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chemistry Chemistry is the science, scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a natural science that covers the Chemical element, elements that make up matter to the chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules and ions ...
, a condenser is laboratory apparatus used to
condense Condensation is the change of the state of matter from the gas phase into the liquid phase, and is the reverse of vaporization. The word most often refers to the water cycle. It can also be defined as the change in the state of water vapor to ...
vapor In physics, a vapor (American English) or vapour (British English and Canadian English; American and British English spelling differences#-our, -or, see spelling differences) is a substance in the gas phase at a temperature lower than its critic ...
sthat is, turn them into liquidsby cooling them down. Condensers are routinely used in laboratory operations such as
distillation Distillation, or classical distillation, is the process of separation process, separating the components or substances from a liquid mixture by using selective boiling and condensation, usually inside an apparatus known as a still. Dry distilla ...
,
reflux Reflux is a technique involving the condensation of vapors and the return of this condensate to the system from which it originated. It is used in industrial and laboratory distillations. It is also used in chemistry to supply energy to reactions ...
, and
extraction Extraction may refer to: Science and technology Biology and medicine * Comedo extraction, a method of acne treatment * Dental extraction, the surgical removal of a tooth from the mouth Computing and information science * Data extraction, the pro ...
. In distillation, a mixture is heated until the more volatile components boil off, the vapors are condensed, and collected in a separate container. In reflux, a reaction involving volatile liquids is carried out at their boiling point, to speed it up; and the vapors that inevitably come off are condensed and returned to the reaction vessel. In Soxhlet extraction, a hot solvent is infused onto some powdered material, such as ground seeds, to leach out some poorly soluble component; the solvent is then automatically distilled out of the resulting solution, condensed, and infused again. Many different types of condensers have been developed for different applications and processing volumes. The simplest and oldest condenser is just a long tube through which the vapors are directed, with the outside air providing the cooling. More commonly, a condenser has a separate tube or outer chamber through which water (or some other fluid) is circulated, to provide a more effective cooling. Laboratory condensers are usually made of
glass Glass is a non-crystalline, often transparent, amorphous solid that has widespread practical, technological, and decorative use in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optics. Glass is most often formed by rapid cooling (quenching) of ...
for chemical resistance, for ease of cleaning, and to allow visual monitoring of the operation; specifically,
borosilicate glass Borosilicate glass is a type of glass with silica and boron trioxide as the main glass-forming constituents. Borosilicate glasses are known for having very low coefficients of thermal expansion (≈3 × 10−6 K−1 at 20 °C), ma ...
to resist
thermal shock Thermal shock is a type of rapidly transient mechanical load. By definition, it is a mechanical load caused by a rapid change of temperature of a certain point. It can be also extended to the case of a thermal gradient, which makes different par ...
and uneven heating by the condensing vapor. Some condensers for dedicated operations (like water distillation) may be made of metal. In professional laboratories, condensers usually have
ground glass joint Ground glass joints are used in laboratories to quickly and easily fit leak-tight apparatus together from interchangeable commonly available parts. For example, a round bottom flask, Liebig condenser, and oil bubbler with ground glass joints may ...
s for airtight connection to the vapor source and the liquid receptacle; however, flexible tubing of an appropriate material is often used instead. The condenser may also be fused to a boiling flask as a single glassware item, as in the old
retort In a chemistry laboratory, a retort is a device used for distillation or dry distillation of substances. It consists of a spherical vessel with a long downward-pointing neck. The liquid to be distilled is placed in the vessel and heated. The n ...
and in devices for microscale distillation.


History

The water-cooled condenser, which was popularized by
Justus von Liebig Justus Freiherr von Liebig (12 May 1803 – 20 April 1873) was a German scientist who made major contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry, and is considered one of the principal founders of organic chemistry. As a professor at t ...
, was invented by
Weigel Weigel is a German surname. Notable people with this name include: *Beverly Weigel (born 1940), New Zealand Olympic athlete *Christian Ehrenfried Weigel, German scientist *Christoph Weigel the Elder (1654–1725), German engraver, art dealer and pu ...
, Poisonnier, and
Gadolin Gadolin is a Finnish noble family. Notable people with the surname include: * Alexander Gadolin, Finnish jurist * Johan Gadolin, Finnish chemist * Jakob Gadolin, Finnish Lutheran bishop and Johan Gadolin's father See also * 2638 Gadolin, ast ...
, and perfected by Gottling, all in the late 18th century. Several designs that are still in common use were developed and became popular in the 19th century, when chemistry became a widely practiced scientific discipline.


General principles

Designing and maintaining systems and processes using condensers requires that the heat of the entering vapor never overwhelm the ability of the chosen condenser and cooling mechanism; as well, the thermal gradients and material flows established are critical aspects, and as processes scale from laboratory to pilot plant and beyond, the design of condenser systems becomes a precise engineering science.


Temperature

In order for a substance to condense from a pure vapor, the
pressure Pressure (symbol: ''p'' or ''P'') is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which that force is distributed. Gauge pressure (also spelled ''gage'' pressure)The preferred spelling varies by country and e ...
of the latter must be higher than the
vapor pressure Vapor pressure (or vapour pressure in English-speaking countries other than the US; see spelling differences) or equilibrium vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases ...
of the adjacent liquid; that is, the liquid must be below its
boiling point The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor. The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding envir ...
at that pressure. In most designs, the liquid is only a thin film on the inner surface of the condenser, so its temperature is essentially the same as of that surface. Therefore, the primary consideration in the design or choice of a condenser is to ensure that its inner surface is below the liquid's boiling point.


Heat flow

As the vapor condenses, it releases the corresponding
heat of vaporization The enthalpy of vaporization (symbol ), also known as the (latent) heat of vaporization or heat of evaporation, is the amount of energy (enthalpy) that must be added to a liquid substance to transform a quantity of that substance into a gas. T ...
, that tends to raise the temperature of the condenser's inner surface. Therefore, a condenser must be able to remove that
heat energy In thermodynamics, heat is defined as the form of energy crossing the boundary of a thermodynamic system by virtue of a temperature difference across the boundary. A thermodynamic system does not ''contain'' heat. Nevertheless, the term is al ...
quickly enough to keep the temperature low enough, at the maximum rate of condensation that is expected to occur. This concern can be addressed by increasing the
area Area is the quantity that expresses the extent of a region on the plane or on a curved surface. The area of a plane region or ''plane area'' refers to the area of a shape A shape or figure is a graphics, graphical representation of an obje ...
of the condensation surface, by making the wall thinner, and/or by providing a sufficiently effective heat sink (such as circulating water) on the other side of it.


Material flow

The condenser must also be dimensioned so that the condensed liquid can flow out at the maximum rate (mass over time) that the vapor is expected to enter it. Care must also be taken to prevent the boiling liquid to enter the condenser as splattering from explosive boiling, or droplets created as bubbles pop.


Carrier gases

Additional considerations apply if the gas inside the condenser is not pure vapor of the desired liquid, but a mixture with gases that have a much lower boiling point (as may occur in
dry distillation Dry distillation is the heating of solid materials to produce gaseous products (which may condense into liquids or solids). The method may involve pyrolysis or thermolysis, or it may not (for instance, a simple mixture of ice and glass could be se ...
, for example). Then the
partial pressure In a mixture of gases, each constituent gas has a partial pressure which is the notional pressure of that constituent gas as if it alone occupied the entire volume of the original mixture at the same temperature. The total pressure of an ideal gas ...
of its vapor must be considered when obtaining its condensation temperature. For example, if the gas entering the condenser is a mixture of 25%
ethanol Ethanol (abbr. EtOH; also called ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, drinking alcohol, or simply alcohol) is an organic compound. It is an Alcohol (chemistry), alcohol with the chemical formula . Its formula can be also written as or (an ethyl ...
vapor and 75%
carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide (chemical formula ) is a chemical compound made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in the gas state at room temperature. In the air, carbon dioxide is transpar ...
(by moles) at 100
kPa KPA may refer to: * Keele Postgraduate Association, Keele University, UK, formerly Keele Research Association (KRA) * Kensington (Olympia) station, London, England, National Rail station code * Kenya Ports Authority * ''Kiln phosphoric acid'', a d ...
(typical atmospheric pressure), the condensation surface must be kept below 48 °C, the boiling point of ethanol at 25 kPa. Moreover, if the gas is not pure vapor, condensation will create a layer of gas with even lower vapor contents right next to the condensing surface, further lowering the boiling point. Therefore, the condenser's design must be such that the gas is well-mixed and/or that all of it is forced to pass very close to the condensation surface.


Liquid mixtures

Finally, if the input to the condenser is a mixture of two or more miscible liquids (as is the case in
fractional distillation Fractional distillation is the separation of a mixture into its component parts, or fractions. Chemical compounds are separated by heating them to a temperature at which one or more fractions of the mixture will vaporize. It uses distillation to ...
), one must consider the vapor pressure and the percentage of the gas for each component, which depends on the composition of the liquid as well as its temperature; and all these parameters typically vary along the condenser.


Coolant flow direction

Most condensers can be divided in two broad classes. The concurrent condensers receive the vapor through one port and deliver the liquid through another port, as required in simple distillation. They are usually mounted vertically or tilted, with the vapor input at the top and the liquid output at the bottom. The countercurrent condensers are intended to return the liquid toward the source of the vapor, as required in reflux and fractional distillation. They are usually mounted vertically, above the source of the vapor, that enters them from the bottom. In both cases, the condensed liquid is allowed to flow back to the source by its own weight. The classification is not exclusive, since several types can be used in both modes.


Historical condensers


Straight tube

The simplest type of condenser is a straight tube, cooled only by the surrounding air. The tube is held in a vertical or oblique position, and the vapor is fed through the upper end. The heat of condensation is carried away by
convection Convection is single or multiphase fluid flow that occurs spontaneously due to the combined effects of material property heterogeneity and body forces on a fluid, most commonly density and gravity (see buoyancy). When the cause of the convec ...
. The neck of the retort is a classical example of a straight tube condenser. However, this kind of condenser may also be a separate piece of equipment. Straight tube condensers are no longer widely used in research laboratories, but may be used in special applications and simple school demonstrations.


Still head

The still head is another ancient type of air-cooled condenser. It consists of a roughly globular vessel with an opening at the bottom, through which the vapor is introduced. The vapor condenses on the inner wall of the vessel, and drips along it, collecting at the bottom of the head and then draining through a tube to a collecting vessel below. A raised lip around the input opening prevents the liquid from spilling through it. As in the tube condenser, the heat of condensation is carried away by natural convection. Any vapor that does not condense in the head may still condense in the neck. Still head type condensers are now rarely used in laboratories, and are usually topped by some other type of reflux condenser where most of the condensation takes place.


Modern condensers


Liebig

The Liebig condenser is the simplest design with circulating coolant, easy to build and inexpensive. It is named after Justus von Liebig, who perfected an earlier design by
Weigel Weigel is a German surname. Notable people with this name include: *Beverly Weigel (born 1940), New Zealand Olympic athlete *Christian Ehrenfried Weigel, German scientist *Christoph Weigel the Elder (1654–1725), German engraver, art dealer and pu ...
and Göttling and popularized it. It consists two concentric straight glass tubes, the inner one being longer and protruding at both extremities. The ends of the outer tube are sealed (usually by a blown glass ring seal), forming a water jacket, and is fitted with side ports near the ends for cooling fluid inflow and outflow. The ends of the inner tube, that carries the vapor and condensed liquid, are open. Compared to the simple air-cooled tube, the Liebig condenser is more efficient at removing the heat of condensation and at maintaining the inner surface a stable low temperature.


West

The West condenser is variant of the Liebig type, with a more slender design, with cone and socket. The fused-on narrower coolant jacket may render more efficient cooling with respect to coolant consumption.


Allihn

The Allihn condenser or bulb condenser is named after Felix Richard Allihn (1854–1915). The Allihn condenser consists of a long glass tube with a
water jacket A water jacket is a water-filled casing surrounding a device, typically a metal sheath having intake and outlet vents to allow water to be pumped through and circulated. The flow of water to an external heating or cooling device allows precise t ...
. A series of bulbs on the tube increases the surface area upon which the vapor constituents may condense. Ideally suited for laboratory-scale
refluxing Reflux is a technique involving the condensation of vapors and the return of this condensate to the system from which it originated. It is used in industrial and laboratory distillations. It is also used in chemistry to supply energy to Chemical ...
; indeed, the term reflux condenser often means this type specifically.


Davies

A Davies condenser, also known as a double surface condenser, is similar to the Liebig condenser, but with three concentric glass tubes instead of two. The coolant circulates in both the outer jacket and the central tube. This increases the cooling surface, so that the condenser can be shorter than an equivalent Liebig condenser. According to Alan Gall, archivist of the Institute of Science and Technology, Sheffield, England, the 1981 catalog of Adolf Gallenkamp & Co. of London (makers of scientific apparatus) states that the Davies condenser was invented by James Davies, a director of the Gallenkamp company. In 1904, Gallenkamp was offering "Davies' Condensers" for sale:. In 1920, Gallenkamp listed "J. Davies" as a director of the company.


Graham

A Graham or Grahams condenser has a coolant-jacketed spiral coil running the length of the condenser serving as the vapor–condensate path. This is not to be confused with the coil condenser. The coiled condenser tubes inside will provide more surface area for cooling and for this reason it is most favorable to use but the drawback of this condenser is that as the vapors get condensed, it tends to move them up in the tube to evaporate which will also lead to the flooding of solution mixture. It may also be called Inland Revenue condenser due to the application for which it was developed.


Coil

A coil condenser is essentially a Graham condenser with an inverted coolant–vapor configuration. It has a spiral coil running the length of the condenser through which coolant flows, and this coolant coil is jacketed by the vapor–condensate path.


Dimroth

A Dimroth condenser, named after
Otto Dimroth Otto Dimroth (28 March 1872 – 16 May 1940) was a German chemist A chemist (from Greek ''chēm(ía)'' alchemy; replacing ''chymist'' from Medieval Latin ''alchemist'') is a scientist trained in the study of chemistry. Chemists study the comp ...
, is somewhat similar to the coil condenser; it has an internal double spiral through which coolant flows such that the coolant inlet and outlet are both at the top. The vapors travel through the jacket from bottom to top. Dimroth condensers are more effective than conventional coil condensers. They are often found in
rotary evaporator A rotary evaporator (rotovap) is a device used in chemical laboratories for the efficient and gentle removal of solvents from samples by evaporation. When referenced in the chemistry research literature, description of the use of this technique and ...
s. There also exists a version of Dimroth condenser with an external jacket, like in a Davies condenser, to further increase the cooling surface.


Spiral

A spiral condenser has a spiral condensing tube with both inlet and outlet connections at the top, and on the same side. See Dimroth condenser.


Cold finger

A cold finger is a cooling device in the form of a vertical rod that is flow-cooled from the inside, with both coolant ports at the top, that is to be immersed in the vapor while supported at the upper end only. The vapor is meant to condense on the rod and drip down from the free end, and eventually reach the collecting vessel. A cold finger may be a separate piece of equipment, or may be only a part of a condenser of another type. (Cold fingers are also used to condense vapors produced by sublimation in which case the result is a solid that adheres to the finger and must be scraped off.)


Friedrichs

The Friedrichs condenser (sometimes incorrectly spelled Friedrich's) was invented by
Fritz Walter Paul Friedrichs Fritz Walter Paul Friedrichs (28. July 1885, Stützerbach – 1958) (also published as Fritz Friedrichs) was a German chemist. Fritz, was a son of Ferdinand and Olga Friedrichs, born Reinhardt. He is the inventor of the spiral cold finger-type ...
, who published a design for this type of condenser in 1912. It consists of a large water-cooled finger tightly fitted inside a wide cylindrical housing. The finger has a helical ridge along its length, so as to leave a narrow helical path for the vapor. This arrangement forces the vapor to spend a long time in contact with the finger.


Refluxing and fractional distillation columns


Vigreux

The Vigreux column, named after the
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
glass blower Glassblowing is a glassforming technique that involves inflating molten glass into a bubble (or parison) with the aid of a blowpipe (or blow tube). A person who blows glass is called a ''glassblower'', ''glassmith'', or ''gaffer''. A '' lampworke ...
(1869–1951) who invented it in 1904, consists of a wide glass tube with multiple internal glass "fingers" that point downwards. Each "finger" is created by melting a small section of the wall and pushing the soft glass inwards. The vapor that enters from the lower opening condenses on the fingers and drips down from them.Vigreux, Henri (1904
"Excelsior-Kühler und Excelsior-Destillationaufsatz"
("Excelsior condenser and Excelsior distillation attachment"). ''Chemiker-Zeitung'', volume 28, issue 58, page 686.
A. McK. (1904
"Excelsior condenser and Excelsior distillation column,"
''Journal of the Chemical Society'', volume 86, page 611.
It is usually air-cooled, but may have an outer glass jacket for forced fluid cooling.


Snyder

The Snyder column is a wide glass tube divided into sections (usually 3 to 6) by horizontal glass partitions or constrictions. Each partition has a hole, into which seats a hollow glass bead with an inverted "teardrop" shape. Vigreux-like glass "fingers" limit the vertical motion of each bead.. These floating glass stoppers act as check valves, closing and opening with vapor flow, and enhancing vapor-condensate mixing. A Snyder colum can be used with a Kuderna-Danish concentrator to efficiently separate a low boiling
extraction solvent Extraction may refer to: Science and technology Biology and medicine * Comedo extraction, a method of acne treatment * Dental extraction, the surgical removal of a tooth from the mouth Computing and information science * Data extraction, the pro ...
such as
methylene chloride Dichloromethane (DCM or methylene chloride, methylene bichloride) is an organochlorine compound with the formula . This colorless, volatile liquid with a chloroform-like, sweet odour is widely used as a solvent. Although it is not miscible with ...
from volatile but higher boiling extract components (e.g., after the extraction of organic contaminants in soil).


Widmer

The Widmer column was developed as a doctoral research project by student Gustav Widmer at
ETH Zurich (colloquially) , former_name = eidgenössische polytechnische Schule , image = ETHZ.JPG , image_size = , established = , type = Public , budget = CHF 1.896 billion (2021) , rector = Günther Dissertori , president = Joël Mesot , ac ...
in the early 1920s, combining a Golodetz-type arrangement of concentric tubes and the Dufton-type rod-with-spiral core. It consists of four concentric glass tubes and a central glass rod, with a thinner glass rod coiled around it to increase the surface area. The two outer tubes (#3 and #4) form an insulating dead air chamber (shaded). Vapor rises from a boiling flask into space (1), proceeds up through the space between tubes #2 and #3, then down the space between tubes #1 and #2, and finally up between tube #1 and the central rod. Arriving at space (3), vapor is then directed via a distillation head (glass branching adapter) to cooling and collection. A so-called modified Widmer column design was reported as being in wide use, but undocumented, by
L. P. Kyrides Carl Linnaeus (; 23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after his ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné Blunt (2004), p. 171. (), was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the ...
in 1940.


Packed

A packed column is a condenser used in
fractional distillation Fractional distillation is the separation of a mixture into its component parts, or fractions. Chemical compounds are separated by heating them to a temperature at which one or more fractions of the mixture will vaporize. It uses distillation to ...
. Its main component is a tube filled with small objects to increase the surface area and the number of theoretical plates. The tube can be the inner conduit of some other type, such as Liebig or Allhin. pp 1-229 (Ch. 8) and 230-415 (Ch. 9), ''esp. pp. 255, 277''ff'', 247''f'', 230''ff'', 1-14''. These columns can achieve theoretical plate counts of 1–2 per 5 cm of packed length. A large variety of packing materials and object shapes has been used, including beads, rings, or helices (such as Fenske rings Raschig or Lessing rings) of glass,
porcelain Porcelain () is a ceramic material made by heating substances, generally including materials such as kaolinite, in a kiln to temperatures between . The strength and translucence of porcelain, relative to other types of pottery, arises mainl ...
,
aluminum Aluminium (aluminum in American and Canadian English) is a chemical element with the symbol Al and atomic number 13. Aluminium has a density lower than those of other common metals, at approximately one third that of steel. It has ...
,
copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkis ...
,
nickel Nickel is a chemical element with symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel is a hard and ductile transition metal. Pure nickel is chemically reactive but large pieces are slow to ...
, or
stainless steel Stainless steel is an alloy of iron that is resistant to rusting and corrosion. It contains at least 11% chromium and may contain elements such as carbon, other nonmetals and metals to obtain other desired properties. Stainless steel's corros ...
;
nichrome Nichrome (also known as NiCr, nickel-chromium or chromium-nickel) is a family of alloys of nickel, chromium, and often iron (and possibly other elements) commonly used as resistance wire, heating elements in devices like toasters, electrical kettl ...
and
inconel Inconel is a registered trademark of Special Metals Corporation for a family of austenitic nickel-chromium-based superalloys. Inconel alloys are oxidation-corrosion-resistant materials well suited for service in extreme environments subjected t ...
wires (akin to Podbielniak columns), stainless steel gauze (
Dixon rings Dixon rings are a form of random packing used in chemical processing. They consist of a stainless steel mesh formed into a ring with a central divider, and are intended to be packed randomly into a packed column. Dixon rings provide a large surfac ...
), etc. Specific combinations are known as Hempel,
Todd Todd or Todds may refer to: Places ;Australia: * Todd River, an ephemeral river ;United States: * Todd Valley, California, also known as Todd, an unincorporated community * Todd, Missouri, a ghost town * Todd, North Carolina, an unincorporated ...
, and Stedman columns.


Alternative coolants

Condensers with forced-circulation cooling usually employ water as the cooling fluid. The flow may be open, from a tap to a sink, and driven only by the water pressure in the tap. Alternatively, a closed system may be used, in which the water is drawn by a pump from a tank, possibly
refrigerated The term refrigeration refers to the process of removing heat from an enclosed space or substance for the purpose of lowering the temperature.International Dictionary of Refrigeration, http://dictionary.iifiir.org/search.phpASHRAE Terminology, ht ...
, and returned to it. Water-cooled condensers are suitable for liquids with boiling points well above 0 °C, even higher than 100 °C. Other cooling fluids may be used instead of water. Air with forced circulation can be effective enough for situations with high boiling point and low condensation rate. Conversely, low-temperature coolants, such as
acetone Acetone (2-propanone or dimethyl ketone), is an organic compound with the formula . It is the simplest and smallest ketone (). It is a colorless, highly volatile and flammable liquid with a characteristic pungent odour. Acetone is miscib ...
cooled by
dry ice Dry ice is the solid form of carbon dioxide. It is commonly used for temporary refrigeration as CO2 does not have a liquid state at normal atmospheric pressure and sublimates directly from the solid state to the gas state. It is used primarily a ...
or chilled water with
antifreeze An antifreeze is an additive which lowers the freezing point of a water-based liquid. An antifreeze mixture is used to achieve freezing-point depression for cold environments. Common antifreezes also increase the boiling point of the liquid, all ...
additives, can be used for liquids with low boiling point (like
dimethyl ether Dimethyl ether (DME; also known as methoxymethane) is the organic compound with the formula CH3OCH3, (sometimes ambiguously simplified to C2H6O as it is an isomer of ethanol). The simplest ether, it is a colorless gas that is a useful precursor ...
, −23.6 °C). Solid and semisolid mixtures, with ice or water ice, may be used in cold fingers.


Further reading

* Heinz G. O. Becker, Werner Berger, Günter Domschke, et al., 2009, ''Organikum: organisch-chemisches Grundpraktikum'' (23rd German edn., compl. rev. updated), Weinheim:Wiley-VCH, , se

accessed 25 February 2015. * Heinz G. O. Becker, Werner Berger, Günter Domschke, Egon Fanghänel, Jürgen Faust, Mechthild Fischer, Frithjof Gentz, Karl Gewald, Reiner Gluch, Roland Mayer, Klaus Müller, Dietrich Pavel, Hermann Schmidt, Karl Schollberg, Klaus Schwetlick, Erika Seiler & Günter Zeppenfeld, 1973, ''Organicum: Practical Handbook of Organic Chemistry'' (1st English ed., P.A. Ongly, Ed., B.J. Hazzard, Transl., cf. 5th German edn., 1965), Reading, Mass.:Addison-Wesley, , se

accessed 25 February 2015. * * pp 1-268 (Ch. 10), 679-686 (Ch. 10 refs.), 483-678 (Ch. 14), 687-690 (Ch. 14 refs.), 691-696 (Biblio.). * * o
4th edition
* * * * * *


See also

*
Condenser (heat transfer) In systems involving heat transfer, a condenser is a heat exchanger used to condense a gaseous substance into a liquid state through cooling. In so doing, the latent heat is released by the substance and transferred to the surrounding environment ...


References

{{Laboratory equipment Laboratory glassware