![WestPapua topo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/WestPapua_topo.jpg)
The West New Guinea dispute (1950–1962), also known as the West Irian dispute, was a diplomatic and political conflict between the
Netherlands
)
, anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands
, established_title = Before independence
, established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
and
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
over the territory of
Dutch New Guinea
Dutch New Guinea or Netherlands New Guinea ( nl, Nederlands-Nieuw-Guinea, id, Nugini Belanda) was the western half of the island of New Guinea that was a part of the Dutch East Indies until 1949, later an overseas territory of the Kingdo ...
. While the Netherlands had ceded sovereignty over most of the
Dutch East Indies
The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East Indies ( nl, Nederlands(ch)-Indië; ), was a Dutch colony consisting of what is now Indonesia. It was formed from the nationalised trading posts of the Dutch East India Company, which ...
to Indonesia on 27 December 1949 following an
independence struggle, it retained control over its colony on the
western half of New Guinea. The Indonesian government claimed this territory as well, on the basis that it had belonged to the Dutch East Indies and that the new Republic of Indonesia was the legitimate successor to the former Dutch colony.
During the first phase of the dispute (1950–1954), Indonesia pursued bilateral negotiations with the Netherlands. During the second phase (1954–1958), Indonesia attempted to raise support for its territorial claims in the
United Nations General Assembly
The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA or GA; french: link=no, Assemblée générale, AG) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN), serving as the main deliberative, policymaking, and representative organ of the UN. Curr ...
.
[Soedjati Djiwandono, ''Konfrontasi Revisited'', pp.1–2] During the third phase (1960–1962), Indonesia pursued a policy of confrontation against the Netherlands which combined diplomatic, political, and economic pressure with limited military force.
The final stage of the confrontation with Indonesia also involved a planned
military invasion
An invasion is a military offensive in which large numbers of combatants of one geopolitical entity aggressively enter territory owned by another such entity, generally with the objective of either: conquering; liberating or re-establishing ...
of the territory. The Indonesians also secured military weapons and political and military support from the
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...
, which induced the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
to intervene in the conflict as a third-party mediator between Indonesia and the Netherlands. Following the
New York Agreement
The New York Agreement is an agreement signed by the Netherlands and Indonesia regarding the administration of the territory of Western New Guinea. The first part of the agreement proposes that the United Nations assume administration of the terr ...
on 15 August 1962, the Netherlands, under U.S. pressure, handed West New Guinea over to a
United Nations Temporary Executive Authority
The United Nations Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) and the United Nations Security Force (UNSF) in West New Guinea was established during October 1962 in accord with General Assembly Resolution 1752 as requested in Article two of the New ...
, which subsequently handed the territory over to Indonesia on 1 May 1963. Following a
controversial plebiscite in 1969, West New Guinea was formally integrated into Indonesia.
Historical background
Origins
![NetherlandsNewGuinea-1916](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/NetherlandsNewGuinea-1916.jpg)
Prior to the arrival of the Dutch, two Indonesian principalities known as the
Sultanate of Tidore
The Sultanate of Tidore (Indonesian: كسلطانن تيدوري, ''Kesultanan Tidore'', sometimes ''Kerajaan Tidore'') was a sultanate in Southeast Asia, centered on Tidore in the Maluku Islands (presently in North Maluku Province). It was also kn ...
and the
Sultanate of Ternate
The Sultanate of Ternate (Jawi alphabet: كسلطانن ترنتاي), previously also known as the Kingdom of Gapi is one of the oldest Muslim kingdoms in Indonesia besides Tidore, Jailolo, and Bacan. The Ternate kingdom was established by ...
claimed suzerainty over
Western New Guinea
Western New Guinea, also known as Papua, Indonesian New Guinea, or Indonesian Papua, is the western half of the Melanesian island of New Guinea which is administered by Indonesia. Since the island is alternatively named as Papua, the region ...
.
The island territory was viewed by these sultanates as a source of massoy, nutmeg, turtle shell, other spices,
bird of paradise feathers, resins, and
Papuan slaves or their value equivalence in other goods.
In 1828, the
Netherlands
)
, anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands
, established_title = Before independence
, established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
established a settlement in Western New Guinea and also proclaimed sovereignty over the part of the island lying west of 141 degrees longitude. Considering that New Guinea had little economic value for them, the Dutch promoted Tidore as suzerain of Papua. By 1849, Tidore's borders had been extended to the proximity of the current international border between Indonesia and
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ( tpi, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niugini; ho, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niu Gini), is a country i ...
.
Dutch activity in New Guinea was minimal until 1898 when the Dutch established an administrative centre, which was subsequently followed by missionaries and traders. Under Dutch rule, commercial links were developed between West New Guinea and Eastern Indonesia. In 1883,
New Guinea
New Guinea (; Hiri Motu
Hiri Motu, also known as Police Motu, Pidgin Motu, or just Hiri, is a language of Papua New Guinea, which is spoken in surrounding areas of Port Moresby (Capital of Papua New Guinea).
It is a simplified version of ...
was divided between the Netherlands,
Britain
Britain most often refers to:
* The United Kingdom, a sovereign state in Europe comprising the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands
* Great Britain, the largest island in the United King ...
, and
Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
; with
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
occupying the German territory in 1914. In 1901, the Netherlands formally purchased West New Guinea from the Sultanate of Tidore, incorporating it into the
Netherlands East Indies
The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East Indies ( nl, Nederlands(ch)-Indië; ), was a Dutch colony consisting of what is now Indonesia. It was formed from the nationalised trading posts of the Dutch East India Company, which ...
. During
World War Two
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing ...
, Western New Guinea was occupied by the
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
ese but was later recaptured by the Allies, who restored Dutch rule over the territory.
Following the
Indonesian National Revolution
The Indonesian National Revolution, or the Indonesian War of Independence, was an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between the Republic of Indonesia and the Dutch Empire and an internal social revolution during Aftermath of WWII, postw ...
, the Netherlands formally transferred sovereignty to the
United States of Indonesia
The United States of Indonesia ( nl, Verenigde Staten van Indonesië, id, Republik Indonesia Serikat, abbreviated as RIS), was a short-lived federal state to which the Netherlands formally transferred sovereignty of the Dutch East Indies (except ...
, the successor state to the Netherlands East Indies, on 27 December 1949. However, the Dutch refused to include
Netherlands New Guinea
Dutch New Guinea or Netherlands New Guinea ( nl, Nederlands-Nieuw-Guinea, id, Nugini Belanda) was the western half of the island of New Guinea that was a part of the Dutch East Indies until 1949, later an overseas territory of the Kingd ...
in the new Indonesian Republic and took steps to prepare it for independence as a separate country. Following the failure of the Dutch and Indonesians to resolve their differences over West New Guinea during the
Dutch-Indonesian Round Table Conference in late 1949, it was decided that the present status quo of the territory would be maintained and then negotiated bilaterally one year after the date of the transfer of sovereignty. However, both sides were still unable to resolve their differences in 1950, which led the
Indonesian President
The President of the Republic of Indonesia ( id, Presiden Republik Indonesia) is both the head of state and the head of government of the Republic of Indonesia. The president leads the executive branch of the Indonesian government and is ...
Sukarno
Sukarno). (; born Koesno Sosrodihardjo, ; 6 June 1901 – 21 June 1970) was an Indonesian statesman, orator, revolutionary, and nationalist who was the first president of Indonesia, serving from 1945 to 1967.
Sukarno was the leader of ...
to accuse the Dutch of reneging on their promises to negotiate the handover of the territory. On 17 August 1950, Sukarno dissolved the United States of Indonesia and proclaimed the
unitary
Unitary may refer to:
Mathematics
* Unitary divisor
* Unitary element
* Unitary group
* Unitary matrix
* Unitary morphism
* Unitary operator
* Unitary transformation
* Unitary representation
* Unitarity (physics)
* ''E''-unitary inverse semigrou ...
Republic of Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guinea. Ind ...
.
Competing claims
The Dutch argued that the territory did not belong to Indonesia because the
Melanesian
Melanesian is the adjectival form of Melanesia. It may refer to:
* Melanesians
* Melanesian mythology
* Melanesian languages In linguistics, Melanesian is an obsolete term referring to the Austronesian languages of Melanesia: that is, the Oceani ...
Papuans were ethnically and geographically different from other Indonesians, had always been administrated separately, did not participate in the Indonesian Revolution and that the Papuans did not want to be under Indonesian control. According to the
political scientist
Political science is the science, scientific study of politics. It is a social science dealing with systems of governance and power, and the analysis of politics, political activities, political thought, political behavior, and associated c ...
Arend Lijphart
Arend d'Angremond Lijphart (born 17 August 1936) is a Dutch-American political scientist specializing in comparative politics, elections and voting systems, democratic institutions, and ethnicity and politics. He is Research Professor Emeri ...
, other underlying Dutch motives included West New Guinea's lucrative economic resources, its strategic importance as a Dutch naval base, and its potential role for housing the Netherlands' surplus population including
Eurasians who had become displaced by the Indonesian Revolution. The Dutch also wanted to maintain a regional presence and to secure their economic interests in Indonesia.
On the other hand, Indonesia regarded West New Guinea as an intrinsic part of the country on the basis that Indonesia was the successor state to the Dutch East Indies. A number of Papuans participated in the momentous
1928 Youth Pledge, which is the first proclamation of an “Indonesian identity” which symbolically was attended by numerous ethnic youth groups from all over Indonesia. Indonesian irredentist sentiments were also inflamed by the fact that several Indonesian political prisoners (mainly leftist and communist from the failed 1926 uprising) had been interned at a remote prison camp north of Merauke called
Boven-Digoel in 1935 prior to World War II. They made contact with many papuan civil servants which formed Indonesian revolution groups in Papua. Some support also came from native kingdoms mainly around
Bomberai Peninsula
Bomberai Peninsula ( id, Semenanjung Bomberai), otherwise known as the Bird's Beak Peninsula ( id, Semenanjung Paruh Burung), is located in the Western New Guinea region, opposite to and to the south of the Bird's Head Peninsula. To the west lies ...
which had extensive relationship with
Sultanate of Tidore
The Sultanate of Tidore (Indonesian: كسلطانن تيدوري, ''Kesultanan Tidore'', sometimes ''Kerajaan Tidore'') was a sultanate in Southeast Asia, centered on Tidore in the Maluku Islands (presently in North Maluku Province). It was also kn ...
, these efforts was led by
Machmud Singgirei Rumagesan
Machmud Singgirei Rumagesan was a king of Sekar and pro-integration activist from West Papua. He founded the movement Gerakan Tjendrawasih Revolusioner Irian Barat (GTRIB) in 1953, and became the member of Supreme Advisory Council in 1959. On 10 ...
, King of Sekar. These sentiments were also reflected in the popular Indonesian revolutionary slogan “Indonesia Merdeka- dari Sabang sampai Merauke” "Indonesia Free—from
Sabang to
Merauke
Merauke is a large town and the capital of the South Papua province, Indonesia. It is also the administrative centre of Merauke Regency in South Papua. It is considered the easternmost city in Indonesia. The town was originally called Ermasoe. It ...
. The slogan indicates the stretch of Indonesian territory from the most western part in Sumatra, Sabang, and the most eastern part in Merauke, a small city in West New Guinea. Sukarno also contended that the continuing Dutch presence in West New Guinea was an obstacle to the process of nation-building in Indonesia and that it would also encourage secessionist movements.
The political dimension
Local Indonesian nationalist movement
In 1944, Jan van Eechoud set up a school for bureaucrats in Hollandia (now
Jayapura). One early headmaster of the school was Soegoro Atmoprasojo, an Indonesian nationalist graduate of
Taman Siswa
''Taman Siswa'' ( en, Garden of Pupils) was a Javanese educational movement and school system
State schools (in England, Wales, Australia and New Zealand) or public schools (Scottish English and North American English) are generally pri ...
and former
Boven-Digoel prisoners who fled to
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
after
Japanese occupation, he later on tried to revolt on 31 December 1945 which failed. Many of these school early graduates and former associates of Soegoro would go on to found Indonesian independence movement in Western New Guinea, while some also go on to support Dutch authorities and pursue Papuan independence.
The news of Indonesian independence proclamation arrived in New Guinea primarily through shipping laborers associated with Sea Transport Union of Indonesia (Sarpelindo), who were working for ships under the flag of Australian and Dutch.
This led to the formation of the Committee on Indonesian Independence (KIM) in Abepura (currently in Jayapura) in October 1946. Originally it was led by Dr. J.A. Gerungan, a woman doctor who at that time led a hospital in Abepura-Hollandia. In December 1946, the leadership of KIM Jayapura changed to be led by
Martin Indey, a former colonial police who were former prison guard of Soegoro. His deputy was Corinus Krey while the secretary is Petrus Walebong. KIM was one of the first Indonesian nationalist groups in New Guinea, whose members were mostly former associates of Soegoro.
Simultaneously another separate Indonesian nationalist movement in New Guinea formed when
Dr. G.S.S.J. Ratulangie, was exiled at
Serui
Serui Kota (Seroei) is a city and capital of Yapen Islands Regency of Papua, Indonesia. As of 2021, the city has a population of 13,568. It is located on the island of Yapen
Yapen (also Japan, Jobi) is an island of Papua, Indonesia. The Yap ...
, along with his six staff by
NICA
Nica or NICA may refer to:
* Nīca, a village in Latvia
* Nica, the name in some languages of Nice, a French city
* Nica is an adjective which may refer to:
** Nicaragua
** Nicaraguan people
* Nica Airlines, an alternate name for Nicaragüense de ...
on 5 July 1946. In this exile he met with
Silas Papare, on 29 November 1946, an organization called
Indonesian Irian Independence Party (PKII) was formed. PKII was led by Silas Papare, alongside Alwi Rahman as chiefs, Ari Kamarea, Andreas Samberi as Secretary, and Thung Tjieng Ek as Treasurer.
A year later, on 17 August 1947, Silas Papare and former students of Soegoro, including
Albert Karubuy
Albert Bernardus Karubuy (born 5 January 1915) was a pro-integration activist from Papua and one of the three members that represented the Western New Guinea, West Irian province in the People's Representative Council after the 1955 Indonesian le ...
,
Marthen Indey Major TNI Marthen Indey (1912–1986) was a colonial police officer in New Guinea, Dutch East Indies who later became nationalist fighter in the Indonesian National Revolution and a supporter of Papua becoming part of Indonesia. He was declared a ...
, Johans Ariks, Lodewijk Mandatjan, Barent Mandatjan, Samuel Damianus Kawab, Franz Joseph Djohari and their supporters would held a red and white flag-raising ceremony to commemorate the Indonesian independence day.
KIM and PKII members began to start movements in other areas of New Guinea, most of these were unsuccessful, and the perpetrators were either imprisoned or killed. In
Manokwari
Manokwari is a coastal town and the capital of the Indonesian province of West Papua. It is one of only seven provincial capitals of Indonesia without a city status. It is also the administrative seat of Manokwari Regency. However, under pro ...
, a movement called Red and White Movement (GMP) was founded, which was led by Petrus Walebong and Samuel D. Kawab.
This movement later spread to Babo, Kokas, Fakfak, and Sorong.
In
Biak
Biak is an island located in Cenderawasih Bay near the northern coast of Papua (province), Papua, an Indonesian province, and is just northwest of New Guinea. Biak is the largest island in its small archipelago, and has many atolls, reefs, and c ...
, a local branch of KIM was transformed into Party of Indonesian Independence (PIM) under the head of Lukas Rumkorem. Lukas would be captured and exiled to Hollandia, with the charge he instigated violence among local population. Still the movement did not disappear in
Biak
Biak is an island located in Cenderawasih Bay near the northern coast of Papua (province), Papua, an Indonesian province, and is just northwest of New Guinea. Biak is the largest island in its small archipelago, and has many atolls, reefs, and c ...
, Stevanus Yoseph together with Petero Jandi from Palombangkeng, Terianus Simbiak, Honokh Rambrar, Petrus Kaiwai and Hermanus Rumere on 19 March 1948, instigated another revolt. The Dutch authorities had to send reinforcements from Jayapura. The Dutch imposed a harder penalty, with capital punishment for Petero Jandi, and live sentence to Stevanus Yoseph.
In
Sorong
Sorong is the largest city and the capital of the Indonesian province of Southwest Papua. The city is located on the western tip of the island of New Guinea with its only land borders being with Sorong Regency. It is the gateway to Indonesia's ...
, a revolt happened under the movement of Pioneers of Independence Organization in 1946. This organization formed by former
Heiho
were native Indonesian units raised by the Imperial Japanese Army during its occupation of the Dutch East Indies in World War II. Alongside the ''Heiho'', the Japanese organized ''Giyūgun'' (義勇軍, "Volunteer army"), such as the Java-based ...
was led by Sangaji Malan.
Meanwhile, besides pioneers of independence organization and the branch of PKII groups, another organization was formed on the 17 August 1947, called the Association of Young Men of Indonesia (PPI) under the leadership of Abraham Koromath.
Around the
Bomberai Peninsula
Bomberai Peninsula ( id, Semenanjung Bomberai), otherwise known as the Bird's Beak Peninsula ( id, Semenanjung Paruh Burung), is located in the Western New Guinea region, opposite to and to the south of the Bird's Head Peninsula. To the west lies ...
area of
Fakfak
Fakfak () is a town in West Papua and seat of the Fakfak Regency. It had a population of 12,566 at the 2010 Census, which rose to 18,900 at the 2020 Census.Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2021. It is served by Fakfak Airport. It is the only town i ...
, specifically in Kokas, Indonesian nationalism emerged under the King Al-Alam Ugar Sekar, Machmud Singgirei Rumagesan. He had history of disobedience against the Dutch authorities and was imprisoned in Hollandia. In prison, he managed to write a letter to
Husni Thamrin, a member of
Volksraad The Volksraad was a people's assembly or legislature in Dutch or Afrikaans speaking government.
Assembly South Africa
*Volksraad (South African Republic) (1840–1902)
*Volksraad (Natalia Republic), a similar assembly that existed in the Natalia Re ...
in
Batavia
Batavia may refer to:
Historical places
* Batavia (region), a land inhabited by the Batavian people during the Roman Empire, today part of the Netherlands
* Batavia, Dutch East Indies, present-day Jakarta, the former capital of the Dutch East In ...
and influential veteran member of Indonesian nationalist, who succeeded in convincing the court to release him.
On 1 March 1946, he ordered that all the Dutch's flags in Kokas to be changed into Indonesian flags. The Dutch authorities later aided with incoming troops from
Sorong
Sorong is the largest city and the capital of the Indonesian province of Southwest Papua. The city is located on the western tip of the island of New Guinea with its only land borders being with Sorong Regency. It is the gateway to Indonesia's ...
arrested the King Rumagesan and he was given capital punishment, although later commuted to live imprisonment under popular demands. In 1946 in
Kaimana
Kaimana is a small port town in West Papua, Indonesia and capital of the Kaimana Regency. It had a population of 13,613 at the 2010 Census.
In March 2007, the Indonesian Navy conducted a training exercise off the coast of Kaimana in Kaimana Ba ...
, son of commissioned King of
Sran, Muhammad Achmad Aituarauw founded an organization called Independence With Kaimana, West Irian (MBKIB).
Through MBKIB, the people boycotted the celebration of
Queen Wilhelmina
Wilhelmina (; Wilhelmina Helena Pauline Maria; 31 August 1880 – 28 November 1962) was Queen of the Netherlands from 1890 until her abdication in 1948. She reigned for nearly 58 years, longer than any other Dutch monarch. Her reign saw World Wa ...
anniversary every 31 August. In response of this activity, Aituarauw was arrested by the Dutch and was exiled to Ayamaru for 10 years in 1948.
Other movements opposing the Dutch under local Papuan kings includes, New Guinea Islamic Union (KING) led by Ibrahim Bauw, King of Rumbati, Gerakan Pemuda Organisasi Muda led by Machmud Singgirei Rumagesan and Abbas Iha, and Persatuan Islam Kaimana (PIK) of Kaimana led by Usman Saad and King of Namatota, Muhammad Ombair.
Indonesian irredentism
![Presiden Sukarno](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Presiden_Sukarno.jpg)
Since 1947, in response to many civil servants, both Papuan locals and other islanders, sympathizing with Republican movement, the Dutch authorities increased its effort to imprison them or persuade them to switch sides although later on encourage them to pursue independence outside Indonesian Republic. In this early efforts, The most prominent members captured was
Martin Indey, Hemanus Rumere and his associates from
Biak
Biak is an island located in Cenderawasih Bay near the northern coast of Papua (province), Papua, an Indonesian province, and is just northwest of New Guinea. Biak is the largest island in its small archipelago, and has many atolls, reefs, and c ...
were captured and imprisoned in
Hollandia, meanwhile Corinus Krey was exiled to
Digul
The Digul River () is a major river in southern Papua (province), Papua province, Indonesia, on the island of New Guinea. It is the fourth longest river in New Guinea after Sepik River, Mamberamo River and Fly River. With a total length of and ...
. In 1949,
the Round Table Conference concluded with Indonesia granted Independence as RIS with Republic of Indonesia as a constituent while New Guinea was under the administration of Dutch authorities with provision to discuss its fate after 1 year. Civil bureaucrats formerly filled with other Indonesian islanders suspected of harboring republican sympathies, were replaced by displaced Eurasians from Java, who filled many posts, especially in the middle and lower-middle position, which as a result stunted Papuan upward mobility.
A Papuan advisory council in
Biak
Biak is an island located in Cenderawasih Bay near the northern coast of Papua (province), Papua, an Indonesian province, and is just northwest of New Guinea. Biak is the largest island in its small archipelago, and has many atolls, reefs, and c ...
, the Kainkain Karkara Biak, was established in 1947 on an elected basis but degenerated into a body that only advised the local District Officer on matters of customary law. A kind of municipal council had been envisaged in 1950 for some of the larger towns but discussions about their competence and membership composition dragged on over the years. Meanwhile, the Dutch managed to persuade some right-leaning Papuan elites like Markus Kaisepo, Abdullah Arfan, Johan Ariks, and also among leftist leaning elites like
Nicolaas Jouwe
Nicolaas Jouwe (24 November 1923 – 16 September 2017) was a Papuan people, Papuan leader who was selected to be vice president of the New Guinea Council that governed the Netherlands, Dutch colony of Netherlands New Guinea. As the president of ...
, while other elites, mostly leftist leaning, who refused to change sides were accused of subversive activities and mostly imprisoned. Right-leaning Papuan elites then went on to set up Gerakan Persatuan Nieuw Guinea (GPNG), or New Guinea Unity Movement, in a number of towns throughout the island. The program of the GPNG was essentially, repudiation of the Indonesian claim and support of the Netherlands administration.
Between 1950 and 1953, the Netherlands and Indonesia tried to resolve the dispute through bilateral negotiations, conflicts arose because by the end of 1950,
federal government
A federation (also known as a federal state) is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a central federal government (federalism). In a federation, the self-governin ...
structure collapsed and taken over by
republican government
Representative democracy, also known as indirect democracy, is a type of democracy where elected people represent a group of people, in contrast to direct democracy. Nearly all modern Western-style democracies function as some type of represe ...
which means The Netherlands had less say in Indonesian affairs. The Netherlands refused to follow on New Guinea provision of
Round Table agreement as it was considered void after this change. These negotiations were unsuccessful and led the two governments to harden their position. On 15 February 1952, the
Dutch Parliament
The States General of the Netherlands ( nl, Staten-Generaal ) is the supreme bicameral legislature of the Netherlands consisting of the Senate () and the House of Representatives (). Both chambers meet at the Binnenhof in The Hague.
The States ...
voted to incorporate New Guinea into the realm of the Netherlands. After that, the Netherlands refused further discussion on the question of sovereignty and considered the issue to be closed.
[Audrey and George Kahin, ''Subversion as Foreign Policy'', p.45] In response, President Sukarno adopted a more forceful stance towards the Dutch. Initially, he unsuccessfully tried to force the Indonesian government to formally abrogate the Round Table agreements and to adopt economic sanctions but was rebuffed by the
Natsir Cabinet
The Natsir Cabinet (Indonesian: Kabinet Natsir) was the first cabinet formed after the dissolution of the United States of Indonesia, United Republic of Indonesia and returned to the Indonesia, Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia. This c ...
. Undeterred by this setback, Sukarno made recovering West Irian an important priority of his presidency and sought to harness popular support from the Indonesian public for this goal throughout many of his speeches between 1951 and 1952.
In New Guinea, while the activities of PKII and KIM associated groups were greatly diminished after most of their leaderships was captured under subversive law, some successors groups still exist and fighting for integration with Indonesia. In Hollandia 1951, some Papuan from Western part of New Guinea founded the Partai Indonesia Islam, the party was fiercely against Dutch authorities and as a result was imprisoned and given sentences of 12 years. Another wave of arrest happened on 3 February 1952, this time group led by Simon Jentara who intended for advocating Western New Guinea integration with Indonesia.
On 2 May 1950,
RIS court release a decision to free King of Sekar, Machmud Singgirei Rumagesan who went on to lead Gerakan Tjendrawasih Revolusioner Irian Barat (GTRIB) in 1953, and in that year, there were 2 revolts against Dutch New Guinea Government, one from around his kingdom regions, led by Abutalib bin Paris from Kokas, and on 10 October 1953, from Waris district.
By 1953, the dispute had become the central issue in Indonesian domestic politics. All political parties across the Indonesian political spectrum, particularly the
Indonesian Communist Party
The Communist Party of Indonesia (Indonesian: ''Partai Komunis Indonesia'', PKI) was a communist party in Indonesia during the mid-20th century. It was the largest non-ruling communist party in the world before its violent disbandment in 1965. ...
(PKI), supported Sukarno's efforts to integrate West Irian into Indonesia. According to the historians Audrey and
George McTurnan Kahin
George McTurnan KahinSometimes referred to as George Kahin or George McT. Kahin. Some, but fewer, sources may also cite him as George M. Kahin. (January 25, 1918 – January 29, 2000) was an American historian and political scientist. He was on ...
, the PKI's pro-integration stance helped the party to rebuild its political base and to further its credentials as a nationalist Communist Party that supported Sukarno.
In the same year, during visit of the Netherlands Parliamentary mission, petitions were received from GPNG leaders in
Hollandia,
Biak
Biak is an island located in Cenderawasih Bay near the northern coast of Papua (province), Papua, an Indonesian province, and is just northwest of New Guinea. Biak is the largest island in its small archipelago, and has many atolls, reefs, and c ...
, and
Manokwari
Manokwari is a coastal town and the capital of the Indonesian province of West Papua. It is one of only seven provincial capitals of Indonesia without a city status. It is also the administrative seat of Manokwari Regency. However, under pro ...
. In addition to the usual expressions of loyalty these petitions voiced a strong desire for more education. Although local resentments over land disputes with Eurasian settlers brought by Dutch authorities were also expressed.
A Protestant labor organization, the Christelijk Werknemers Verbond Nieuw-Guinea-Perserikatan Sekerdia Kristen di Nieuw-Guinea (CWNG-Persekding) was founded in 1952. At that time, the salaries of Dutch officials and the fate of Eurasian contract workers were its main concern. It gradually developed specific Papuan welfare interests and became active in the educational field. Associated kaum ibu (women's clubs) were organized and mainly fought for modern labor legislation. Membership, especially the Papuan, increased rapidly after 1957 and reached over 3,000 by 1960. Many of these Papuan members would go on to join National Party (Parna) advocating for Papuan independence,
although over time, some members like E.J. Bonay and Frits Kirihio of Parna, advocated working with Indonesia with Parna becoming branch of Partai Nasional Indonesia (PNI) led by Herman Wayoi. This was in opposition with Kena U Embay, formed later on, who claimed Parna only advocated for position in bureaucracy and criticised Kirihio as 'Papuan Hitler', and advocated for union with Netherlands.
Early Indonesian incursions
![COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Leuzen tegen de aanwezigheid van Nederland in Nieuw-Guinea op de muren van een loods in Kebajoran TMnr 60034247](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Leuzen_tegen_de_aanwezigheid_van_Nederland_in_Nieuw-Guinea_op_de_muren_van_een_loods_in_Kebajoran_TMnr_60034247.jpg)
At the urging of President Sukarno,
Prime Minister
A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister is not ...
Ali Sastroamidjojo
Ali Sastroamidjojo ( EYD: Ali Sastroamijoyo; 21 May 1903 – 13 March 1975) was an Indonesian politician and diplomat who served as prime minister of Indonesia from 1953 until 1955 and again from 1956 until 1957. He also served as the Indo ...
began authorising limited incursions into West New Guinea in 1952.
[John Legge, ''Sukarno: A Political Biography'', pp.277–78.] However, these early incursions were militarily unsuccessful, and Indonesia did not launch any more military operations until 1960.
[Ken Conboy, 'Kopassus: Inside Indonesia's Special Forces', p. 62.] According to Ken Conboy, the first incursions were 'amateurish', the first infiltration of Gag Island in 1952 led to the arrest of the infiltrators within days. A second infiltration attempt one year later in 1953, this time directed at Kaimana, in like manner was promptly contained and the infiltrators arrested. A third infiltration attempt in
Etna Bay
Etna Bay ( id, Teluk Etna, nl, Etna-baai) is a bay in eastern Kaimana Regency, situated in the southeastern corner of West Papua province, Indonesia. Teluk Etnaat GeoNames.Org (cc-by) post updated 2012-01-17; database downloaded on 2015-11-27 T ...
1954 was a more serious affair, a well-armed party of 42 infiltrators led by
Johannes Abraham Dimara
Major TNI Johannes Abraham Dimara (16 April 1916 – 20 October 2000) was an Indonesian National Hero from Papua.
Early life
He was born Arabei Dimara in Korem, North Biak, Biak Numfor on 16 April 1916 to a korano (village leader) Willem ...
were able to abduct the Dutch police officer Sergeant van Krieken back to Indonesian territory. The infiltration force was engaged by Dutch marines, resulting in eleven Indonesian casualties and the capture of the remaining Indonesian forces, the Indonesian government reluctantly accepted it could not mount a credible military challenge against the Dutch in West New Guinea, and it was not until 1960 that Indonesia would again test the Dutch military position in West New Guinea.
Alongside this the Dutch authorities began capturing Papuan youths members of Organisasi Pembebasan Irian (OPI) from
Sorong
Sorong is the largest city and the capital of the Indonesian province of Southwest Papua. The city is located on the western tip of the island of New Guinea with its only land borders being with Sorong Regency. It is the gateway to Indonesia's ...
branch, as Dimara was a former chairman in 1950, he was exiled to
Digul
The Digul River () is a major river in southern Papua (province), Papua province, Indonesia, on the island of New Guinea. It is the fourth longest river in New Guinea after Sepik River, Mamberamo River and Fly River. With a total length of and ...
until 1960.
In
Digul
The Digul River () is a major river in southern Papua (province), Papua province, Indonesia, on the island of New Guinea. It is the fourth longest river in New Guinea after Sepik River, Mamberamo River and Fly River. With a total length of and ...
Prison, an organization called Untuk Pembebasan Irian (UPI) was formed in 1955 led by Benyamin Felubun, under the advice of
Johannes Abraham Dimara
Major TNI Johannes Abraham Dimara (16 April 1916 – 20 October 2000) was an Indonesian National Hero from Papua.
Early life
He was born Arabei Dimara in Korem, North Biak, Biak Numfor on 16 April 1916 to a korano (village leader) Willem ...
, this organization then spread to other location including in
Okaba led by C. Tamnge, in led by Yan Kameubun, and in
Mimika
Mimika Regency is one of the regencies (''kabupaten'') in the Indonesian province of Central Papua. It covers an area of 21,693.51 km2, and had a population of 182,001 at the 2010 Census, but grew to 311,969 at the 2020 Census. The official e ...
led by L. Renwarin. Mimika branch was mainly composed of many teachers from
Kei Islands
The Kai Islands (also Kei Islands) of Indonesia are a group of islands in the southeastern part of the Maluku Islands, located in the province of Maluku. The Moluccas have been known as the Spice Islands due to regionally specific plants such ...
who was assigned in this area under Dutch administration and also work against
RMS operatives in the area. By February 1960, UPI was transformed to Persatuan Semangat Pemuda 1945 (PSP-45). This organization memberships mainly work in intelligence in conjunction with Indonesian intelligence operatives and were trained and equipped to contact infiltration by Indonesia forces at later dates. In August 1960, Dutch authorities would capture 19 members of PSP-45 including its leaders, they would only be released on 15 October 1962 under
UNTEA.
United Nations involvement
![UN General Assembly hall](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/UN_General_Assembly_hall.jpg)
In 1954, Indonesia decided to take the dispute to the
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and international security, security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be ...
and succeeded in having it placed on the agenda for the upcoming ninth session of the
United Nations General Assembly
The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA or GA; french: link=no, Assemblée générale, AG) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN), serving as the main deliberative, policymaking, and representative organ of the UN. Curr ...
(UNGA). In response, the Dutch Ambassador to the United Nations,
Herman van Roijen
Jan Herman van Roijen (10 April 1905 – 16 March 1991) was a Dutch diplomat and politician. He was Dutch foreign minister in 1946.
Early life
Van Roijen was born in Constantinople on 10 April 1905. He was the son of Jan Herman van Roijen S ...
, warned that the Netherlands would ignore any recommendations which might be made by the UN regarding the dispute. During the
Bandung Conference in April 1955, Indonesia succeeded in securing a resolution supporting its claim to West New Guinea from the Afro-Asian countries. Besides the Afro-Asian countries, Indonesia was also supported by the
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...
and its
Warsaw Pact
The Warsaw Pact (WP) or Treaty of Warsaw, formally the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, was a collective defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland, between the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern Bloc socialist republic ...
allies.
Meanwhile, the Netherlands' stance was supported by the United States, the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
,
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
,
New Zealand
New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
, and several Western European and Latin American countries. However, these countries were unwilling to commit to providing military support to the Netherlands in the event of a conflict with Indonesia. The
Eisenhower Administration
Dwight D. Eisenhower's tenure as the 34th president of the United States began with his first inauguration on January 20, 1953, and ended on January 20, 1961. Eisenhower, a Republican from Kansas, took office following a landslide victory ov ...
was open to non-violent territorial changes but rejected the use of any military means to resolve the dispute. Until 1961, the U.S. pursued a policy of strict neutrality and abstained on every vote on the dispute. According to the historian
Nicholas Tarling
Peter Nicholas Tarling (1 February 1931 – 13 May 2017) was a historian, academic, and author. He specialised in Southeast Asian history, and wrote on 18th- and 19th-century Malaysia, North Borneo, Philippines, and Laos, especially regarding ...
, the United Kingdom government took the position that it was "strategically undesirable" for control of the territory to pass to Indonesia because it created a precedent for encouraging territorial changes based on political prestige and geographical proximity.
The Australian
Menzies Government
Menzies is a Scottish surname, with Gaelic forms being Méinnearach and Méinn, and other variant forms being Menigees, Mennes, Mengzes, Menzeys, Mengies, and Minges.
Derivation and history
The name and its Gaelic form are probably derived f ...
welcomed the Dutch presence in West New Guinea as an "essential link" in its national defence since it also administrated a
trust territory
United Nations trust territories were the successors of the remaining League of Nations mandates and came into being when the League of Nations ceased to exist in 1946. All of the trust territories were administered through the United Natio ...
in the eastern half of New Guinea. Unlike its
Labor Party successor which had supported the Indonesian nationalists,
Prime Minister
A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister is not ...
Robert Menzies
The name Robert is an ancient Germanic given name, from Proto-Germanic "fame" and "bright" (''Hrōþiberhtaz''). Compare Old Dutch ''Robrecht'' and Old High German ''Hrodebert'' (a compound of ''Hrōþ, Hruod'' ( non, Hróðr) "fame, glory ...
viewed Indonesia as a potential threat to its national security and distrusted the Indonesian leadership for supporting the
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
ese during World War II. In addition, New Zealand and
South Africa
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring countri ...
n governments also opposed the Indonesian claim to West New Guinea. The New Zealand government accepted the Dutch argument that the Papuans were culturally different from the Indonesians and thus supported maintaining Dutch sovereignty over the territory until the Papuans were ready for self-rule. By contrast, newly independent
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
, another
Commonwealth
A commonwealth is a traditional English term for a political community founded for the common good. Historically, it has been synonymous with "republic". The noun "commonwealth", meaning "public welfare, general good or advantage", dates from the ...
member supported Indonesia's claim to West New Guinea.
Between 1954 and 1957, Indonesia and their Afro-Asian allies made three attempts to get the United Nations to intervene in the dispute. However, all these three resolutions failed to gain a two–thirds majority in the United Nations General Assembly. On 30 November 1954, the Indian representative
Krishna Menon
Vengalil Krishnan Krishna Menon (3 May 1896 – 6 October 1974) was an Indian academic, politician, and non-career diplomat. He was described by some as the second most powerful man in India, after the first list of Prime Ministers of In ...
initiated a resolution calling for the Indonesians and Dutch to resume negotiations and to report to the 10th UNGA Session. This resolution was sponsored by eight countries (
Argentina
Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...
,
Costa Rica
Costa Rica (, ; ; literally "Rich Coast"), officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( es, República de Costa Rica), is a country in the Central American region of North America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the no ...
,
Cuba
Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbea ...
,
Ecuador
Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: ''Ikwadur Ripuwlika''; Shuar: ''Eku ...
,
El Salvador
El Salvador (; , meaning " The Saviour"), officially the Republic of El Salvador ( es, República de El Salvador), is a country in Central America. It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras, on the northwest by Guatemala, and on the south b ...
,
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
,
Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
, and
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia (; sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=" / ", Jugoslavija, Југославија ; sl, Jugoslavija ; mk, Југославија ;; rup, Iugoslavia; hu, Jugoszlávia; rue, label=Pannonian Rusyn, Югославия, translit=Juhoslavija ...
) but failed to secure a two-thirds majority (34-23-3). In response to growing tensions between Jakarta and the Hague, the Indonesian government unilaterally dissolved the
Netherlands-Indonesian Union
The Netherlands-Indonesia Union was a confederal relationship between the Netherlands and Indonesia that existed between 1949 and 1956.
History
On 15 November 1946 the Linggadjati Agreement was signed between the Netherlands and the soon-to-be in ...
on 13 February 1956, and also rescinded compensation claims to the Dutch. Undeterred by this setback, Indonesia resubmitted the West New Guinea issue to the UNGA's agenda in November 1956.
On 23 February 1957, a thirteen country–sponsored resolution (
Bolivia
, image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg
, flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center
, flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
,
Burma
Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John Wells explai ...
,
Ceylon
Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
,
Costa Rica
Costa Rica (, ; ; literally "Rich Coast"), officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( es, República de Costa Rica), is a country in the Central American region of North America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the no ...
,
Ecuador
Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: ''Ikwadur Ripuwlika''; Shuar: ''Eku ...
,
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
,
Iraq
Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq ...
,
Pakistan
Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
,
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in Western Asia. It covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and has a land area of about , making it the fifth-largest country in Asia, the second-largest in the A ...
,
Sudan
Sudan ( or ; ar, السودان, as-Sūdān, officially the Republic of the Sudan ( ar, جمهورية السودان, link=no, Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān), is a country in Northeast Africa. It shares borders with the Central African Republic t ...
, Syria, and Yugoslavia) calling for the United Nations to appoint a "good offices commission" for West New Guinea was submitted to the UN General Assembly. Despite receiving a plural majority (40-25-13), this second resolution failed to gain a two-thirds majority. Undeterred, the Afro-Asian caucus in the United Nations lobbied for the dispute to be included on the UNGA's agenda. On 4 October 1957, the Indonesian Foreign Minister
Subandrio
Subandrio (15 September 1914 – 3 July 2004) was an Indonesian politician and Foreign Minister and First Deputy Prime Minister of Indonesia under President Sukarno. Removed from office following the failed 1965 coup, he spent 29 years in pri ...
warned that Indonesia would embark on "another cause" if the United Nations failed to bring about a solution to the dispute that favoured Indonesia. That month, the Indonesian Communist Party and affiliated trade unions lobbied for retaliatory economic measures against the Dutch. On 26 November 1957, a third Indonesian resolution was put to the vote but failed to gain a two-thirds majority (41-29-11). In response, Indonesia took retaliatory measure against Dutch interests in Indonesia.
Escalating tensions
![Flag of West Papua](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Morning_Star_flag.svg)
In 1956, Papuan youths from
Fakfak
Fakfak () is a town in West Papua and seat of the Fakfak Regency. It had a population of 12,566 at the 2010 Census, which rose to 18,900 at the 2020 Census.Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2021. It is served by Fakfak Airport. It is the only town i ...
revolted and managed to burn a couple of police stations and stole some guns.
In response of the capture of PPI and OPI leaderships in Sorong, OPI began to be led by Bastian Samori, Yulius Worabay, Lodewijk Wosiri, Bob Warinusi, and . On 3 November 1956, this movement which consisted of 300 people planned a sabotage to blow up oil tank in Sorong. However the plan was foiled by the Dutch authority and they managed to capture E. Paprindey, Elimelek Ayoni and Franky Kossa in November 1959.
Multiple fierce fighting happened in
Enarotali
Enarotali is a town in Paniai Regency, Central Papua, Indonesia. It is located on the shore of Lake Paniai, in Western New Guinea highlands.
History
Enarotali is considered to be the only colonial city founded by the Dutch in the interior of ...
, between 1952 and 1954, the area around
Wissel Lakes were the center of a messianic movement called Wege. It was centered around the believe of ''
Ratu Adil
The Ratu Adil, literally meaning ''Just Queen/King'', is a messianic figure found in Indonesian folklore, more precisely in Javanese tradition. It is believed that he (or she) will establish universal peace and justice in the manner of similar fi ...
'' from Java would come and found ''kingdom of happiness'' which was based on a local folktale of Situgumina which travel to the west, in the direction of Java, and will return again to bring secret of life and death and wealth, as a result the Ekari should prepare for their arrival. The local people would began the preparation by setting up barracks in the middle of forest and participated in ceremony for weeks. The leader of this movement was Zacheus Pakage, a former priest from Bomou which had studied in
Ujungpandang, he would be captured and imprisoned in mid 1954, only freed in 1962. Another incident happened in Obano, 3 November 1956 when a missionary Cessna plane was burned by Ekaris which resulted in Dutch retaliations.
In August 1957, a couple of Dutch policemen were killed, around the area of
Wissel Lakes, and the second incidents happened in 1959. These events were known as "Enarotali Incidents". On July 6, 1959, in Genyem, Kotabaru, several former Japanese weapons were confiscated from the local people. However this led to revolt and Dutch police and marine units were sent to quell the revolt. Simultaneously with this event, a rebellion with messianic movement roots also erupted near the region of
Asmat. This movement began in 1956, which invited brutal retaliation by Dutch colonial authority and around 700 would be killed in Ayan village. Another revolt would began in 1958–1959, Dutch authority would deploy
HNLMS Piet Hein and resulted in around 1000 deaths in
Agats
Agats is a town in Asmat Regency, South Papua, Indonesia. An elevated settlement on a tidal plain, a Dutch outpost was set up in Agats in 1938 and the town became notable for the cultural practices of the Asmat people. Following the formation of A ...
These events would be known as "Agats Incident".
In 1960, successive rebellions happened, specifically in Kokas,
Fakfak
Fakfak () is a town in West Papua and seat of the Fakfak Regency. It had a population of 12,566 at the 2010 Census, which rose to 18,900 at the 2020 Census.Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2021. It is served by Fakfak Airport. It is the only town i ...
, in August and December 1960 which was led by Lapadanga and many of the perpetrators, were captured and exiled to
Digul
The Digul River () is a major river in southern Papua (province), Papua province, Indonesia, on the island of New Guinea. It is the fourth longest river in New Guinea after Sepik River, Mamberamo River and Fly River. With a total length of and ...
. Then in
Merauke
Merauke is a large town and the capital of the South Papua province, Indonesia. It is also the administrative centre of Merauke Regency in South Papua. It is considered the easternmost city in Indonesia. The town was originally called Ermasoe. It ...
November 1960, approximately 25 Papuan youths were arrested by the Dutch for holding a movement against the Dutch government. In Kotabaru there was also a fierce rebellion in the same year and is better known as the "Baliem Valley Incident." In suppressing this multiple rebellions, the Dutch authorities acted with brutality, inviting protests from the Dutch public, and local populations.
In
Biak
Biak is an island located in Cenderawasih Bay near the northern coast of Papua (province), Papua, an Indonesian province, and is just northwest of New Guinea. Biak is the largest island in its small archipelago, and has many atolls, reefs, and c ...
, there were also numerous arrests, including a teacher named Petrus Wettebessy who was arrested for his activities against the Dutch leading the organization Partai Irian Dalam Republik Indonesia Serikat, or PIDRIS alongside Corinus Krey and the party's deputy leader, Marthen Indey who was arrested separately in Ambon.
Then in December there was a rebellion between school children and teachers because of the arbitrary actions of a Dutch official against a Papuan youths. In
Sorong
Sorong is the largest city and the capital of the Indonesian province of Southwest Papua. The city is located on the western tip of the island of New Guinea with its only land borders being with Sorong Regency. It is the gateway to Indonesia's ...
, another incident happened involving members of OPI under the leadership of Bastian Samori, he was finally arrested and imprisoned by the Dutch authorities.
After the defeat of the third Afro-Asian resolution in November 1957, the Indonesian government embarked on a national campaign targeting Dutch interests in Indonesia; leading to the withdrawal of the Dutch flag carrier
KLM
KLM Royal Dutch Airlines, legally ''Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij N.V.'' (literal translation: Royal Aviation Company Plc.), is the flag carrier airline of the Netherlands. KLM is headquartered in Amstelveen, with its hub at nearby Amste ...
's landing rights, mass demonstrations and worker strikes in Dutch-owned companies, and the seizure of the Dutch shipping line
KPM,
BPM, , Dutch-owned banks, and other estates.
[John D. Legge, ''Sukarno: A Political Biography'', pp.402–03] A total of 700 Dutch-owned companies with a valuation total of around $1.5 billion was nationalised.
By January 1958, ten thousand Dutch nationals had left Indonesia, many returning to the Netherlands. This spontaneous nationalisation had adverse repercussions on the Indonesian economy, disrupting communications and affecting the production of exports. President Sukarno also abandoned efforts to raise the dispute at the 1958 United Nations General Assembly, claiming that reason and persuasion had failed. By June 1960, around thirteen thousand Dutch nationals mostly
Eurasians from New Guinea left for
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
, with around a thousand move to the Netherlands.
Following a sustained period of harassment against Dutch diplomatic representatives in Jakarta, the Indonesian government formally severed relations with the Netherlands in August 1960.
In response to Indonesian aggression and facing local pressure, the Netherlands government stepped up its efforts to prepare the Papuan people for self-determination in 1959. These efforts culminated in the establishment of a new hospital in
Hollandia (currently RSUD Jayapura), a shipyard in
Manokwari
Manokwari is a coastal town and the capital of the Indonesian province of West Papua. It is one of only seven provincial capitals of Indonesia without a city status. It is also the administrative seat of Manokwari Regency. However, under pro ...
, agricultural research sites, plantations, and a military force known as the
Papuan Volunteer Corps
The Papuan Volunteer Corps (PVK, Dutch: ''Papoea Vrijwilligers Korps'') was a corps consisting entirely of Papuans, formed on February 21, 1961. It was established to contribute to the defense of Dutch New Guinea against the infiltration of the I ...
. By the end of 1960, a legislative New Guinea Council had been established with a mixture of legislative, advisory and policy functions had been established. Half of its members were to be elected, and elections for this council were held the following year. These include setting up of local political parties, Those parties were: Partai Nasional (Parna) led by Herman Wayoi, Democratische Volks Partij (DVP) led by A.Runtuboy, Kena U Embay (KUD) led by Essau Itaar, Nasional Partai Papua (Nappa), Partai Papua Merdeka (PPM) led by Mozes Rumainum, Committee Nasional Papua (CNP) led by Willem Inury, Front Nasional Papua (FNP) led by Lodewijk Ayamiseba, Partai Orang Nieuw Guinea (PONG) led by Johan Ariks. Eenheids partij Nieuw Guinea (APANG) led by Lodewijk Mandatjan, Sama-Sama Manusia, Persatuan Kristen Islam Radja Ampat (Perkisra) led by M.N.Majalibit, Persatuan Pemuda-Pemudi Papua (PERPEP) led by A.J.F. Marey,
the Dutch also sought to create a sense of West Papuan national identity, and these efforts led to the creation of a national flag (the
Morning Star flag
The Morning Star flag ( id, Bendera Bintang Kejora, nl, Morgenstervlag) was a flag used in a supplemental fashion on Netherlands New Guinea to the flag of the Netherlands. It was first raised on 1 December 1961 prior to the territory coming un ...
), a national anthem, and a
coat of arms
A coat of arms is a heraldry, heraldic communication design, visual design on an escutcheon (heraldry), escutcheon (i.e., shield), surcoat, or tabard (the latter two being outer garments). The coat of arms on an escutcheon forms the central ele ...
. The Dutch had planned to transfer independence to West New Guinea in 1970. Exclusion in Niew Guinea Raad were parties and movements which openly supported Papuan integration with Indonesia, like KIM,
PKII, Persatuan Pejuang Kemerdekaan Irian Barat (PPKI) led by J. Dimara and I. Kilikulat, Organisasi Pemuda Indonesia Irian (OPII) led by N.C. Krey, PPI led by S.K. Tumengkol , Organisasi Pemuda Irian (OPI) led by D. Wosiri, Party Kemerdekaan Indonesia (PKI) led by Tan Tjung Ek, PIN, Partai Indonesia Islam, GMP, Gerakan Pemuda Indonesia (GPI) led by Rumbewas, Gerakan Rakyat Irian Barat (GRIB).
In 1962, GRIB staged a protest openly demanded that West Irian be returned to Indonesia during Dutch minister Bost visit to
Fakfak
Fakfak () is a town in West Papua and seat of the Fakfak Regency. It had a population of 12,566 at the 2010 Census, which rose to 18,900 at the 2020 Census.Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2021. It is served by Fakfak Airport. It is the only town i ...
. Aside from Papuan revolting in New Guinea, multiple Papuan individuals evade capture and fled to Indonesia, with some joining
Cendrawasih Battalion, like Corinus Krey, A. Koromath,
A.B. Karubuy, A.L.Maranni, N.L. Suages, Lt. Henkie Antaribaba, Lt. Ramandey, H.L. Rumaseuw, Lt. Wanggai, Lt. Numberi, and others who would become leaders for military infiltration during Operation Trikora. Other figures that received military training included AJ. Dimara, Benny Torey, Marinus Imbury, Zadrack Rumbobiar, Melkianus Torey, and Metusalim Fimbay.
While others joined Indonesian diplomatic delegations, which include:
M. Indey, Frits Kiriheo,
J.A. Dimara, alongside
S. Papare who had been living in Indonesian territories. Although no exact number of escapees from 1949 to 1961 was known, Yayasan Badan Kontak Keluarga Besar Perintis Irian Barat (Foundation for Irian Barat Veterans), listed 154 notable Indonesian nationalists from all over Papua, with most fled during 1959–1961.
Renewed diplomacy
![Luns, J](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Luns%2C_J.M.A.H._-_SFA008007314.jpg)
By 1960, other countries in the Asia-Pacific region had taken notice of the West Irian dispute and began proposing initiatives to end the dispute. During a visit to the Netherlands, the New Zealand
Prime Minister
A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister is not ...
Walter Nash
Sir Walter Nash (12 February 1882 – 4 June 1968) was a New Zealand politician who served as the 27th prime minister of New Zealand in the Second Labour Government from 1957 to 1960. He is noted for his long period of political service, havin ...
suggested the idea of a united New Guinea state, consisting of both Dutch and Australian territories. This idea received little support from both Indonesia and other Western governments. Later that year, the
Malayan Prime Minister
A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister is not ...
Tunku Abdul Rahman
Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al-Haj ibni Almarhum Sultan Abdul Hamid Halim Shah ( ms, تونكو عبد الرحمن ڤوترا الحاج ابن سلطان عبد الحميد حليم شاه, label= Jawi, script=arab, italic=unset; 8 Febru ...
proposed a three-step initiative, which involved West New Guinea coming under United Nations trusteeship. The joint administrators would be three non-aligned nations
Ceylon
Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
,
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
, and Malaya, which supported Indonesia's position on West Irian. This solution involved the two belligerents, Indonesia and the Netherlands, re-establishing bilateral relations and the return of Dutch assets and investments to their owners. However, this initiative was scuttled in April 1961 due to opposition from the Indonesian Foreign Minister
Subandrio
Subandrio (15 September 1914 – 3 July 2004) was an Indonesian politician and Foreign Minister and First Deputy Prime Minister of Indonesia under President Sukarno. Removed from office following the failed 1965 coup, he spent 29 years in pri ...
, who publicly attacked the Tunku's proposal.
By 1961, the Netherlands government was struggling to find adequate international support for its policy to prepare West New Guinea for independent status under Dutch guidance. While the Netherlands' traditional Western allies—the United States, Great Britain, Australia, and New Zealand—were sympathetic to Dutch policy, they were unwilling to provide any military support in the event of a conflict with Indonesia. On 26 September 1961, the
Dutch Foreign Minister Joseph Luns
Joseph Marie Antoine Hubert Luns (28 August 1911 – 17 July 2002) was a Dutch politician and diplomat of the defunct Catholic People's Party (KVP) now merged into the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) party and jurist. He served as Secretary ...
offered to hand over West New Guinea to a United Nations trusteeship. This proposal was firmly rejected by his Indonesian counterpart Subandrio, who likened the West New Guinea dispute to
Katanga's attempted secession from the
Republic of Congo
The Republic of the Congo (french: République du Congo, ln, Republíki ya Kongó), also known as Congo-Brazzaville, the Congo Republic or simply either Congo or the Congo, is a country located in the western coast of Central Africa to the w ...
during the
Congo Crisis
The Congo Crisis (french: Crise congolaise, link=no) was a period of political upheaval and conflict between 1960 and 1965 in the Republic of the Congo (today the Democratic Republic of the Congo). The crisis began almost immediately after ...
. By October 1961, Britain was open to transferring West New Guinea to Indonesia while the U.S. floated the idea of a jointly-administered trusteeship over the territory.
On 23 November 1961, the Indian delegation at the United Nations presented a draft resolution calling for the resumption of Dutch–Indonesian talks on terms which favoured Indonesia. On 25 November 1961, several Francophone African countries tabled a rival resolution which favoured an independent West New Guinea. Indonesia favoured the Indian resolution while the Netherlands, Britain, Australia, and New Zealand supported the Francophone African resolution. On 27 November 1961, both the Francophone African (52-41-9) and Indian (41-40-21) resolutions were put to the vote failed to gain a two–thirds majority at the
United Nations General Assembly
The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA or GA; french: link=no, Assemblée générale, AG) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN), serving as the main deliberative, policymaking, and representative organ of the UN. Curr ...
. The failure of this final round of diplomacy in the UN convinced Indonesia to prepare for a military invasion of West Irian.
The military dimension, 1959-1962
Indonesian-Soviet rapprochement
![AURI MiG-21](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/AURI_MiG-21.png)
As the dispute began to escalate, Sukarno also developed closer relations with the Soviet Union, which shared Indonesia's anti-colonial outlook. In July 1959, the Indonesian government adopted a policy of Confrontation (''Konfrontasi'') against the Dutch. According to the Indonesian political scientist
J. Soedjati Djiwandono
Johannes Baptista Soedjati Djiwandono (13 October 1933 – 9 January 2013) was an Indonesian political scientist who helped found the Centre for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) in Jakarta, one of Indonesia's leading think tanks.
Educati ...
, Indonesia's Confrontation policy involved the use of political, economic, and military force to induce an opponent to reach a diplomatic solution on Indonesian terms. Later that year, the Soviet government decided to supply warships and other military hardware directly to the Indonesians. By 1965, the
Indonesian Navy
The Indonesian Navy ( id, Tentara Nasional Indonesia Angkatan Laut, , Indonesian National Military-Naval Force, TNI-AL) is the naval branch of the Indonesian National Armed Forces. It was founded on 10 September 1945 and has a role to patrol I ...
had grown to 103 combat vessels and other auxiliaries (including a cruiser, twelve submarines, and sixteen destroyers and frigates). Due to Soviet military aid, the Indonesian Navy became the second most potent force in East Asia after
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
. The
Indonesian Air Force
The Indonesian Air Force ( id, Tentara Nasional Indonesia Angkatan Udara (TNI-AU), literally "''Indonesian National Military-Air Force''") sometimes shortened as IDAF / IdAF, is the aerial branch of the Indonesian National Armed Forces. The ...
also benefited from an infusion of Soviet military hardware and training, developing a long-range capability.
Bolstered by Soviet military weapons and equipment, Indonesia had begun to reconsider the viability of renewing military operations against Dutch forces in West New Guinea. On 9 November 1960, Indonesia launched a seaborne incursion into the territory, but this operation proved to be a failure. Of the twenty-three infiltrators, seven were killed, and the remaining sixteen were captured within four months. On 14 September 1961, a new infiltration attempt was launched, but once again the infiltration party was promptly intercepted and defeated by Dutch forces.
Operation Trikora
![Subandrio 1963](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Subandrio_1963.jpg)
Following the failure of diplomacy in the United Nations and persisted Dutch efforts to
prepare the West Papuans for self-rule, Indonesia's Confrontation against the Dutch in West New Guinea reached a new crescendo. On 19 December 1961, President Sukarno gave orders for the Indonesian military to prepare for a full–scale military invasion of the territory; codenamed
Operation Trikora
Operation Trikora was an Indonesian military operation which aimed to seize and annex the Dutch overseas territory of Netherlands New Guinea in 1961 and 1962. After negotiations, the Netherlands signed the New York Agreement with Indonesia on ...
. He also ordered the creation of a special
People's Triple Command or ''Tri Komando Rakyat'' (Trikora) with the objective of 'liberating' West New Guinea by 1 January 1963. Trikora's operational command was to be called the Mandala Command for the Liberation of West Irian (''Komando Mandala Pembebasan Irian Barat'') and was led by Major-General
Suharto
Suharto (; ; 8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was an Indonesian army officer and politician, who served as the second and the longest serving president of Indonesia. Widely regarded as a military dictator by international observers, Suharto ...
, the future President of Indonesia. In preparation for the planned invasion, the Mandala command began making land, air, and sea incursions into West Irian. General Suharto also planned to launch a full-scale amphibious operation invasion of West Irian known as
Operation Jayawijaya
Operation or Operations may refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media
* ''Operation'' (game), a battery-operated board game that challenges dexterity
* Operation (music), a term used in musical set theory
* ''Operations'' (magazine), Multi-Man ...
(or Operation Djajawidjaja).
[Bilveer Singh, ''West Irian and the Suharto Presidency'', p.86]
In response to Indonesian aggression, the Netherlands increased its military presence and intelligence-gathering efforts in West New Guinea. Since 15 April 1954, the
Royal Netherlands Navy
The Royal Netherlands Navy ( nl, Koninklijke Marine, links=no) is the naval force of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
During the 17th century, the navy of the Dutch Republic (1581–1795) was one of the most powerful naval forces in the world an ...
had been responsible for the territorial defence of West New Guinea. A
signals intelligence
Signals intelligence (SIGINT) is intelligence-gathering by interception of ''signals'', whether communications between people (communications intelligence—abbreviated to COMINT) or from electronic signals not directly used in communication ( ...
agency known as Marid 6 Netherlands New Guinea (NNG) was also established in April 1955 to provide the Netherlands New Guinea authorities with intelligence on Indonesian intentions towards West Irian. One of Marid 6 NNG's successes was providing early warning of Indonesian plans to seize all KPM ships and facilities in December 1957. This enabled the Dutch authorities to evacuate 45 of these 83 ships. Later, Marid 6 NNG helped Dutch naval units to recapture the KPM ships. In 1962, the
Royal Netherlands Navy
The Royal Netherlands Navy ( nl, Koninklijke Marine, links=no) is the naval force of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
During the 17th century, the navy of the Dutch Republic (1581–1795) was one of the most powerful naval forces in the world an ...
deployed a sizeable naval task group including the aircraft carrier
HNLMS ''Karel Doorman'' to West New Guinea.
On 15 January 1962, the Indonesian Navy attempted to land a force of 150 marines near Vlakke Hoek, on West Irian's south coast. The Indonesians had intended to raise the Indonesian flag on Dutch territory to weaken the Netherlands position during the ongoing negotiations in New York. However, Marid 6 NNG managed to intercept Indonesian radio messages and learned about the Indonesian plans. In response, the Dutch authorities deployed a
Lockheed Neptune
The Lockheed P-2 Neptune (designated P2V by the United States Navy prior to September 1962) is a maritime patrol and anti-submarine warfare (ASW) aircraft. It was developed for the US Navy by Lockheed to replace the Lockheed PV-1 Ventura and P ...
patrol aircraft and three
destroyer
In naval terminology, a destroyer is a fast, manoeuvrable, long-endurance warship intended to escort
larger vessels in a fleet, convoy or battle group and defend them against powerful short range attackers. They were originally developed in ...
s to intercept the three Indonesian motor torpedo-boats (the fourth boat had experienced engine trouble and did not participate). During the ensuing
Vlakke Hoek incident, one of the Indonesian torpedo boats was sunk, while the remaining two boats were forced to retreat. The operation ended disastrously for Indonesia, with many crew members and embarked marines being killed and 55 survivors taken prisoner. Among the casualties was
Commodore
Commodore may refer to:
Ranks
* Commodore (rank), a naval rank
** Commodore (Royal Navy), in the United Kingdom
** Commodore (United States)
** Commodore (Canada)
** Commodore (Finland)
** Commodore (Germany) or ''Kommodore''
* Air commodore ...
Yos Sudarso
Commodore Yosaphat "Yos" Sudarso (24 November 1925 – 15 January 1962) was an Indonesian naval officer killed at the Battle of Arafura Sea. At the time of his death, Yos Sudarso was deputy chief of staff of the Indonesian Navy and in charge ...
, the deputy chief of the Indonesian Navy Staff.
On 24 June 1962, four
Indonesian Air Force
The Indonesian Air Force ( id, Tentara Nasional Indonesia Angkatan Udara (TNI-AU), literally "''Indonesian National Military-Air Force''") sometimes shortened as IDAF / IdAF, is the aerial branch of the Indonesian National Armed Forces. The ...
C-130 Hercules
The Lockheed C-130 Hercules is an American four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft designed and built by Lockheed Corporation, Lockheed (now Lockheed Martin). Capable of using unprepared runways for takeoffs and landings, the C-130 ...
jets dropped 213
paratroopers
A paratrooper is a military parachutist—someone trained to parachute into a military operation, and usually functioning as part of an airborne force. Military parachutists (troops) and parachutes were first used on a large scale during Worl ...
near
Merauke
Merauke is a large town and the capital of the South Papua province, Indonesia. It is also the administrative centre of Merauke Regency in South Papua. It is considered the easternmost city in Indonesia. The town was originally called Ermasoe. It ...
. Throughout the year, a total of 1,200 Indonesian paratroopers and 340 naval infiltrators landed in West New Guinea. By mid-1962, the Indonesian military had begun preparations to launch Operation Jayawijaya around August 1962. This operation was to be carried out in four phases and would have involved joint air and naval strikes against Dutch airfields, paratroop and amphibious landings at Biak and Sentani, and a ground assault on the territory's capital Hollandia. Unknown to the Indonesians, Marid 6 NNG had intercepted Indonesian transmissions and obtained intelligence on Indonesian battle plans. However, a ceasefire agreement known as the
New York Agreement
The New York Agreement is an agreement signed by the Netherlands and Indonesia regarding the administration of the territory of Western New Guinea. The first part of the agreement proposes that the United Nations assume administration of the terr ...
, which facilitated the transfer of West New Guinea to Indonesia control by 1963, was signed by the Dutch and Indonesians on 15 August 1962. As a result, the Trikora Command cancelled Operation Jayawijaya on 17 August 1962.
Resolution
The New York Agreement
![Ellsworth Bunker](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Ellsworth_Bunker.jpg)
By 1961, the United States government had become concerned about the Indonesian military's purchase of Soviet weapons and equipment for a planned invasion of West New Guinea. The
Kennedy Administration
John F. Kennedy's tenure as the 35th president of the United States, began with his inauguration on January 20, 1961, and ended with his assassination on November 22, 1963. A Democrat from Massachusetts, he took office following the 1960 p ...
feared an Indonesian drift towards Communism and wanted to court Sukarno away from the Soviet Bloc and
Communist China. The U.S. government also wanted to repair relations with
Jakarta
Jakarta (; , bew, Jakarte), officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta ( id, Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta) is the capital and largest city of Indonesia. Lying on the northwest coast of Java, the world's most populous island, Jakarta ...
, which had deteriorated due to the Eisenhower Administration's covert support for the
Permesta
Permesta was a rebel movement in Indonesia, its name based on the Universal Struggle Charter (or ''Piagam Perjuangan Semesta'') that was declared on 2 March 1957 by civil and military leaders in East Indonesia. Initially the center of the movem ...
/
PRRI regional uprisings in Sumatra and Sulawesi. These factors convinced the Kennedy Administration to intervene diplomatically to bring about a peaceful solution to the dispute, which favoured Indonesia.
Throughout 1962, the U.S. diplomat
Ellsworth Bunker
Ellsworth F. Bunker (May 11, 1894 – September 27, 1984) was an American businessman and diplomat (including being the ambassador to Argentina, Italy, India, Nepal and South Vietnam). He is perhaps best known for being a hawk on the war in Vietn ...
facilitated top–secret high–level negotiations between the Dutch and Indonesian governments. These protracted talks produced a peace settlement known as the
New York Agreement
The New York Agreement is an agreement signed by the Netherlands and Indonesia regarding the administration of the territory of Western New Guinea. The first part of the agreement proposes that the United Nations assume administration of the terr ...
on 15 August 1962. As a face-saving measure, the Dutch would hand over West New Guinea to a provisional
United Nations Temporary Executive Authority
The United Nations Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) and the United Nations Security Force (UNSF) in West New Guinea was established during October 1962 in accord with General Assembly Resolution 1752 as requested in Article two of the New ...
(UNTEA) on 1 October 1962, which then ceded the territory to Indonesia on 1 May 1963; formally ending the dispute. As part of the New York Agreement, it was stipulated that a
popular plebiscite would be held in 1969 to determine whether the Papuans would choose to remain in Indonesia or seek self-determination.
Legacy
![Irian Barat Statue](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Irian_Barat_Statue.JPG)
While U.S. diplomacy averted the escalation of the dispute into a full–blown war between Indonesia and the Netherlands, Washington failed to win over President Sukarno. Buoyed by his success in the West New Guinea campaign, Sukarno turned his attention to the former
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies.
** Britishness, the British identity and common culture
* British English, ...
colony of
Malaysia
Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...
, resulting in the
Indonesian-Malaysian Confrontation which induced deterioration of Indonesia's relations with the West. Ultimately, President Sukarno was overthrown during the
Indonesian coup attempt of 1965 and subsequently replaced by the pro-Western
Suharto
Suharto (; ; 8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was an Indonesian army officer and politician, who served as the second and the longest serving president of Indonesia. Widely regarded as a military dictator by international observers, Suharto ...
.
In addition, the U.S. mining company
Freeport-McMoRan
Freeport-McMoRan Inc., often called Freeport, is an American mining company based in the Freeport-McMoRan Center, in Phoenix, Arizona. The company is the world's largest producer of molybdenum, is a major copper producer and operates the world's ...
was interested in exploiting Western New Guinea's copper and gold deposits.
Following the Act of Free Choice plebiscite in 1969, Western New Guinea was formally integrated into the Republic of Indonesia. Instead of a referendum of the 816,000 Papuans, only 1,022 Papuan tribal representatives were allowed to vote, and they were coerced into voting in favour of integration. While several international observers including journalists and diplomats criticised the referendum as being rigged, the U.S. and Australia supported Indonesia's efforts to secure acceptance in the United Nations for the pro-integration vote. That same year, 84 member states voted in favour for the United Nations to accept the result, with 30 others abstaining.
A number of Papuans refused to accept the territory's integration into Indonesia, which anti-independence supporters and foreign observers attributed to the Netherlands' efforts to promote a West Papuan national identity among right-leaning Papuans and suppressed left-leaning Papuans pro-Indonesian sympathies.
These formed the separatist
Organisasi Papua Merdeka (Free Papua Movement) and have waged an
insurgency
An insurgency is a violent, armed rebellion against authority waged by small, lightly armed bands who practice guerrilla warfare from primarily rural base areas. The key descriptive feature of insurgency is its asymmetric nature: small irregu ...
against the Indonesian authorities, which continues to this day.
[Bilveer Singh, ''West Irian and the Suharto Presidency''. p.86] In 2017, a petition smuggled and signed by 1.8 million West Papuans (>70% of the population) was presented to the United Nations demanding a new independence referendum and a UN representative to investigate suspected human rights violations by Indonesian security forces.
Signing of the petition was made illegal under threat of prison by Indonesian authorities, nearby neighbour Australia continued to support Indonesia’s sovereignty over West Papua citing the Lombok treaty.
See also
*
Indonesian Papua conflict
Citations
References
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{{refend
20th-century conflicts
Guided Democracy in Indonesia
Military history of Indonesia
Political history of Indonesia
Wars involving Indonesia
Wars involving the Netherlands
Western New Guinea
1950s in Oceania
1960s in Oceania
Indonesia–Netherlands relations
1950s conflicts
1960s conflicts
History of New Guinea
Indonesia–Soviet Union relations