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Yiddish cinema ( yi, יידישע קינא, יידיש-שפראכיגע קינא; trans. ''Idish-Sprakhige Kino'', ''Idishe Kino'') refers to the
Yiddish language
Yiddish (, or , ''yidish'' or ''idish'', , ; , ''Yidish-Taytsh'', ) is a West Germanic language historically spoken by Ashkenazi Jews. It originated during the 9th century in Central Europe, providing the nascent Ashkenazi community with a ver ...
film industry
The film industry or motion picture industry comprises the technological and commercial institutions of filmmaking, i.e., film production companies, film studios, cinematography, animation, film production, screenwriting, pre-production, post ...
which produced some 130 full-length motion pictures and 30 short during its heyday from 1911 and 1940. Yiddish film almost disappeared after
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
, due to the
Holocaust
The Holocaust, also known as the Shoah, was the genocide of European Jews during World War II. Between 1941 and 1945, Nazi Germany and its collaborators systematically murdered some six million Jews across German-occupied Europe; a ...
and the linguistic acculturation of Jewish immigrants, though new pictures are still made sporadically.
Silent era
In September 1911, at the
Minsk
Minsk ( be, Мінск ; russian: Минск) is the capital and the largest city of Belarus, located on the Svislach and the now subterranean Niamiha rivers. As the capital, Minsk has a special administrative status in Belarus and is the admi ...
Electric Theatre, a Jewish troupe led by A.M. Smolarsky accompanied a short projection of silent motion pictures with the Yiddish song ''A Brivele der Mamen'' (Letter to Mother). This was one of the first documented instances of Yiddish cinema. At the very same time, short silent films with Yiddish
intertitles
In films, an intertitle, also known as a title card, is a piece of filmed, printed text edited into the midst of (i.e., ''inter-'') the photographed action at various points. Intertitles used to convey character dialogue are referred to as "dialo ...
were being directed for Jews in the
Pale of Settlement
The Pale of Settlement (russian: Черта́ осе́длости, '; yi, דער תּחום-המושבֿ, '; he, תְּחוּם הַמּוֹשָב, ') was a western region of the Russian Empire with varying borders that existed from 1791 to 19 ...
and
Congress Poland
Congress Poland, Congress Kingdom of Poland, or Russian Poland, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland, was a polity created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna as a semi-autonomous Polish state, a successor to Napoleon's Duchy of Warsaw. It w ...
. The most notable producer was the
Warsaw
Warsaw ( pl, Warszawa, ), officially the Capital City of Warsaw,, abbreviation: ''m.st. Warszawa'' is the capital and largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the River Vistula in east-central Poland, and its population is officia ...
-based Mordka Towbin, whose studio Siła released four short features adapted from the plays of
Jacob Gordin
Jacob Michailovitch Gordin (Yiddish: יעקב מיכאַילאָװיטש גאָרדין; May 1, 1853 – June 11, 1909) was a Russian-born American playwright active in the early years of Yiddish theater. He is known for introducing realism and ...
within the year: ''Der Vilder Foter'' ("Cruel Father"), with
Zina Goldstein and
Ester Rachel Kaminska, directed by Marek Arnstein; ''der Metoiref'' ("The Madman"); ("God, Man and Satan"); and ''
Mirele Efros
''Mirele Efros'' was an 1898 Yiddish play by Jacob Gordin. Some have called it "the Jewish Queen Lear".
The title character is a powerful matriarch who becomes bitterly estranged from her own family. Lulla Rosenfeld, in her commentary to Jacob A ...
''. Another series of shorts based on plays were directed by a Warsaw studio Kosmofilm, founded by Shmuel Ginzberg and Henryk Finkelstein. Both companies employed the prominent actors of the city's
Yiddish theater
Yiddish theatre consists of plays written and performed primarily by Jews in Yiddish, the language of the Central European Ashkenazi Jewish community. The range of Yiddish theatre is broad: operetta, musical comedy, and satiric or nostalgic revu ...
scene. In total, including several ones meted out in Russia, some 20 silent court métrage pictures with Yiddish titles were made before the end of World War I.
The postwar years saw the production of full-length features.
Sidney M. Goldin, born in
Odessa
Odesa (also spelled Odessa) is the third most populous city and municipality in Ukraine and a major seaport and transport hub located in the south-west of the country, on the northwestern shore of the Black Sea. The city is also the administrativ ...
as Shmuel Goldstein, directed several films in America before moving to
Vienna
en, Viennese
, iso_code = AT-9
, registration_plate = W
, postal_code_type = Postal code
, postal_code =
, timezone = CET
, utc_offset = +1
, timezone_DST ...
in the early 1920s and trying his luck with Yiddish. He produced two films: the 1923 ''Mazel Tov'', starring
Molly Picon
Molly Picon ( yi, מאָלי פּיקאָן; born Malka Opiekun; February 28, 1898 – April 5, 1992) was an American actress of stage, screen, radio and television, as well as a lyricist and dramatic storyteller.
She began her career in Yidd ...
in a comedy of errors about a young American visiting her traditional family in
Galicia; and the 1924 ''Yizkor'', with
Maurice Schwartz
Maurice Schwartz, born Avram Moishe Schwartz (June 18, 1890 – May 10, 1960),[Soviet Union
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...]
, two silent Yiddish films were released during the decade. These were Alexander Granovsky's 1925 ''Idishe Glikn'' ("Jewish Luck"), based on
Sholem Aleichem
)
, birth_date =
, birth_place = Pereiaslav, Russian Empire
, death_date =
, death_place = New York City, U.S.
, occupation = Writer
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, genre = Novels, sh ...
's wheeler-dealer character Menachem Mendel, starring
Solomon Mikhoels
Solomon (Shloyme) Mikhoels ( yi, שלמה מיכאעלס lso spelled שלוימע מיכאעלס during the Soviet era russian: Cоломон (Шлойме) Михоэлс, – 13 January 1948) was a Latvian born Soviet Jewish actor and the ar ...
, and the 1928 ''Durkh Trennen'' ("Through Tears"), which likewise adapted Sholem Aleichem's ''
Motl, Peysi the Cantor's Son
''Motl, Peysi the Cantor's Son'', subtitled ''The Writings of an Orphan Boy'' (מאָטל פּייסי דעם חזנס; כתבֿים פֿון אַ ייִנגל אַ יתום — ''motl peysi dem khazns; ksovim fun a yingl a yosem''), is the last n ...
'' and was directed by Grigori Gritscher-Tscherikower.
In
independent Poland, executive Leo Forbert was responsible for three silent Yiddish features which did well at the box office: ''Tkies Khaf'' (1924), based on
S. Ansky
Shloyme Zanvl Rappoport (1863 – November 8, 1920), known by his pseudonym S. Ansky (or An-sky), was a Jewish author, playwright, researcher of Jewish folklore, polemicist, and cultural and political activist. He is best known for his play ' ...
's play ''
The Dybbuk
''The Dybbuk'', or ''Between Two Worlds'' (russian: Меж двух миров ибук}, trans. ''Mezh dvukh mirov ibuk'; yi, צווישן צוויי וועלטן - דער דִבּוּק, ''Tsvishn Tsvey Veltn – der Dibuk'') is a play by ...
'', ''Der
Lamed-Wownik'' (1925), set in the 1863
January Uprising
The January Uprising ( pl, powstanie styczniowe; lt, 1863 metų sukilimas; ua, Січневе повстання; russian: Польское восстание; ) was an insurrection principally in Russia's Kingdom of Poland that was aimed at ...
, and ''In di Poylishe Velder'' (1927). These films were even exported to
Romania
Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, S ...
and other countries for local Jewish audiences. Forbert's productions represented the pinnacle of Yiddish cinema up to that time, and were of relatively high artistic quality. However, they were the last for several years. New York had a thriving Yiddish cultural scene, and in 1926 Maurice Schwartz directed the first American picture in the language, ''Tsebrokhene Hertser'' ("Broken Hearts"), based on the play by
Jacob Adler
Jacob Pavlovich Adler (Yiddish: יעקבֿ פּאַװלאָװיטש אַדלער; born Yankev P. Adler; February 12, 1855 – April 1, 1926)IMDB biography was a Jewish actor and star of Yiddish theater, first in Odessa, and later in London and ...
and starring Schwartz and
Lila Lee
Lila Lee (born Augusta Wilhelmena Fredericka Appel; July 25, 1905 – November 13, 1973) was a prominent screen actress, primarily a leading lady, of the silent film and early sound film eras.
Early life
The daughter of Augusta Fredericka Appe ...
.
Talkies
In 1929, Sydney M. Goldin returned from Vienna to the
Lower East Side
The Lower East Side, sometimes abbreviated as LES, is a historic neighborhood in the southeastern part of Manhattan in New York City. It is located roughly between the Bowery and the East River from Canal to Houston streets.
Traditionally an im ...
, where he formed a partnership with producer Max Cohen. They decided to use popularized sound technology. In May 1929 they completed ''East Side Sadie'', which had a few scenes with synchronized dialogue:
J. Hoberman
James Lewis Hoberman (born March 14, 1949) is an American film critic, journalist, author and academic. He began working at ''The Village Voice'' in the 1970s, became a full-time staff writer in 1983, and was the newspaper's senior film critic ...
noted that in fact, it "contained scarcely more Yiddish than the few words heard in ''
The Younger Generation
''The Younger Generation'' is a 1929 American part-talkie drama film directed by Frank Capra and starring Ricardo Cortez. It was produced by Jack Cohn for Columbia Pictures. It was Capra's first sound film. While mostly silent, the film has t ...
''". Then, on 25 October, they released ''Ad Mosay'' ("Until When"; English title: ''The Eternal Prayer''). With a budget of $3,000, this 36-minute musical
revue
A revue is a type of multi-act popular theatrical entertainment that combines music, dance, and sketches. The revue has its roots in 19th century popular entertainment and melodrama but grew into a substantial cultural presence of its own duri ...
loosely inspired by the
1929 Hebron massacre was the first real Yiddish talkie. Goldin then allied with executive
Joseph Seiden
Joseph Seiden (; 1892–1974) was a pioneering American Yiddish language film producer of the early twentieth century. He released a large number of low-budget, sentimental Yiddish dramas during the 1930s and 1940s. He also directed ''Paradise in ...
, who established the studio Judea Film and was keen on reaching the large Yiddish-speaking immigrant public. The pair produced eight short (one or two reel) sound pictures within just a year, each within a $3,000 budget and a single day of principal photography. The artistic quality of these films was deemed so low that the Yiddish Actors' Union prohibited its members from appearing in them, lest they damage the union's reputation.
Goldin chose to attempt a more serious – and expensive – approach. He found new investors and, in 1931, spent $20,000 on making the musical ''Zayn Vayb's Liubovnik'' ("
His Own Wife's Lover"), the first full-length sound feature film in the language. Goldin continued to direct, and though leading as the most prolific Yiddish film director in history with 29 titles, he was joined by a few others in the field.
George Roland
George Roland (1881-1961) was a Yiddish language film director and editor of the 1930s.
Biography Early life
George was born in the Russian Empire on June 30, 1881. His exact birthplace, education or early life are poorly documented. Earlier in hi ...
, for one, created eight Yiddish films in America during the 1930s. New York, with its bustling ethnic cinema industry which aimed to satisfy the immigrants' demand for films in their native languages (from Spanish to Ukrainian), now surpassed Eastern Europe in producing Yiddish-language films.
In the Soviet Union, while Jewish-themed film was not uncommon, only a single Yiddish sound motion picture was ever produced. This was Boris Shpis' 1932 ''Nosn Beker fort Aheym'' ("
The Return of Nathan Becker"), about a Soviet-Jewish worker who travels to America only to be disillusioned with capitalism. In Poland, Alexander Marten's 1935 ''Al Khet'' ("For the Sin") had synchronized sound and was also the country's first Yiddish film after an eight-year hiatus.
The move to sound was also accompanied by an attempt to reach the market in
Mandatory Palestine
Mandatory Palestine ( ar, فلسطين الانتدابية '; he, פָּלֶשְׂתִּינָה (א״י) ', where "E.Y." indicates ''’Eretz Yiśrā’ēl'', the Land of Israel) was a geopolitical entity established between 1920 and 1948 ...
. However, Yiddish raised the bitter ire of
Hebrew-only proponents, who led a vigorous campaign to suppress the language in the country. On 27 September 1930, Goldin's ''A Idishe Mame'' ("A Jewish Mother") opened in
Tel Aviv
Tel Aviv-Yafo ( he, תֵּל־אָבִיב-יָפוֹ, translit=Tēl-ʾĀvīv-Yāfō ; ar, تَلّ أَبِيب – يَافَا, translit=Tall ʾAbīb-Yāfā, links=no), often referred to as just Tel Aviv, is the most populous city in the G ...
. A violent disturbance erupted and the screen was pelted with ink-filled eggs. The distributors backed down and agreed to release the film in a silent format. Ya'akov Davidon dubbed Yiddish films into Hebrew for the next few years, the only way they were allowed under what
Ella Shohat
Ella Shohat (Hebrew: אלה חביבה שוחט; Arabic: إيلا حبيبة شوحيط) is a professor of cultural studies at New York University, where she teaches in the departments of Art & Public Policy and Middle Eastern & Islamic Studies.
...
termed "the unofficial banning of Yiddish in the
Yishuv
Yishuv ( he, ישוב, literally "settlement"), Ha-Yishuv ( he, הישוב, ''the Yishuv''), or Ha-Yishuv Ha-Ivri ( he, הישוב העברי, ''the Hebrew Yishuv''), is the body of Jewish residents in the Land of Israel (corresponding to the s ...
".
Brief golden age
Producer
Joseph Green was dissatisfied with the low artistic merit of American Yiddish film. He concluded that in Poland he would be able to minimize production costs and yet have access to first-rate actors and equipment. After enlisting
Molly Picon
Molly Picon ( yi, מאָלי פּיקאָן; born Malka Opiekun; February 28, 1898 – April 5, 1992) was an American actress of stage, screen, radio and television, as well as a lyricist and dramatic storyteller.
She began her career in Yidd ...
at a relatively astronomical fee of $10,000, he travelled to Warsaw and directed ''
Yiddle with His Fiddle'' in 1936. At a total budget of $50,000, the story of a young woman who dresses as a man and joins her father's
klezmer
Klezmer ( yi, קלעזמער or ) is an instrumental musical tradition of the Ashkenazi Jews of Central and Eastern Europe. The essential elements of the tradition include dance tunes, ritual melodies, and virtuosic improvisations played for l ...
band became a worldwide hit among Jewish audiences. Expenses were covered even before its American premiere. The film was exported to Australia, South Africa, and Western Europe, where it was greeted by local Jewish immigrants. While no detailed records were kept, hundreds of thousands of tickets were sold. It was even sent to
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany (lit. "National Socialist State"), ' (lit. "Nazi State") for short; also ' (lit. "National Socialist Germany") (officially known as the German Reich from 1933 until 1943, and the Greater German Reich from 1943 to 1945) was ...
, where Jews were banned from Aryan movie theaters and
had to hold their own screenings.
''Yiddle'' commercial success inaugurated a short boom of Yiddish cinema. Convinced there was a large enough market, producer Roman Rebush hired director
Edgar G. Ulmer to adapt
Peretz Hirschbein
Peretz Hirshbein ( yi, פרץ הירשביין;7 November 1880, Melnik, Kleszczele, Grodno Governorate – 16 August 1948, Los Angeles) was a Yiddish-language playwright, novelist, journalist, travel writer, and theater director. Because h ...
's play ''Green Fields''. Hirschbein's piece depicted a scholarly, melancholic (student) who leaves the study hall to meet "real Jews" and falls in love with a peasant's daughter whom he secretly tutors in Hebrew. Ulmer's ''
Green Fields'' had an international acclaim rivaling ''Yiddle with his Fiddle'', again with hundreds of thousands (even a million, according to one reporter) of viewers.
Green and Ulmer both remained in the Yiddish cinema and each directed several other films until the end of the decade. In 1937,
Michał Waszyński
Michał Waszyński (29 September 1904 – 20 February 1965) was first a film director in Poland, then in Italy, and later (as Michael Waszynski) a film producer, producer of major United States, American films, mainly in Spain. Known for hi ...
directed ''
The Dybbuk
''The Dybbuk'', or ''Between Two Worlds'' (russian: Меж двух миров ибук}, trans. ''Mezh dvukh mirov ibuk'; yi, צווישן צוויי וועלטן - דער דִבּוּק, ''Tsvishn Tsvey Veltn – der Dibuk'') is a play by ...
'' in Warsaw. Investors were impressed with the success of ''
Le Golem
''Le Golem'' ( cs, Golem) is a 1936 Czechoslovakian monster movie directed by Julien Duvivier in French language.
Plot
In a Prague ghetto, poor Jews find themselves oppressed by Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor (Harry Baur) which leads to talk am ...
'' and ''The Dybbuk'' was targeted also at non-Jewish viewers, the only Yiddish film conceived so. While not paralleling the sales of ''Yiddle'' or ''Green Fields'', it is considered by most critics as the highest quality and most artistically accomplished production in the history of Yiddish cinema.
The fourth great Yiddish film of the era was directed by Maurice Schwartz in 1939. ''
Tevya'', starring Schwartz as Sholem Aleichem's milkman, had a particularly high budget of $70,000 and a dark, contemplative plot, unlike most Yiddish productions which were popular
melodrama
A modern melodrama is a dramatic work in which the plot, typically sensationalized and for a strong emotional appeal, takes precedence over detailed characterization. Melodramas typically concentrate on dialogue that is often bombastic or exces ...
s. Photographed in
Long Island
Long Island is a densely populated island in the southeastern region of the U.S. state of New York (state), New York, part of the New York metropolitan area. With over 8 million people, Long Island is the most populous island in the United Sta ...
, it became the first non-English production to be selected for preservation by the American
National Film Registry
The National Film Registry (NFR) is the United States National Film Preservation Board's (NFPB) collection of films selected for preservation, each selected for its historical, cultural and aesthetic contributions since the NFPB’s inception i ...
in 1991.
In addition to these four major pieces, more than 20 Yiddish motion pictures were directed in the United States and Poland until 1940. Most were lighthearted comedies or emotional family dramas, like
Shimon Dzigan's and
Israel Shumacher's 1937 ''Freylikhe Kabtzonim''.
Decline and survival
At the very moment the industry seemed to be gaining momentum, the outbreak of World War II brought it to a complete halt. Six months before the war, Poland's last Yiddish film ''On a Heym'' ("Homeless") was released on 21 February 1939. 1940 still saw the completion of six pictures in the United States, including Ulmer's ''Amerikaner Shadkhn'' ("
American Matchmaker") and ''Der Vilner Balabesl'' ("Overture to Glory") starring
Moishe Oysher
Moishe Oysher () (March 8, 1906 – November 27, 1958) was an American cantor, recording artist, and film and Yiddish theatre actor.Zalmen Zylbercweig, ''Leksikon fun Yidishn teater'', Book 3, 2407. During the 1940s and 1950s he was one of the to ...
. Joseph Seiden's low-quality ''Mazel Tov, Iden'', an edited compilation of musical numbers, was the last, distributed in 1941.
With the extermination of Eastern Europe's Jews, Yiddish culture lost the bulk of its audience. In the US, the Americanization of the immigrants' children and their exodus from the East Coast's crowded neighbourhoods to suburbia signaled its demise, as well. In the Soviet Union, most Jews voluntarily eschewed
Yiddishist efforts in favour of cultural and linguistic
Russification
Russification (russian: русификация, rusifikatsiya), or Russianization, is a form of cultural assimilation in which non-Russians, whether involuntarily or voluntarily, give up their culture and language in favor of the Russian cultur ...
already in the 1930s; their children were raised speaking Russian, and state-led purges destroyed the remaining Yiddishist institutions.
In 1946, Saul Goskind founded the ''Kinor'' cooperative in Poland, producing newsreels and documentaries in Yiddish. In 1947 and 1948 ''Kinor'' released two full-length films, ''Mir Leben Geblibene'' ("We Who Remained Alive") and ''
Unzere Kinder
''Our Children'' ( yi, אונדזערע קינדער, ''Unzere kinder''; pl, Nasze dzieci) is a 1946 semi-documentary Yiddish-language film created in Polish People's Republic. It was directed by and based on the script by Rachel Auerbach and ...
'' ("Our Children"), directed by Nathan Gross. ''
Long Is the Road'' from 1948, the only Yiddish film to be made in Germany, was screened for the audiences at the
displaced persons camp
A refugee camp is a temporary Human settlement, settlement built to receive refugees and people in refugee-like situations. Refugee camps usually accommodate displaced people who have fled their home country, but camps are also made for interna ...
s. Meanwhile, Yiddish cinema disappeared in the United States along with the other ethnic film industries. The two last commercially distributed American films, ''Got, Mentsh un Tayvl'' (again an adaptation of Gordin's namesake play), and ''Honeymoon in the Catskills'', were released just a week apart on 21 and 27 January 1950. In 1957, a short documentary about the
Warsaw Jewish Theatre was the last Yiddish production in Poland.
Joseph Seiden recalled that the few remaining filmmakers had high hopes about a market in the newly independent Israel, but the state, and more so society, enforced a Hebrew-only approach. While official censorship was mild, Yiddish culture was still severely frowned upon and sometimes even legally persecuted; Dzigan and Shumacher had to introduce Hebrew parts into their shows to avoid complications. Ironically, at the very same time, the Israeli government produced two Yiddish short films, though not for internal consumption. ''Dos Getzelt'' (1950) and ''Di Toyer iz Ofen'' (1957) were both produced for the purposes of propaganda and fund-raising among American Jews. Only in the 1960s did the anti-Yiddish cultural climate sufficiently relax to allow the projection of Yiddish films with their original dialogue.
The language did not disappear from the screen. Apart from select lines in many Jewishly-themed pictures, much of the 1975 film ''
Hester Street'' was in Yiddish, as was the 1982 Belgian feature ''Bruxelles-transit''. In 1983 the first Israeli full-length Yiddish film was released, ''Az Men Gibt – Nemt Men'' ("When They Give – Take"), directed by Alfred Steinhardt. A second, ''The Last Love of Laura Adler'', about an elderly Yiddish actress dying from cancer, was distributed in 1990. In 2005, the emerging home video industry in
Ultra-Orthodox
Haredi Judaism ( he, ', ; also spelled ''Charedi'' in English; plural ''Haredim'' or ''Charedim'') consists of groups within Orthodox Judaism that are characterized by their strict adherence to ''halakha'' (Jewish law) and traditions, in oppos ...
circles also meted out an edutainment Yiddish piece, ''
A Gesheft''.
[Nadia Valman, Laurence Roth. ''The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Jewish Cultures''. Routledge, 2014. . p. 268.] In 2008, the student film ''My Father's House'', about two Holocaust survivors during the
1948 Arab–Israeli War
The 1948 (or First) Arab–Israeli War was the second and final stage of the 1948 Palestine war. It formally began following the end of the British Mandate for Palestine at midnight on 14 May 1948; the Israeli Declaration of Independence had ...
, was made in Israel. The 2010 ''Romeo and Juliet in Yiddish'' was an independent production which employed formerly ultra-Orthodox nonprofessional actors. The 2014 ''
Felix and Meira
''Felix and Meira'' (french: Félix et Meira) is a 2014 Canadian drama film directed by Maxime Giroux, and starring Martin Dubreuil, Hadas Yaron, and Luzer Twersky. It is about an improbable affair between two Montreal residents - one a marri ...
'' and 2017 ''
'' depicted scenes from the life of
Hasidim
Ḥasīd ( he, חסיד, "pious", "saintly", "godly man"; plural "Hasidim") is a Jewish honorific, frequently used as a term of exceptional respect in the Talmudic and early medieval periods. It denotes a person who is scrupulous in his observ ...
.
References
Bibliography
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External links
National Center for Jewish Filmand it
YouTube channel
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Cinema' at
The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe
''The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe'' is a two-volume, English-language reference work on the history and culture of Eastern Europe Jewry in this region, prepared by the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research and published by Yale Uni ...
.
List of all Yiddish-language films between 1911 and 1950
{{Authority control
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Jewish cinema