British logistics in the Falklands War

The 1982 British military campaign to recapture the Falkland Islands
depended on complex logistical arrangements. The logistical difficulties of operating from home were formidable. The Argentine invasion of the Falkland Islands came at a time when the Royal Navy was experiencing a reduction in its amphibious capability, but it still possessed the aircraft carriers and , the landing platform dock (LPD) ships and , and six landing ship logistics (LSL) ships. To provide the necessary logistic support, the Royal Navy's ships were augmented by ships taken up from trade (STUFT).

The British Army and Royal Navy developed a base at Ascension Island, a British territory in the mid-Atlantic from the UK and from the Falkland Islands. Although it had an airfield with an excellent runway, there was only a small hardstand area for parking aircraft and no parallel taxiways. There was an anchorage, but no port facilities—just a lone jetty. Ascension was used as a convenient place for the amphibious ships to re-stow their equipment, and as a base for Hercules transport aircraft, which were modified by the addition of auxiliary fuel tanks and aerial refuelling probes. With the support of Victor tankers, these modifications allowed the transports to deliver priority supplies to the South Atlantic.

The 3rd Commando Brigade landed at Ajax Bay, Port San Carlos and San Carlos on East Falkland, but struggled to build up its supplies as the Argentine air forces made repeated attacks on ships in Falkland Sound. was struck by two Exocet AM39 missiles, and sank with three Chinook and six Wessex helicopters still on board, along with their tools and spare parts, and other vital stores including tent accommodation. The loss of the helicopters on ''Atlantic Conveyor'' was a serious blow; it forced the 3rd Commando Brigade to make a loaded march across East Falkland. The Brigade Maintenance Area (BMA) was struck by an Argentine air attack on 27 May that destroyed hundreds of rounds of mortar and artillery ammunition. Forward Brigade Maintenance Areas (FBMAs) were established at Teal Inlet for the 3rd Commando Brigade and Fitzroy for the 5th Infantry Brigade. Some 500 rounds per gun were delivered to gun positions by helicopters to enable the artillery to support the attacks on the mountains ringing Port Stanley. The successful conclusion of these battles resulted in the surrender of the Argentine forces in the Falklands on 14 June.

Background

Tensions between Britain and Argentina over the disputed Falkland Islands (Malvinas) rose swiftly after Argentine scrap metal merchants and Argentina Marines raised the Argentine flag over South Georgia Island on 19 March 1982, and on 2 April, Argentine forces occupied the Falkland Islands. The British government had already taken some action on 29 March, ordering the submarines and to sail for the South Atlantic. ''Spartan'' left Gibraltar on 1 April, and ''Splendid'' sailed from Faslane the same day. A third submarine, , followed on 4 April.

The Royal Fleet Auxiliary (RFA) stores ship was despatched from the Western Mediterranean to replenish the only British warship in the South Atlantic, the patrol vessel , which was down to its last three weeks' supplies. The tanker , which had left Curaçao bound for the United Kingdom with a full load of fuel, received orders on 27 March to divert to Gibraltar, embark stores there, and join ''Endurance'' and ''Fort Austin'' in the South Atlantic.

When intelligence was received in London on 31 March that the Falklands would be invaded on 2 April, the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, and the Secretary of State for Defence, John Nott, instructed the First Sea Lord, Admiral Sir Henry Leach, to ready a force to recapture the islands. The Commander-in-Chief Fleet, Admiral Sir John Fieldhouse, who was based at Northwood Headquarters, was placed in command of Task Force 317, with overall responsibility for this operation, codenamed Operation Corporate. Air Marshal Sir John Curtiss was appointed air component commander, and Major General Jeremy Moore, land component commander.

Rear Admiral Sandy Woodward, Flag Officer First Flotilla, commanded the aircraft carrier battle group (TG 317.8); Commodore Michael Clapp, the Commodore, Amphibious Warfare, commanded the amphibious force (TG 317.0); and Brigadier Julian Thompson, the landing force (TG 317.1). Thompson's force was built around his 3rd Commando Brigade, which had three battalions of the Royal Marines ( 40 Commando, 42 Commando and 45 Commando), and supporting units including its own logistic support unit, the Commando Logistic Regiment. About 80 per cent of the Commando Logistic Regiment's men were Royal Marines; the rest came from the British Army and Royal Navy.

Shipping

Amphibious

On 2 April, orders went out to make the Royal Navy's two aircraft carriers, and , ready to sail. Both had been involved in exercises in February and March, and were at HMNB Portsmouth for six weeks' maintenance. Many of ''Hermes''s major systems had been dismantled for the maintenance work. ''Invincible'' was in a better state of readiness, but her crew were on leave. The Royal Navy's two landing platform dock (LPD) ships, and , were also at Portsmouth, where the former was acting as an officer training ship and the latter was being mothballed, having been earmarked to be paid off under the terms of the 1981 Defence White Paper though that decision had been reversed only weeks prior to the outbreak of hostilities in the South Atlantic. She was hastily recommissioned, and her crew reassembled from their new postings. Each LPD carried four Landing Craft Utility (LCU) in its dock, and four of the smaller Landing Craft Vehicle Personnel (LCVP) on davits.

The rest of the Royal Navy's amphibious capability consisted of six Round Table-class landing ship logistics (LSL) ships. Four were immediately available: and were at HMNB Devonport, while and were at the Marchwood Military Port. The other two were further away: was in Belize, and could meet up with the fleet on its way south; but was in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, and would not be immediately available. It was therefore decided to use the stores ship , which was also in reserve at Portsmouth, as an LPD in the initial stages, after which she would revert to her normal role. ''Stromness'' departed on 7 April with 358 Royal Marines and 7,500 rations on board.

As vital as they were, these ships were insufficient for the logistics needs of a task force operating from home. Civilian ships could be obtained by charter or by requisition; but there was no time to allow ships to complete the deliveries of their cargo or meet their existing passenger booking obligations. The British government therefore resorted to requisitioning, a practice last exercised during the Suez Crisis in 1956. An Order in Council was issued on 4 April allowing any British ship to be requisitioned, along with anything on board. Civilian ships acquired became known as ships taken up from trade (STUFT). Half were requisitioned; the rest were chartered. Some companies, such as P&O, insisted on requisitioning, as it allowed them to break existing contracts.

Government policy was that only British-flagged vessels could be requisitioned, and only British nationals could serve as crewmen. British crewmen were retained, and a 150 per cent bonus was paid to those who entered the South Atlantic, considerably more than the extra £1 per day paid to members of the armed services. Among the RFA crews were some 400 Hong Kong Chinese, who were British Overseas Territories citizens. Some protested that their contracts said nothing about service in a war zone, but the Ministry of Defence refuted this. A declaration of active service brought everyone under the Naval Discipline Act 1957. A senior naval officer was assigned to each ship, with authority to direct the ship's actions and movements, even if, in the opinion of the master, it might put the ship at risk.

Many modern ships are designed for maximum economy in performing a specific task, which limits their flexibility. The ferries that plied the English Channel, for example, did not have the capacity to store enough fresh water for a voyage to the South Atlantic. STUFT had to have a combination of range, endurance and sea-keeping qualities. The need for range meant that ships could not take on sea water as ballast, making them less stable in the rough seas anticipated in the South Atlantic. Only one vessel was taken up for every four inspected. Over the next few months, 54 ships were requisitioned from 33 owners. During the Falklands War they carried of freight, 95 aircraft, 9,000 personnel, and of fuel.

On 3 April it was decided to add the 3rd Battalion, Parachute Regiment (3 Para) to Thompson's 3rd Commando Brigade. This ended plans for the amphibious force to carry the entire landing force. Even if troops were accommodated on the aircraft carriers, they could not carry what was now a 4,350-man force. Calculations indicated that capacity was short by 1,700 men, of stores and 60 vehicles. For a troop transport, an ocean liner was the best alternative, but there were few of these left. P&O's was chosen. She was on a cruise in the Mediterranean with a full complement of passengers and crew, but due to return to Southampton on 6 April. Some 400 of her crew were Asian nationals, and therefore had to be disembarked, but her master, Captain D. J. Scott-Masson, was a Royal Naval Reserve officer.

The Chiefs of Staff Committee subsequently recommended further reinforcing the 3rd Commando Brigade with another battalion, the 2nd Battalion, Parachute Regiment (2 Para). This was approved by the War Cabinet on 15 April. To carry it, the ferry was requisitioned on 17 April. She was far from ideal, as her ramp could not be lowered to the height of the mexeflote landing rafts carried by the LSLs, but the choices of available ships were limited. For transporting vehicles, a roll-on/roll-off vessel was preferred, as unloading facilities were unavailable in the Falkland Islands. The P&O ferry MS ''Elk'' was therefore requisitioned. It took on 100 vehicles, 2,000 tons of ammunition, and several hundred tons of stores. It was followed by the , which was taken up on 19 April. Cunard's container ship, was requisitioned on 14 April and converted into an aircraft transport.

Soon after his appointment as land component commander on 9 April, Moore began to press for British Army's 5th Infantry Brigade to be sent to the South Atlantic as well. Fieldhouse formally requested this on 27 April. The brigade had a strength of 3,961 men, and for 35 days' operations it required of ammunition, of stores, 205 vehicles and 19 helicopters. If the ships carrying the 3rd Commando Brigade were to be reused, even if the troops were flown to Ascension Island and embarked from there, they could not reach the Falkland Islands before the middle of June. It was therefore decided that the brigade would have to be carried in other ships. The War Cabinet only approved the despatch of the 5th Infantry Brigade on 2 May. The Cunard Line's was taken up just 19 hours before she was due to depart for the Mediterranean with cruise passengers.

To carry the 5th Infantry Brigade's vehicles and stores, two more roll-on/roll-off vessels were requisitioned, the and . ''Atlantic Conveyor''s sister ship, , was requisitioned for the same conversion to an aircraft transport on 4 May. They were joined by the helicopter support ship . ''Atlantic Causeway'' was loaded with vehicles and stores, requiring another vessel to carry the aircraft. It had also been decided to send another six RAF Harriers to augment the six already sent on ''Atlantic Conveyor''. MV ''Contender Bezant'' was requisitioned for conversion to an aircraft transport on 10 May, followed by ''Astronomer'' on 29 May.

Logistical

Fuel was a critical requirement of the task force, and for political reasons could not be obtained from South America or South Africa. Countries in South America, even if sympathetic, felt unable to offer overt support in a conflict involving a neighbouring state, while South Africa was an international pariah at the time due to its system of apartheid, and collaboration with its regime risked alienating other countries at a time when Britain needed all the support it could muster for its international diplomatic efforts. The nearest source of supply was Freetown in Sierra Leone, from the Falkland Islands. To carry the diesel fuel required by the gas turbines of the warships and the fuel oil required by ''Hermes'' and some of the older RFA and STUFT, the fourteen RFA tankers were supplemented by fifteen requisitioned tankers.

and ''Appleleaf'' accompanied Woodward's force of ships that sailed from Gibraltar, while and were detailed to accompany the force departing from the UK. was returning from Gibraltar to the UK; she was ordered to take on aviation fuel and petrol at Portsmouth. was in the Indian Ocean, and was ordered to proceed to the South Atlantic via the Cape of Good Hope. had been sold to Chile and was off the coast of Peru on its way there, but its government allowed it to be temporarily repossessed on 3 April. The first two tankers to be chartered were British Petroleum's ''British Esk'' at Hamburg and ''British Tay'' at Swansea on 5 April, followed by the ''British Tamar'' on 7 April, and ''British Dart'' on 9 April.

Although the Royal Navy ships in the task force were fitted with reverse osmosis systems for producing potable water, many civilian ships were not, and some ships needed more water than usual owing to their carrying additional passengers. The SS ''Fort Toronto'' was chartered from Canadian Pacific for service as a water tanker. The supply of water while under way was simpler than fuel, as the hoses are lighter and the quantities involved are not as great. The North Sea oil rig support ship SS ''Stena Seaspread'' was taken up to act as a repair ship. The Royal Maritime Auxiliary Service had one ocean-going tugboat, , but it was evident that more would be required, and three were requisitioned from the United Towing company: SS ''Salvageman'', ''Irishman'' and ''Yorkshireman''.

The Royal Navy had no hospital ships. had been built to allow its conversion into a hospital ship, but she required special fuel oil, and had only a 200-bed capacity. Instead, the P&O liner , which was in the Mediterranean on an educational cruise with a thousand schoolchildren on board, was requisitioned, and modified to become a hospital ship. A team of 135 medical personnel was assigned, which included members of Queen Alexandra's Royal Naval Nursing Service (QARNNS). This was the first time that QARNNS personnel had been deployed afloat since the Korean War. They brought a packaged 250-bed portable hospital and 90 tons of medical supplies with them. Beds were provided for 20 intensive-care patients and 94 medium-dependency patients. Up to 940 low-dependency patients could be accommodated in dormitories. Three s, , and , became ambulance ships.

Hospital ships were exempt from attack under the Geneva Conventions, but they also require that patients not be returned directly to the battlefield after treatment. Due to the distances involved, this meant that treatment on ''Uganda'' would involve a prolonged absence, even those with relatively minor injuries that were anticipated such as trench foot. Additional medical facilities were therefore established elsewhere in the task force. Surgical teams were also embarked on ''Hermes'', ''Fearless'' and ''Canberra''. In addition to the British Army medical staff embarked, there were 425 Royal Navy medical staff with the task force, including 103 doctors. Some 40 Royal Naval Reserve doctors were called up for service in the UK to replace those headed for the South Atlantic. The departure of so many trained personnel led to the suspension of nursing training at the Royal Naval Hospital, Haslar, and Royal Naval Hospital, Stonehouse. The Army Blood Supply Depot issued 800 units to the task force, and more units were obtained from a blood donation drive on ''Canberra''.

Dockyards

It was initially hoped that ships could be loaded and converted at commercial shipyards, but these were soon overwhelmed by the requirements for skilled labour and specialised facilities, and the burden fell on the Royal Navy Dockyards at Portsmouth, Devonport, Chatham, Portland, Rosyth and Gibraltar. These had been subject to cutbacks; redundancy notices had been issued at Portsmouth on 2 April, and Chatham and Gibraltar had been slated for closure. Along with Marchwood, the home of the Army's 17 Port Regiment and the home base of the six LSLs, they were not bound by legal limits on the handling of explosives. Marchwood had only a single jetty, capable of accepting two ships, and could not accept deep draft vessels. Most major ship conversions were carried out at Devonport. Portsmouth carried out seven major conversions, including ''Norland'', and fourteen minor ones, of which ten were tankers. These were the simplest conversions, as all they involved was installing communications equipment and replenishment at sea (RAS) systems to allow the tankers to supply fuel over the stern using a long, buoyant hose. Under normal circumstances they could pump per hour, whereas an RFA tanker could refuel warships running alongside, with transfer rates of per hour.

Other ships required major alterations. The conversion of ''Atlantic Conveyor'' at Devonport required the removal of 500 tie-down points for containers from her deck, adding a landing pad for helicopters and Hawker Siddeley Harriers, installing UHF radio equipment and satellite communications, providing accommodation for 122 men, installing a liquid oxygen tank, cutting additional hatches, and modifying the stern doors. Similar conversions were undertaken on ''Atlantic Causeway'', ''Contender Bezant'' and ''Astronomer''. The experience with ''Atlantic Conveyor'' allowed these to be converted far more quickly. The conversion of ''Uganda'' to a hospital ship was carried out at Gibraltar in 65 hours. Minesweepers were converted at Rosyth. Some 17 ships were fitted with helicopter landing pads; on ''Canberra'' and ''Queen Elizabeth 2'', the area around the swimming pool was used, as it had been designed to hold the weight of of water. On and the cable ship ''Iris'' there was insufficient room for the flight deck and it had to be cantilevered over the stern. All ships fitted to operate helicopters also had to have communications, lighting and glide path indicators.

The Royal Marines normally kept war reserves both afloat and ashore, but the floating reserve was on ''Sir Geraint'', and had just been unloaded for a routine transfer to another LSL. These were soon reloaded. A request to the Army for assistance for the Commando Logistic Regiment in moving stores from the depots was met by 150 trucks on the first day; 1,500 trucks would ultimately be used. The depots despatched one million operational rations and twelve million ordinary meals. They also supplied of ammunition, of fuel, and of stores. Eventually, would be moved through to the ports. Good weather at Devonport and Portsmouth permitted loading to be carried out in the open without the danger of perishable stores being damaged by rain.

Ships were not combat loaded—loaded in such a way that the weapons, ammunition, equipment and stores that the embarked troops would require on landing were immediately accessible. Most units sent critical equipment to the ports first, and this then became the first equipment loaded, and the last that could be unloaded. ''Baltic Ferry'' had munitions stored deep in her holds that could only be retrieved by removing all the other cargo. Most of the 3rd Commando Brigade's ammunition, about of it, was loaded on ''Elk'', making that vessel a particularly vulnerable target.

Wheeled vehicles were not expected to be able to traverse the islands, so most were left behind. The 3rd Commando Brigade did take 54 of the Commando Logistic Regiment's 82 4-ton prime movers, ten of its fifteen fuel trucks, and nine of its forklifts. To make up for the wheeled vehicles, the 3rd Commando Brigade took 75 Bv202 tracked vehicles. These were fetched from Scotland by British Rail, the only use of rail during the initial deployment, because British Rail required seven days notice to reposition its rolling stock. Some 44 special trains were hired in the second week. All vehicles were loaded fully fuelled with two full jerry cans, a practice normally prohibited as a fire hazard. As it turned out, four-wheel drive vehicles were able to operate on the islands. The Commando Logistic Regiment was missing 383 Commando Petroleum Troop, as this was made up of reservists, who were not called up. Leaving personnel behind reduced the strength of the Commando Logistic Regiment from its normal peacetime strength of over 600 to just 346. The only supplement it received was three Surgical Support Teams. The 3rd Commando Brigade's air defences were bolstered by the addition of T Battery (Shah Sujah's Troop) Royal Artillery, armed with twelve Rapier missile launchers. The logistical implications of deploying and maintaining the battery in the field were not fully appreciated.

Ascension

The task force headed for Ascension Island, a British territory in the mid-Atlantic from the UK and from the Falkland Islands. Parts of the island were leased by the US under a 1956 treaty which expired on 20 July 1975, but continued on an annual basis until either government announced its intention to terminate. Neither had done so by 1982. A 1962 exchange of notes obliged the US to provide "logistic, administrative or operating facilities at the airfield" for use by UK military aircraft. Ascension had about a thousand inhabitants, all contractors or employees, or the family members of contractors or employees, of British or American companies that included Cable & Wireless, the BBC
...