lidocaine Lidocaine, also known as lignocaine and sold under the brand name Xylocaine among others, is a local anesthetic of the amino amide type. It is also used to treat ventricular tachycardia. When used for local anaesthesia or in nerve blocks, lidoca ...
, amiodarone, bretylium, flecainide, procainamide, and mexiletine. Cardiopulmonary bypass is used if symptoms are refractory to treatment with these drugs. Successful use of charcoal hemoperfusion has been claimed in patients with severe aconitine poisoning. Mild toxicity (headache, nausea and palpitations) as well as severe toxicity may be experienced from skin contact. Paraesthesia, including tingling and feelings of coldness in the face and extremities, is common in reports of toxicity.


Uses


Medicinal

Aconite has long been used in Ayurveda and traditional Chinese medicine. Aconite was also described in Greek and Roman medicine by Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny the Elder, who most likely prescribed the Alpine species ''
Aconitum lycoctonum ''Aconitum lycoctonum'' (wolf's-bane or northern wolf's-bane) is a species of flowering plant in the genus '' Aconitum'', of the family Ranunculaceae, native to much of Europe and northern Asia.Flora Europaea''Aconitum lycoctonum''/ref> It is fo ...
''. Folk medicinal use of ''Aconitum'' species is still practiced in some parts of Slovenia. ''Aconitum chasmanthum'' is listed as critically endangered, ''Aconitum heterophyllum'' as endangered, and ''Aconitum violaceum'' as vulnerable due to overcollection for
Ayurvedic Ayurveda () is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific. Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population rep ...
use.


As a poison

The roots of ''A. ferox'' supply the Nepalese poison called ''bikh'', ''bish'', or ''nabee''. It contains large quantities of the alkaloid pseudaconitine, which is a deadly
poison Poison is a chemical substance that has a detrimental effect to life. The term is used in a wide range of scientific fields and industries, where it is often specifically defined. It may also be applied colloquially or figuratively, with a broa ...
. The root of ''A. luridum'', of the Himalaya, is said to be as poisonous as that of ''A. ferox'' or ''A. napellus''. Several species of ''Aconitum'' have been used as arrow poisons. The Minaro in Ladakh use ''A. napellus'' on their arrows to hunt ibex, while the
Ainu Ainu or Aynu may refer to: *Ainu people, an East Asian ethnic group of Japan and the Russian Far East *Ainu languages, a family of languages **Ainu language of Hokkaido **Kuril Ainu language, extinct language of the Kuril Islands **Sakhalin Ainu la ...
in Japan used a species of ''Aconitum'' to hunt
bear Bears are carnivoran mammals of the family Ursidae. They are classified as caniforms, or doglike carnivorans. Although only eight species of bears are extant, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of habitats throughout the Nor ...
as did the
Matagi The are traditional winter hunters of the Tōhoku region of northern Japan, most famously today in the Ani area in Akita Prefecture, which is known for the Akita dogs. Afterwards, it spread to the Shirakami-Sanchi forest between Akita and Aomor ...
hunters of the same region before their adoption of firearms. The Chinese also used ''Aconitum'' poisons both for hunting and for warfare. ''Aconitum'' poisons were used by the Aleuts of Alaska's Aleutian Islands for hunting whales. Usually, one man in a
kayak A kayak is a small, narrow watercraft which is typically propelled by means of a double-bladed paddle. The word kayak originates from the Greenlandic word ''qajaq'' (). The traditional kayak has a covered deck and one or more cockpits, each se ...
armed with a poison-tipped lance would hunt the whale, paralyzing it with the poison and causing it to drown. ''Aconitum'' tipped arrows are also described in the
Rig Veda The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts (''śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only one Sh ...
. It has, albeit rarely, been hypothesized that Socrates was executed via an extract from an ''Aconitum'' species, such as ''
Aconitum napellus ''Aconitum napellus'', monkshood, aconite, Venus' chariot or wolfsbane, is a species of highly toxic flowering plant in the genus ''Aconitum'' of the family Ranunculaceae, native and endemic to western and central Europe. It is an herbaceous pere ...
'', rather than via hemlock, ''
Conium maculatum ''Conium maculatum'', colloquially known as hemlock, poison hemlock or wild hemlock, is a highly poisonous biennial herbaceous flowering plant in the carrot family Apiaceae, native to Europe and North Africa. A hardy plant capable of living in a ...
''. ''Aconitum'' was commonly used by the ancient Greeks as an arrow poison but can be used for other forms of poisoning. It has been hypothesized that Alexander the Great and Ptolemy XIV Philopator were murdered via aconite. In 1524, in the first recorded human trial of poison since the ancient Greeks, Pope Clement VII is said to have intentionally poisoned prisoners with aconite laced
marzipan Marzipan is a confectionery, confection consisting primarily of sugar, honey, and almond meal (ground almonds), sometimes augmented with almond oil or extract. It is often made into Confectionery, sweets; common uses are chocolate-covered marzi ...
to test the effects of an antidote. The treated prisoner survived, while the untreated prisoner suffered a painful death. In April 2021, the president of Kyrgyzstan, Sadyr Japarov, promoted aconite root as a treatment for COVID-19. Subsequently, at least four people were admitted to hospital suffering from poisoning. Facebook had previously removed the President's posts advocating use of the substance, saying "We've removed this post as we do not allow anyone, including elected officials, to share misinformation that could lead to imminent physical harm or spread false claims about how to cure or prevent COVID-19".


Taxonomy

Genetic analysis suggests that ''Aconitum'' as it was delineated before the 21st century is nested within '' Delphinium'' ''sensu lato'', that also includes ''Aconitella'', ''Consolida'', ''Delphinium staphisagria'', ''D. requini'', and ''D. pictum''. Further genetic analysis has shown that the only species of the subgenus "''Aconitum (Gymnaconitum)'', "''A. gymnandrum'', is sister to the group that consists of ''Delphinium (Delphinium)'', ''Delphinium (Delphinastrum)'', and "''Consolida'' plus "''Aconitella''. To make ''Aconitum''
monophyletic In cladistics for a group of organisms, monophyly is the condition of being a clade—that is, a group of taxa composed only of a common ancestor (or more precisely an ancestral population) and all of its lineal descendants. Monophyletic gro ...
, "''A. gymnandrum'' has now been reassigned to a new genus, ''
Gymnaconitum ''Gymnaconitum'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae (buttercup or crowfoot family; Latin "little frog", from "frog") is a family of over 2,000 known species of flowering plants in 43 genera, di ...
''. To make ''Delphinium'' monophyletic, the new genus ''Staphisagria'' was erected containing ''S. staphisagria'', ''S. requini'', and ''S. pictum''.


Species

* ''
Aconitum ajanense ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' * ''
Aconitum albo-violaceum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' * ''
Aconitum altaicum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' * ''
Aconitum ambiguum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' * '' Aconitum angusticassidatum'' * ''
Aconitum anthora ''Aconitum anthora'', variously known as anthora, yellow monkshood, or healing wolfsbane, is a yellow flowering plant species of the genus '' Aconitum'' in the family Ranunculaceae. Its native range is widespread, but mainly in European mountai ...
'' (yellow monkshood) * ''
Aconitum anthoroideum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' * ''
Aconitum album ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' * ''
Aconitum axilliflorum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum baburinii ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum baicalense ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculace ...
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Aconitum barbatum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum besserianum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum biflorum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum bucovinense ''Aconitum bucovinense'' is a species of monkshood in the buttercup family Ranunculaceae, native to the Carpathians The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe. Roughly long, it is ...
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Aconitum burnatii ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculace ...
'' * '' Aconitum carmichaelii'' (Carmichael's monkshood) * ''
Aconitum charkeviczii ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum chasmanthum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum chinense ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' Siebold.&Zucc. aka '' Aconitum carmichaelii'' var. ''truppelianum'' * ''
Aconitum cochleare ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' * ''
Aconitum columbianum ''Aconitum columbianum'' is a species of flowering plant in the buttercup family known by the common names Columbian monkshood or western monkshood. This wildflower is native to western North America where it grows in riparian and other moist ar ...
'' (western monkshood) * ''
Aconitum confertiflorum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum consanguineum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum coreanum ''Aconitum coreanum'', known as Korean monkshood, is one of the species of ''Aconitum''. It is one of the crude botanical drugs that has been applied in Chinese medicine during past decades. Ecology ''Aconitum coreanum'' is a perennial shrub wit ...
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Aconitum crassifolium ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum cymbulatum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum czekanovskyi ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum decipiens ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum degenii ''Aconitum degenii'' is a species of flowering plant in the buttercup family known by the common name branched monkshood . Distribution This wildflower is native to Europe (south, south-east) where it grows in subalpine areas. Inhabited biotops ...
'' (syn. '' A. variegatum'' ssp. ''paniculatum'') * ''
Aconitum delphinifolium ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' (larkspurleaf monkshood) * ''
Aconitum desoulavyi ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' * '' Aconitum ferox'' (Indian aconite) * ''
Aconitum firmum ''Aconitum firmum'' (Czech: ''oměj tuhý'', Polish: ''tojad mocny'', Ukrainian: Аконіт міцний, Romanized: Akonіt mіtzniy) is a species of monkshood that is found in Southern Poland, Slovakia, and Czechia, with a few instances in Uk ...
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Aconitum fischeri ''Aconitum fischeri'' is a species of flowering plant of the genus ''Aconitum'', in the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae. It is native to Korea and Siberia and cultivated in gardens in temperate zones for its showy flowers. Plants bloom from early ...
'' (Fischer monkshood) * ''
Aconitum flavum ''Aconitum flavum'' ( 伏毛鐵棒鎚 , Chinese interpretation : Fluff iron hammer ) is a species of flowering plant in the genus ''Aconitum'' of the family Ranunculaceae, native and endemic to northwestern Sichuan, northern Tibet, Qinghai, Gansu ...
'' (Fluff iron hammer) * ''
Aconitum flerovii ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum gigas ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family (biology), fami ...
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Aconitum gracile ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' (synonym of '' A. variegatum'' ssp. ''variegatum'') * ''
Aconitum helenae ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum hemsleyanum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' (climbing monkshood) * ''
Aconitum henryi ''Aconitum henryi'' is a species of flowering plant in the buttercup family known by the common name Sparks variety monkshood. Description ''Aconitum henryi'' is a tall (up to tall), spindly, erect perennial which grows from rhizomes. It has gl ...
'' (Sparks variety monkshood) * ''
Aconitum heterophyllum ''Aconitum heterophyllum'', also called Atish/Atis/Patis/Ativish/Atvika, is a species of flowering plant in the genus ''Aconitum''. It is used in Indian systems of traditional medicine including Ayurveda. Available in the slopes in sub alpine an ...
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Aconitum hosteanum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum infectum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' (Arizona monkshood) * ''
Aconitum jacquinii ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' (synonym of '' A. anthora'') * ''
Aconitum jaluense ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' * ''
Aconitum japonicum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family (biology), fami ...
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Aconitum jenisseense ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum karafutense ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum karakolicum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum kirinense ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum koreanum ''Aconitum coreanum'', known as Korean monkshood, is one of the species of ''Aconitum''. It is one of the crude botanical drugs that has been applied in Chinese medicine during past decades. Ecology ''Aconitum coreanum'' is a perennial shrub wit ...
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Aconitum krylovii ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum kunasilense ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum kurilense ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum kusnezoffii ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' (Kusnezoff monkshood) * ''
Aconitum kuzenevae ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum lamarckii ''Aconitum lamarckii'', known by the common name Northern wolf's-bane, is a species of herbaceous flowering plant of the genus ''Aconitum'', in the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae. It is native to Europe and sometimes cultivated in gardens in tem ...
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Aconitum lasiostomum ''Aconitum lasiostomum'' is a species of flowering plant in the genus ''Aconitum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a g ...
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Aconitum lethale ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' (formerly ''A. balfourii'') * ''
Aconitum leucostomum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum longiracemosum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum lycoctonum ''Aconitum lycoctonum'' (wolf's-bane or northern wolf's-bane) is a species of flowering plant in the genus '' Aconitum'', of the family Ranunculaceae, native to much of Europe and northern Asia.Flora Europaea''Aconitum lycoctonum''/ref> It is fo ...
'' (northern wolfsbane) * ''
Aconitum macrorhynchum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum maximum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' (Kamchatka aconite) * ''
Aconitum miyabei ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum moldavicum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum montibaicalense ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum nanum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum napellus ''Aconitum napellus'', monkshood, aconite, Venus' chariot or wolfsbane, is a species of highly toxic flowering plant in the genus ''Aconitum'' of the family Ranunculaceae, native and endemic to western and central Europe. It is an herbaceous pere ...
'' (monkshood; type species) * ''
Aconitum nasutum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum nemorum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum neosachalinense ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum noveboracense ''Aconitum noveboracense'', also known as northern blue monkshood or northern wild monkshood, is a flowering plant belonging to the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae). Members of its genus ('' Aconitum'') are also known as wolfsbane. The United ...
'' (northern blue monkshood) * ''
Aconitum ochotense ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum orientale ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum paniculatum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum paradoxum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum pascoi ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum pavlovae ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum pilipes ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum plicatum ''Aconitum plicatum'' is a species of flowering plant in the buttercup family known by the common name garden monkshood.Encyclopedia of Life''Aconitum plicatum''(2018-05-03) Distribution This wildflower is native to Europe (Germany, Czech Republ ...
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Aconitum podolicum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum productum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum pseudokusnezowii ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' * '' Aconitum puchonroenicum'' * ''
Aconitum raddeanum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum ranunculoides ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum reclinatum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' (trailing white monkshood) * ''
Aconitum rogoviczii ''Aconitum lycoctonum'' (wolf's-bane or northern wolf's-bane) is a species of flowering plant in the genus ''Aconitum'', of the family Ranunculaceae, native to much of Europe and northern Asia.Flora Europaea''Aconitum lycoctonum''/ref> It is fou ...
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Aconitum romanicum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum rotundifolium ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum rubicundum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family (biology), fami ...
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Aconitum sachalinense ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum sajanense ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum saxatile ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum sczukinii ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum septentrionale ''Aconitum lycoctonum'' (wolf's-bane or northern wolf's-bane) is a species of flowering plant in the genus ''Aconitum'', of the family Ranunculaceae, native to much of Europe and northern Asia.Flora Europaea''Aconitum lycoctonum''/ref> It is fou ...
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Aconitum seravschanicum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum sichotense ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum smirnovii ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum soongaricum ''Aconitum soongaricum'' is a poisonous perennial herbaceous plant species of the genus ''Aconitum''. Distribution and habitat ''Aconitum soongaricum'' is endemic to Kashmir.,''Wang Wencai (王文采), Michael J. Warnock''Aconitum soongoricum ...
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Aconitum stoloniferum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum stubendorffii ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum subalpinum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' * '' Aconitum subglandulosum'' * ''
Aconitum subvillosum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum sukaczevii ''Aconitum sukaczevii'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Ranunculaceae, native to Irkutsk Oblast in Russia. It is known only from the northern slopes of the Khamar-Daban Hamar-Daban (russian: Хама́р-Даба́н; bua, Һа ...
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Aconitum taigicola ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' * ''
Aconitum talassicum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' * ''
Aconitum tanguticum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
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Aconitum tauricum ''Aconitum tauricum'' is a species of flowering plant in the buttercup family.The Plant List (KEW)''Aconitum tauricum''(2018-05-03) Some sources declare it as a subspecies of ''Aconitum napellus'' under the name ''Aconitum napellus subsp. tauricu ...
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Aconitum turczaninowii ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' * ''
Aconitum umbrosum ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' * '' Aconitum uncinatum'' (southern blue monkshood) * ''
Aconitum variegatum ''Aconitum variegatum'' is a species of flowering plant belonging to the family Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae (buttercup or crowfoot family; Latin "little frog", from "frog") is a family of over 2,000 known species of flowering plants in 43 ge ...
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Aconitum violaceum ''Aconitum violaceum'' is a species of perennial plant distributed in the Himalayan region of India, Pakistan, and Nepal. Within India, it has been recorded in the alpine slopes in an altitude range of . The plant is used in traditional Tibetan m ...
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Aconitum volubile ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculace ...
'' * ''
Aconitum vulparia ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Ranunculaceae. ...
'' (wolf's bane) * ''
Aconitum woroschilovii ''Aconitum'' (), also known as aconite, monkshood, wolf's-bane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, queen of poisons, or blue rocket, is a genus of over 250 species of flowering plants belonging to the family (biology), fami ...
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Natural hybrids

* ''Aconitum ''×'' austriacum'' * ''Aconitum ''×'' cammarum'' * ''Aconitum ''×'' hebegynum'' * ''Aconitum ''×'' oenipontanum'' (''A. variegatum'' ssp. ''variegatum'' × ssp. ''paniculatum'') * ''Aconitum ''×'' pilosiusculum'' * ''Aconitum ''×'' platanifolium'' (''A. lycoctonum'' ssp. ''neapolitanum'' × ssp. ''vulparia'') * ''Aconitum ''×'' zahlbruckneri'' (''A. napellus'' ssp. ''vulgare'' × ''A. variegatum'' ssp. ''variegatum'')


As a poison

Aconite has been understood as a poison from ancient times, and is frequently represented as such in fiction. In Greek mythology, the goddess Hecate is said to have invented aconite, which Athena used to transform Arachne into a spider. Also, Medea attempted to poison Theseus with a cup of wine poisoned with wolf's bane. The kyōgen (traditional Japanese comedy) play , which is well-known and frequently taught in Japan, is centered on dried aconite root used for traditional Chinese medicine. Taken from Shasekishu, a 13th-century anthology collected by
Mujū Mujū Dōkyō ( ja, 無住道曉; 1 January 1227 - 9 November 1312), birth name Ichien Dōkyō, was a Buddhist monk of the Japanese Kamakura period. He is superficially considered a Rinzai monk by some due to his compilation of the ''Shasekishū' ...
, the story describes servants who decide that the dried aconite root is really sugar, and suffer unpleasant though nonlethal symptoms after eating it. Shakespeare, in ''Henry IV Part II'' Act 4 Scene 4, refers to aconite, alongside rash gunpowder, working as strongly as the "venom of suggestion" to break up close relationships. In BBC drama ''Shakespeare and Hatherway'', series 2, episode 9, a tennis player is poisoned through the skin of his palm by aconite smeared on the handle of his racquet. As a well-known poison from ancient times, aconite is well-suited for historical fiction. It is the poison used by a murderer in the third of the Cadfael Chronicles, ''
Monk's Hood ''Monk's Hood'' is a medieval mystery novel by Ellis Peters, set in December 1138. It is the third novel in The Cadfael Chronicles. It was first published in 1980 (1980 in literature). It was adapted for television in 1994 by Central for IT ...
'' by Ellis Peters, published in 1980 and set in 1138 in Shrewsbury. In '' I, Claudius'', Livia, wife of Augustus, was portrayed discussing the merits, antidotes, and use of aconite with a poisoner. It also makes a showing in alternate history novels and historical fantasy, such as S. M. Stirling's, ''
On the Oceans of Eternity ''On the Oceans of Eternity'' is the third and final novel of the Nantucket alternate history series by S. M. Stirling. The novel was released in the United States and Canada on April 10, 2000, and was released in the United Kingdom on April 29 o ...
'', where a renegade warlord is poisoned with aconite-laced food by his own chief of internal security, and in the television show ''
Merlin Merlin ( cy, Myrddin, kw, Marzhin, br, Merzhin) is a mythical figure prominently featured in the legend of King Arthur and best known as a mage, with several other main roles. His usual depiction, based on an amalgamation of historic and le ...
'', the lead character, Merlin, attempts to poison Arthur with aconite while under a spell. In the 2003 Korean television series '' Dae Jang Geum'', set in the 15th and 16th centuries, Choi put wolf's bane in the previous queen's food. Aconite also lends itself to use as a fictional poison in modern settings. An overdose of aconite was the method by which Rudolph Bloom, father of Leopold Bloom in James Joyce's ''
Ulysses Ulysses is one form of the Roman name for Odysseus, a hero in ancient Greek literature. Ulysses may also refer to: People * Ulysses (given name), including a list of people with this name Places in the United States * Ulysses, Kansas * Ulysse ...
'', committed suicide.


Wolf's bane

In his mythological poem '' Metamorphoses'', Ovid tells how the herb comes from the slavering mouth of Cerberus, the three-headed dog that guarded the gates of Hades. As the veterinary historian John Blaisdell has noted, symptoms of
aconite Aconite may refer to: *'' Aconitum'', a plant genus containing the monkshoods *Aconitine Aconitine is an alkaloid toxin produced by various plant species belonging to the genus ''Aconitum'' (family Ranunculaceae), known also commonly by the na ...
poisoning in humans bear some passing similarity to those of rabies: frothy saliva, impaired vision, vertigo, and finally a coma. Thus, some ancient Greeks possibly would have believed that this poison, mythically born of Cerberus's lips, was literally the same as that to be found inside the mouth of a rabid dog. In John Keats's poem ''Ode to Melancholy'', wolf's bane is mentioned in the first verse as the source of "poisonous wine", possibly referring to Medea. In the 1931 classic horror film ''
Dracula ''Dracula'' is a novel by Bram Stoker, published in 1897. As an epistolary novel, the narrative is related through letters, diary entries, and newspaper articles. It has no single protagonist, but opens with solicitor Jonathan Harker taking ...
'' starring Bela Lugosi as Count Dracula and Helen Chandler as Mina Seward, reference is made to wolf's bane (''aconitum''). Towards the end of the film, "Van Helsing holds up a sprig of wolf's bane". Van Helsing educates the nurse protecting Mina from Count Dracula to place sprigs of wolf's bane around Mina's neck for protection. Furthermore, he instructs that wolf's bane is a plant that grows in central Europe. There, the natives use it to protect themselves against vampires. As long as the wolf's bane is present in Mina's bedroom, she will be safe from Count Dracula. During the night, Count Dracula desires to visit Mina. He appears outside her window in the form of a flying bat. He causes the nurse to become drowsy, and when she awakes from his spell, she removes the sprigs of wolf's bane, placing it in a hallway chest of drawers. With the removal of the wolf's bane from Mina's room, Count Dracula mysteriously appears and transports Mina to the dungeon of the castle. In the 1941 film '' The Wolf Man'' starring Lon Chaney Jr. and Claude Rains, the following poem is recited several times ''Even a man who is pure in heart and says his prayers by night, may become a wolf when the wolf-bane blooms and the autumn moon is bright.'' In the 1943 French novel ''
Our Lady of the Flowers ''Our Lady of the Flowers'' (''Notre-Dame-des-Fleurs'') is the debut novel of French literature, French writer Jean Genet, first published in 1943. The free-flowing, poetic novel is a largely autobiographical novel, autobiographical account of a m ...
'', the boy Culafroy eats "Napel aconite", so that the "Renaissance would take possession of the child through the mouth."p. 136, Our Lady of the Flowers by Jean Genet, tr. Bernard Frechtman, Grove Press, NYC, 1961 In the TV-show ''
Game of Thrones ''Game of Thrones'' is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D. B. Weiss for HBO. It is an adaptation of ''A Song of Ice and Fire'', a series of fantasy novels by George R. R. Martin, the first ...
'', one of Tywin Lannister's commanders is assassinated by a dart, identified by Tywin as Wolf's Bane, due to its scent. In the early 1980s, famed Spanish horror film star
Paul Naschy Paul Naschy (born Jacinto Molina Álvarez, September 6, 1934 – November 30, 2009) was a Spanish film actor, screenwriter, and director working primarily in horror films. His portrayals of numerous classic horror figures— The Wolfman, ...
named his production company "Aconito Films", an in-joke relating to the large number of werewolf movies he produced.


In mysticism

Wolf's bane is used as an analogy for the power of divine communion in ''Liber 65'' 1:13–16, one of Aleister Crowley's ''
Holy Books of Thelema ''The Holy Books of Thelema'' is a collection of 15 works by Aleister Crowley, the founder of Thelema, originally published in 1909 by Crowley under the title ', and later republished in 1983, together with a number of additional texts, under ...
''. Wolf's bane is mentioned in one verse of
Lady Gwen Thompson Lady Gwen Thompson (September 16, 1928 – May 22, 1986) was the pseudonym of Phyllis Thompson, author and teacher of traditionalist initiatory witchcraft through her own organisation, the New England Covens of Traditionalist Witches. Lady ...
's 1974 poem "Rede of the Wiccae", a long version of the
Wiccan Rede The Wiccan Rede is a statement that provides the key moral system in the neopagan religion of Wicca and certain other related witchcraft-based faiths. A common form of the Rede is ''An ye harm none, do what ye will'' which was taken from a longe ...
: "Widdershins go when Moon doth wane, And the werewolves howl by the dread wolfsbane."


Gallery

File:Aconitum napellus01.jpg, ''
Aconitum napellus ''Aconitum napellus'', monkshood, aconite, Venus' chariot or wolfsbane, is a species of highly toxic flowering plant in the genus ''Aconitum'' of the family Ranunculaceae, native and endemic to western and central Europe. It is an herbaceous pere ...
'' File:Aconitum-reclinatum01.jpg, Trailing white monkshood (''A. reclinatum)'' File:Aconitum-uncinatum01.jpg, Southern blue monkshood (''A. uncinatum'') File:Alaskan Monkshood Leaf.jpg, Wild Alaskan monkshood (''A. delphinifolium'') is a flowering species that belongs to the family Ranunculaceae. The picture was taken in
Kenai National Wildlife Refuge The Kenai National Wildlife Refuge is a wildlife habitat preserve located on the Kenai Peninsula of Alaska, United States. It is adjacent to Kenai Fjords National Park. This refuge was created in 1941 as the Kenai National Moose Range, but in 198 ...
in Alaska.


See also

*
Rufus T. Bush Rufus Ter Bush (February 22, 1840 – September 15, 1890) was an American businessman, industrialist, and yachtsman. His notable testimony against Standard Oil's monopolistic practices through railroad rebates left a lasting impression, while th ...
, industrial tycoon who died of accidental aconite poisoning


References


External links


James Grout: ''Aconite Poisoning''
part of the ''Encyclopædia Romana''
Photographs of Aconite plants

Jepson Eflora entry for Aconitum
{{Taxonbar, from=Q155904 Delphinieae Neurotoxins Plant toxins Ranunculaceae genera Werewolves Poisonous plants