''Vedanta'' (; sa, वेदान्त, ), also ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six (''āstika'') schools of

Hindu philosophy Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson (20 ...

. Literally meaning "end of the

Vedas upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...

", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, the speculations and philosophies contained in the Upanishads, specifically, knowledge and liberation. Vedanta contains many sub-traditions, all of which are based on a common group of texts called the "Three Sources" (''

prasthānatrayī Prasthanatrayi ( sa, प्रस्थानत्रयी, IAST: ), literally, ''three sources (or axioms)'', refers to the three canonical texts of theology having epistemic authority, especially of the Vedanta schools. It consists of: # The ...

''): ''

the Upanishads The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are Vedic period, late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chic ...

'', the '' Brahma Sutras'' and the ''

Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...

''. All Vedanta traditions contain extensive discussions on

ontology In metaphysics, ontology is the philosophical study of being, as well as related concepts such as existence, becoming, and reality. Ontology addresses questions like how entities are grouped into categories and which of these entities exis ...

, soteriology and

epistemology Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Episte ...

, though there is much disagreement among the various schools. The main traditions of Vedanta are: ''Advaita'' ( non-dualism), ''

Bhedabheda Bhedābheda Vedānta is a subschool of Vedānta, which teaches that the individual self (''jīvātman'') is both different and not different from the ultimate reality known as Brahman. Etymology ''Bhedābheda'' (Devanagari: ) is a Sanskrit wor ...

'' (difference and non-difference), ''

Suddhadvaita Shuddadvaita (Sanskrit: "pure non-dualism") is the "purely non-dual" philosophy propounded by Vallabhacharya (1479-1531 CE), the founding philosopher and guru of the ("tradition of Vallabh") or ("The path of grace"), a Hindu Vaishnava tradit ...

'' (pure non-dualism), '' Tattvavada (

Dvaita Dvaita Vedanta (); (originally known as Tattvavada; IAST:Tattvavāda), is a sub-school in the Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy. The term Tattvavada literally means "arguments from a realist viewpoint". The Tattvavada (Dvaita) Vedanta su ...

)'' (dualism), and ''

Vishishtadvaita Vishishtadvaita (IAST '; sa, विशिष्टाद्वैत) is one of the most popular schools of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. Vedanta literally means the in depth meaning ''of the Vedas.'' ''Vishisht Advaita'' (literall ...

'' (qualified non-dualism). Modern developments in Vedanta include Neo-Vedanta, and the growth of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. Most major Vedanta schools, except Advaita Vedanta and Neo-Vedanta, are related to

Vaishnavism Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...

and emphasize devotion (

Bhakti yoga Bhakti yoga ( sa, भक्ति योग), also called Bhakti marga (, literally the path of ''Bhakti''), is a spiritual path or spiritual practice within Hinduism focused on loving devotion towards any personal deity.Karen Pechelis (2014), ...

) to God, understood as being

Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...

Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...

or a related manifestation. Advaita Vedanta meanwhile, emphasizes jñana (knowledge) and jñana yoga over theistic devotion. While Advaita

monism Monism attributes oneness or singleness (Greek: μόνος) to a concept e.g., existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished: * Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., i ...

has attracted considerable attention in the West due to the influence of modern

Hindus Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...

like Swami

Vivekananda Swami Vivekananda (; ; 12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902), born Narendranath Datta (), was an Indian Hindu monk, philosopher, author, religious teacher, and the chief disciple of the Indian mystic Ramakrishna. He was a key figure in the introd ...

and

Ramana Maharshi Ramana Maharshi (; 30 December 1879 – 14 April 1950) was an Indian Hindu sage and ''jivanmukta'' (liberated being). He was born Venkataraman Iyer, but is mostly known by the name Bhagavan Sri Ramana Maharshi. He was born in Tiruchuli, Ta ...

, most of the other Vedanta traditions focus on Vaishnava

theology Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...

Etymology and nomenclature

The word ''Vedanta'' is made of two words : *

Veda FIle:Atharva-Veda samhita page 471 illustration.png, upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the ''Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Co ...

(वेद) - refers to the four sacred vedic texts. * Anta (अंत) - this word means "End". The word ''Vedanta'' literally means the ''end of the

'' and originally referred to the ''

Upanishads The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...

''. Vedanta is concerned with the or knowledge section of the vedas which is called the ''Upanishads''. The denotation of Vedanta subsequently widened to include the various philosophical traditions based on to the ''

Prasthanatrayi Prasthanatrayi ( sa, प्रस्थानत्रयी, IAST: ), literally, ''three sources (or axioms)'', refers to the three canonical texts of theology having epistemic authority, especially of the Vedanta schools. It consists of: # The ...

''. The ''

'' may be regarded as the end of ''Vedas'' in different senses: # These were the last literary products of the Vedic period. # These mark the culmination of Vedic thought. # These were taught and debated last, in the ''

Brahmacharya ''Brahmacharya'' (; sa, ब्रह्मचर्य ) is a concept within Indian religions that literally means to stay in conduct within one's own Self. In Yoga, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism it generally refers to a lifestyle charac ...

'' (student) stage. Vedanta is one of the six orthodox (''āstika'') schools of

Indian philosophy Indian philosophy refers to philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. A traditional Hindu classification divides āstika and nāstika schools of philosophy, depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the Veda ...

. It is also called ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', which means the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry'; and is often contrasted with '' Pūrva Mīmāṃsā'', the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry'. ''Pūrva Mīmāṃsā'' deals with the ''karmakāṇḍa'' or ritualistic section (the ''

Samhita Saṃhitā literally means "put together, joined, union", a "collection", and "a methodically, rule-based combination of text or verses".Brahmana The Brahmanas (; Sanskrit: , ''Brāhmaṇam'') are Vedic śruti works attached to the Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas. They are a secondary layer or classification of Sanskrit texts embedded within ea ...

s'') in the ''Vedas''.

Vedanta philosophy

Common features

Despite their differences, all schools of Vedanta share some common features: * Vedanta is the pursuit of knowledge into the ''

Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...

'' and the '' Ātman''. * The '' Upaniṣads'', the '' Bhagavadgītā'' and the ''

Brahma Sūtras The ''Brahma Sūtras'' ( sa, ब्रह्मसूत्राणि) is a Sanskrit text, attributed to the sage bādarāyaṇa or sage Vyāsa, estimated to have been completed in its surviving form in approx. 400–450 CE,, Quote: "...we can ...

'' constitute the basis of Vedanta (known as the three canonical sources). * Scripture (Sruti Śabda) is main reliable source of knowledge ('' pramana''). * ''

'' - '' Ishvara'' (God), exists as the unchanging material cause and instrumental cause of the world. The only exception here is that Dvaita Vedanta does not hold Brahman to be the material cause, but only the efficient cause. * The self ('' Ātman'' or ''

Jiva ''Jiva'' ( sa, जीव, IAST: ) is a living being or any entity imbued with a life force in Hinduism and Jīva (Jainism), Jainism. The word itself originates from the Sanskrit verb-root ''jīv'', which translates as 'to breathe' or 'to live'. ...

'') is the agent of its own acts (''

karma Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...

'') and the recipient of the consequences of these actions. * Belief in rebirth ('' samsara'') and the desirability of release from the cycle of rebirths ''(

moksha ''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriology, ...

)''. * Rejection of

Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...

and

Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...

and conclusions of the other

Vedic schools A shakha (Sanskrit ', "branch" or "limb") is a Hindu theological school that specializes in learning certain Vedic texts, or else the traditional texts followed by such a school.V. S. Apte. A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, p. 913, left column.Moni ...

(

Nyaya (Sanskrit: न्याय, ''nyā-yá''), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment",Vaisheshika,

Samkhya ''Samkhya'' or ''Sankya'' (; Sanskrit सांख्य), IAST: ') is a Dualism (Indian philosophy), dualistic Āstika and nāstika, school of Indian philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, ''purusha, puruṣa' ...

Yoga Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciou ...

, and, to some extent, the

Purva Mimamsa The Fourteen Purva translated as ancient or prior knowledge, are a large body of Jain scriptures that was preached by all Tirthankaras (omniscient teachers) of Jainism encompassing the entire gamut of knowledge available in this universe. The pers ...

Scripture

The main '' Upaniṣhads'', the '' Bhagavadgītā'' and the ''

'' are the foundational scriptures in Vedanta. All schools of Vedanta propound their philosophy by interpreting these texts, collectively called the ''

Prasthānatrayī Prasthanatrayi ( sa, प्रस्थानत्रयी, IAST: ), literally, ''three sources (or axioms)'', refers to the three canonical texts of theology having epistemic authority, especially of the Vedanta schools. It consists of: # The ...

'', literally, ''three sources''. # The '' Upaniṣads'', or ''Śruti prasthāna''; considered the '' Sruti'', the "heard" (and repeated) foundation of Vedanta. # The ''

'', or ''Nyaya prasthana'' / ''Yukti prasthana''; considered the reason-based foundation of Vedanta. # The '' Bhagavadgītā'', or ''Smriti prasthāna''; considered the ''

Smriti ''Smriti'' ( sa, स्मृति, IAST: '), literally "that which is remembered" are a body of Hindu texts usually attributed to an author, traditionally written down, in contrast to Śrutis (the Vedic literature) considered authorless, that ...

'' (remembered tradition) foundation of Vedanta. All major Vedantic teachers, including Shankara, Bhaskara,

Ramanuja Ramanuja (Middle Tamil: Rāmāṉujam; Classical Sanskrit: Rāmanuja; 1017 CE – 1137 CE; ; ), also known as Ramanujacharya, was an Indian Hindu philosopher, guru and a social reformer. He is noted to be one of the most important exponents o ...

, Madhva, Nimbarka, and

Vallabha Vallabhacharya Mahaprabhu (1479–1531 CE), also known as Vallabha, Mahaprabhuji and Vishnuswami, or Vallabha Acharya, is a Hindu Indian saint and philosopher who founded the Krishna-centered PushtiMarg sect of Vaishnavism in the Braj(Vraj) ...

composed commentaries on these three sources. The ''Brahma Sūtras'' of '' Badarayana'' contain a synthesis of the teachings of the ''Upaniṣads'', which contain a many diverse doctrines and teachings. Other such Vedantic syntheses may have existed, but only the ''Brahma Sūtras'' survive. The ''Bhagavadgītā'', due to its syncretism of

, and Upanishadic thought, has also played a major role in Vedantic thought. All Vedāntins agree that scripture (śruti) is the only means of knowing (pramāṇa) regarding spiritual matters (which are beyond perception and inference).Bartley, Christopher (2015). ''An Introduction to Indian Philosophy'' ''Hindu and Buddhist Ideas from Original Sources'', p. 176. Bloomsbury Academic. This is explained by

Rāmānuja Ramanuja (Middle Tamil: Rāmāṉujam; Classical Sanskrit: Rāmanuja; 1017 CE – 1137 CE; ; ), also known as Ramanujacharya, was an Indian Hindu philosopher, guru and a social reformer. He is noted to be one of the most important exponents ...

as follows:

A theory that rests exclusively on human concepts may at some other time or place be refuted by arguments devised by cleverer people.... The conclusion is that with regard to supernatural matters, Scripture alone is the epistemic authority and that reasoning is to be used only in support of Scripture’ �rī Bhāṣya 2.1.12

For specific sub-schools of Vedanta, other texts may be equally important. For example, for Advaita Vedanta, the works of

Adi Shankara Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shanka ...

are central. For the Theistic Vaishnava schools of Vedanta, the '' Bhāgavata Purāṇa'' is particularly important. The ''Bhāgavata Purāṇa'' is one of the most widely commented upon works in Vedanta. This text is so central to the Krishna centered Vedanta schools that the Vedantin theologian

added the Bhāgavata Purāṇa as a fourth text to the praṣṭhāna traya (three classic scriptures of Vedanta).

Metaphysics

Vedanta philosophies discuss three fundamental metaphysical categories and the relations between the three. # ''

'' or '' Ishvara'': the ultimate reality # '' Ātman'' or '' Jivātman'': the individual soul, self # '' Prakriti''/''Jagat'': the empirical world, ever-changing physical universe, body and matter

Brahman / Ishvara – Conceptions of the Supreme Reality

Shankara, in formulating Advaita, talks of two conceptions of ''Brahman'': The higher ''Brahman'' as undifferentiated Being, and a lower ''Brahman'' endowed with qualities as the creator of the universe. * ''Parā'' or Higher ''Brahman'': The undifferentiated, absolute, infinite, transcendental, supra-relational Brahman beyond all thought and speech is defined as ''parā'' ''Brahman'', ''nirviśeṣa'' Brahman or ''nirguṇa'' Brahman and is the Absolute of metaphysics. * ''Aparā'' or Lower ''Brahman'': The ''

'' with qualities defined as ''aparā'' ''Brahman'' or ''saguṇa'' ''Brahman''. The ''saguṇa'' ''Brahman'' is endowed with attributes and represents the personal God of religion. Ramanuja, in formulating Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, rejects ''nirguṇa'' – that the undifferentiated Absolute is inconceivable – and adopts a theistic interpretation of the ''Upanishads'', accepts ''Brahman'' as ''Ishvara'', the personal God who is the seat of all auspicious attributes, as the One reality. The God of Vishishtadvaita is accessible to the devotee, yet remains the Absolute, with differentiated attributes. Madhva, in expounding Dvaita philosophy, maintains that ''

'' is the supreme God, thus identifying the ''Brahman'', or absolute reality, of the ''Upanishads'' with a personal god, as Ramanuja had done before him. Nimbarka, in his dvaitadvata philosophy, accepted the ''Brahman'' both as ''nirguṇa'' and as ''saguṇa''. Vallabha, in his shuddhadvaita philosophy, not only accepts the triple ontological essence of the ''Brahman'', but also His manifestation as personal God (''Ishvara''), as matter and as individual souls.

Relation between Brahman and Jiva / Atman

The schools of Vedanta differ in their conception of the relation they see between ''Ātman'' / ''Jivātman'' and ''Brahman'' / ''Ishvara'': * According to Advaita Vedanta, ''Ātman'' is identical with ''Brahman'' and there is no difference. * According to Vishishtadvaita, ''Jīvātman'' is different from ''Ishvara'', though eternally connected with Him as His mode. The oneness of the Supreme Reality is understood in the sense of an organic unity (''vishistaikya''). ''Brahman'' / ''Ishvara'' alone, as organically related to all ''Jīvātman'' and the material universe is the one Ultimate Reality. * According to Dvaita, the ''Jīvātman'' is totally and always different from ''Brahman'' / ''Ishvara''. * According to Shuddhadvaita (pure monism), the ''Jīvātman'' and ''Brahman'' are identical; both, along with the changing empirically observed universe being

Epistemology

Pramana

''Pramāṇa'' (

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...

: प्रमाण) literally means "proof", "that which is the means of valid knowledge". It refers to

in Indian philosophies, and encompasses the study of reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge. The focus of Pramana is the manner in which correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows or does not know, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired. Ancient and medieval Indian texts identify six ''pramanas'' as correct means of accurate knowledge and truths: # ''Pratyakṣa'' (perception) # ''Anumāṇa'' (inference) # ''

Upamāṇa ''Upamāṇa'' (Sanskrit: "comparison"), ''upamana'' in Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest ...

'' (comparison and analogy) # ''Arthāpatti'' (postulation, derivation from circumstances) # ''Anupalabdi'' (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) # ''

Śabda ''Shabda'' ( sa, शब्द, ), is the Sanskrit word for "speech sound". In Sanskrit grammar, the term refers to an utterance in the sense of linguistic performance. History In classical Indian philosophy of language, the grammarian Katyayan ...

'' (scriptural testimony/ verbal testimony of past or present reliable experts). The different schools of Vedanta have historically disagreed as to which of the six are epistemologically valid. For example, while Advaita Vedanta accepts all six ''pramanas'', Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita accept only three ''pramanas'' (perception, inference and testimony). Advaita considers ''Pratyakṣa'' (perception) as the most reliable source of knowledge, and ''

'', the scriptural evidence, is considered secondary except for matters related to Brahman, where it is the only evidence. In Vishistadvaita and Dvaita, ''

'', the scriptural testimony, is considered the most authentic means of knowledge instead.

Theories of cause and effect

All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'', which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support '' Parinamavada'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman. According to , "the ''Brahma Sutras'' espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''

Vivartavada Vivartavada is an Advaita Vedanta theory of causation, postulated by post-Shankara Advaita advaitins, regarding the universe as an "illusory transformation" of Brahman. Etymology The Sanskrit word ''vivarta'' (विवर्त) means alteration, ...

'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman.

Overview of the main schools of Vedanta

The ''Upanishads'' present an associative philosophical inquiry in the form of identifying various doctrines and then presenting arguments for or against them. They form the basic texts and Vedanta interprets them through rigorous philosophical

exegesis Exegesis ( ; from the Ancient Greek, Greek , from , "to lead out") is a critical explanation or interpretation (logic), interpretation of a text. The term is traditionally applied to the interpretation of Bible, Biblical works. In modern usage, ...

to defend the point of view of their specific ''sampradaya''. Varying interpretations of the ''Upanishads'' and their synthesis, the '' Brahma Sutras'', led to the development of different schools of Vedanta over time. Vinayak Sakaram Ghate of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute has done a comparative analysis of the Brahma Sutra commentaries of Nimbarka,

and

Madhvacharya Madhvacharya (; ; CE 1199-1278 or CE 1238–1317), sometimes Anglicisation, anglicised as Madhva Acharya, and also known as Purna Prajna () and Ānanda Tīrtha, was an Indian philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the ''Dvaita'' ...

in detail and has written the conclusion that Nimbarka's and Ramanuja's balanced commentaries give the closest meaning of the Brahma_Sutras taking into account of both kinds of Sutras, those which speak of oneness and those which speak of difference. According to Gavin Flood, while Advaita Vedanta is the "most famous" school of Vedanta, and "often, mistakenly, taken to be the only representative of Vedantic thought," and Shankara a Saivite, "Vedanta is essentially a Vaisnava theological articulation," a discourse broadly within the parameters of Vaisnavism." Within the Vaishnava traditions four ''sampradays'' have special status, while different scholars have classified the Vedanta schools ranging from three to six as prominent ones. # ''

'', as early as the 7th century CE, or even the 4th century CE. Some scholars are inclined to consider it as a "tradition" rather than a school of Vedanta. #* ''

Dvaitādvaita The Nimbarka Sampradaya (IAST: ''Nimbārka Sampradāya'', Sanskrit निम्बार्क सम्प्रदाय), also known as the Hamsa Sampradāya, and Sanakādi Sampradāya (सनकादि सम्प्रदाय), is ...

'' or ''Svabhavikabhedabheda'' (Vaishnava), founded by Nimbarka in the 7th century CE #* '' Achintya Bheda Abheda'' (Vaishnava), founded by

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (; born Vishvambhar Mishra) was a 15th-century Indian saint who is considered to be the combined avatar of Radha and Krishna by his disciples and various scriptures. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's mode of worshipping Krishna ...

(1486–1534 CE), propagated by Gaudiya Vaishnava # ''Advaita'' (monistic), many scholars of which most prominent are Gaudapada (~500 CE) and Adi Shankaracharya (8th century CE) # ''

'' (Vaishnava), prominent scholars are

Nathamuni Nathamuni, also known as Sri Ranganathamuni, (823 CE – 951 CE), was a Vaishnava theologian who collected and compiled the Naalayira Divya Prabandham. Srinivasa Chari, S. M. (1994). Vaiṣṇavism, p.22-24. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers./ref ...

, Yāmuna and

(1017–1137 CE) #* '' Akshar-Purushottam Darshan'', based on the teachings of

Swaminarayan Swaminarayan (IAST: ', 3 April 1781 – 1 June 1830), also known as Sahajanand Swami, was a yogi and Asceticism, ascetic, who is believed by followers to be a manifestation of God Krishna, or as the highest Theophany, manifestation of ...

(1781-1830 CE) and rooted in Ramanuja's ''Vishishtadvaita''; propagated most notably by BAPS # '' Tattvavada (

)'' (Vaishnava), founded by

(1199–1278 CE). The prominent scholars are Jayatirtha (1345-1388 CE), and Vyasatirtha (1460–1539 CE) # ''

'' (Vaishnava), founded by

(1479–1531 CE)

Bhedabheda Vedanta (difference and non-difference)

Bhedābheda means "difference and non-difference" and is more a tradition than a school of Vedanta. The schools of this tradition emphasize that the individual self (''Jīvatman'') is both different and not different from ''Brahman''. Notable figures in this school are Bhartriprapancha,

Nimbārka The Nimbarka Sampradaya ( IAST: ''Nimbārka Sampradāya'', Sanskrit निम्बार्क सम्प्रदाय), also known as the Hamsa Sampradāya, and Sanakādi Sampradāya (सनकादि सम्प्रदाय), i ...

(7th century) who founded the Dvaitadvaita school, Bhāskara (8th–9th century), Ramanuja's teacher

Yādavaprakāśa Yadava Prakasa () was a Bhedabheda Vedanta scholar and a contemporary of Vaishnava acharya Ramanuja. He was one of the teachers of Ramanuja during the latter's early years in Kanchi. It is said that Ramanuja joined Yadava Prakaasa's school while ...

Chaitanya Chaitanya or Chaithanya may refer to Philosophy *Chaitanya (consciousness), Hindu philosophical concept People *Chaitanya (name) *Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533), founder of Gaudiya Vaishnavism Media * ''Chaitanya'' (film), a 1991 Telugu film ...

(1486–1534) who founded the Achintya Bheda Abheda school, and

Vijñānabhikṣu Vijñānabhikṣu (also spelled ''Vijnanabhikshu'') was a Hindu philosopher from Bihar, variously dated to the 15th or 16th century, known for his commentary on various schools of Hindu philosophy, particularly the Yoga text of Patanjali. His scho ...

(16th century).

Dvaitādvaita Vedanta

(7th century) sometimes identified with Bhāskara, propounded ''

''. ''Brahman'' (God), souls ''(chit)'' and matter or the universe ''(achit)'' are considered as three equally real and co-eternal realities. ''Brahman'' is the controller ''(niyanta)'', the soul is the enjoyer ''(bhokta)'', and the material universe is the object enjoyed ''(bhogya)''. The Brahman is ''

'', the ultimate cause who is omniscient, omnipotent, all-pervading Being. He is the efficient cause of the universe because, as Lord of ''Karma'' and internal ruler of souls, He brings about creation so that the souls can reap the consequences of their ''karma''. God is considered to be the

material cause The four causes or four explanations are, in Aristotelian thought, four fundamental types of answer to the question "why?", in analysis of change or movement in nature: the material, the formal, the efficient, and the final. Aristotle wrote th ...

of the universe because creation was a manifestation of His powers of soul ''(chit)'' and matter ''(achit)''; creation is a transformation ''(parinama)'' of God's powers. He can be realized only through a constant effort to merge oneself with His nature through meditation and devotion.

Achintya-Bheda-Abheda Vedanta

(1486 – 1533) was the prime exponent of ''Achintya-Bheda-Abheda''. In

''achintya'' means 'inconceivable'. ''Achintya-Bheda-Abheda'' represents the philosophy of "inconceivable difference in non-difference", in relation to the non-dual reality of ''Brahman''-''Atman'' which it calls (''

''), ''svayam bhagavan''. The notion of "inconceivability" (''acintyatva'') is used to reconcile apparently contradictory notions in Upanishadic teachings. This school asserts that ''Krishna'' is '' Bhagavan'' of the ''bhakti yogins'', the ''Brahman'' of the ''jnana yogins'', and has a divine potency that is inconceivable. He is all-pervading and thus in all parts of the universe (non-difference), yet he is inconceivably more (difference). This school is at the foundation of the '' Gaudiya Vaishnava'' religious tradition. The ISKCON or the Hare Krishnas also affiliate to this school of Vedanta Philosophy.

Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism)

Advaita Vedanta (

IAST The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that emerged during ...

: अद्वैत वेदान्त), propounded by Gaudapada (7th century) and

(8th century), espouses non-dualism and monism. ''Brahman'' is held to be the sole unchanging metaphysical reality and identical to the individual ''Atman''. The physical world, on the other hand, is always-changing empirical ''Maya''. The absolute and infinite ''Atman''-''Brahman'' is realized by a process of negating everything relative, finite, empirical and changing. The school accepts no duality, no limited individual souls (''Atman'' / ''Jivatman''), and no separate unlimited cosmic soul. All souls and their existence across space and time are considered to be the same oneness. Spiritual liberation in ''Advaita'' is the full comprehension and realization of oneness, that one's unchanging ''Atman'' (soul) is the same as the ''Atman'' in everyone else, as well as being identical to ''Brahman''.

Vishishtadvaita Vedanta (qualified non-dualism)

''Vishishtadvaita'', propounded by

(11–12th century), asserts that ''Jivatman'' (human souls) and ''Brahman'' (as ''Vishnu'') are different, a difference that is never transcended. With this qualification, Ramanuja also affirmed monism by saying that there is unity of all souls and that the individual soul has the potential to realize identity with the ''Brahman''. ''Vishishtadvaita'', like ''Advaita'', is a non-dualistic school of Vedanta in a qualified way, and both begin by assuming that all souls can hope for and achieve the state of blissful liberation. On the relation between the ''Brahman'' and the world of matter (''Prakriti''), ''Vishishtadvaita'' states both are two different absolutes, both metaphysically true and real, neither is false or illusive, and that ''saguna'' ''Brahman'' with attributes is also real. Ramanuja states that God, like man, has both soul and body, and the world of matter is the glory of God's body. The path to ''Brahman'' (''Vishnu''), according to Ramanuja, is devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of the personal god (''

bhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...

'' of ''saguna'' ''Brahman'').

Swaminarayan Darshana

Lord Swaminarayan writing the Shikshapatri

The Swaminarayan Darshana, also called Akshar Purushottam Darshan by the BAPS, was propounded by Swaminarayan (1781-1830 CE) and is rooted in Ramanuja's ''Vishishtadvaita''. It asserts that Parabrahman (Purushottam, Narayana) and Aksharbrahman are two distinct eternal realities. Adherents believe that they can achieve moksha, or freedom from the cycle of birth and death, by becoming aksharrup (or brahmarup), that is, by attaining qualities similar to Akshar (or Aksharbrahman) and worshipping Purushottam (or Parabrahman; the supreme living entity; God).

Tattvavada Vedanta (Dvaita)(dualism)

13th century portrait of Jagadguru Shri Madhvacharya in Udupi

Tattvavada, propounded by

(13th century), is based on the premise of realism or realistic point of view. The term Dvaita which means dualism was later applied to Madhvacharya's philosophy. ''Atman'' (soul) and ''Brahman'' (as ''Vishnu'') are understood as two completely different entities. ''Brahman'' is the creator of the universe, perfect in knowledge, perfect in knowing, perfect in its power, and distinct from souls, distinct from matter. In ''Dvaita'' Vedanta, an individual soul must feel attraction, love, attachment and complete devotional surrender to ''Vishnu'' for salvation, and it is only His grace that leads to redemption and salvation. Madhva believed that some souls are eternally doomed and damned, a view not found in ''Advaita'' and ''Vishishtadvaita'' Vedanta. While the ''Vishishtadvaita'' Vedanta asserted "qualitative monism and quantitative pluralism of souls", Madhva asserted both "qualitative and quantitative pluralism of souls".

Shuddhādvaita Vedanta (pure nondualism)

Shuddhadvaita (pure non-dualism), propounded by

Vallabhacharya Vallabhacharya Mahaprabhu (1479–1531 CE), also known as Vallabha, Mahaprabhuji and Vishnuswami, or Vallabha Acharya, is a Hindu Indian saint and philosopher who founded the Krishna-centered PushtiMarg sect of Vaishnavism in the Braj(Vraj) ...

(1479–1531 CE), states that the entire universe is real and is subtly ''

'' only in the form of ''

''. Vallabhacharya agreed with Advaita Vedanta's

, but emphasized that ''prakriti'' (empirical world, body) is not separate from the ''Brahman'', but just another manifestation of the latter. Everything, everyone, everywhere – soul and body, living and non-living, ''jiva'' and matter – is the eternal ''

''. The way to ''Krishna'', in this school, is ''

''. Vallabha opposed renunciation of monistic ''sannyasa'' as ineffective and advocates the path of devotion (''bhakti'') rather than knowledge (''jnana''). The goal of ''bhakti'' is to turn away from ego, self-centered-ness and deception, and to turn towards the eternal ''Krishna'' in everything continually offering freedom from '' samsara''.

History

The history of Vedanta can be divided into two periods: one prior to the composition of the ''Brahma Sutras'' and the other encompassing the schools that developed after the ''Brahma Sutras'' were written. Until the 11th century, Vedanta was a peripheral school of thought.

Before the ''Brahma Sutras'' (before the 5th century)

Little is known of schools of Vedanta existing before the composition of the ''Brahma Sutras'' (400–450 CE).. "... we can take it that 400-450 is the period during which the Brahma-sūtra was compiled in its extant form." It is clear that Badarayana, the writer of ''Brahma Sutras'', was not the first person to systematize the teachings of the ''Upanishads'', as he quotes six Vedantic teachers before him – Ashmarathya, Badari, Audulomi, Kashakrtsna, Karsnajini and Atreya. References to other early Vedanta teachers – Brahmadatta, Sundara, Pandaya, Tanka and Dravidacharya – are found in secondary literature of later periods. The works of these ancient teachers have not survived, but based on the quotes attributed to them in later literature, Sharma postulates that Ashmarathya and Audulomi were

scholars, Kashakrtsna and Brahmadatta were

Advaita ''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' (lit ...

scholars, while Tanka and Dravidacharya were either Advaita or Vishistadvaita scholars.

''Brahma Sutras'' (completed in the 5th century)

Badarayana summarized and interpreted teachings of the ''Upanishads'' in the '' Brahma Sutras'', also called the ''Vedanta Sutra'', possibly "written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint." Badarayana summarized the teachings of the classical Upanishads and refuted the rival philosophical schools in ancient India. The Brahma Sutras laid the basis for the development of Vedanta philosophy. Though attributed to Badarayana, the Brahma Sutras were likely composed by multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years. The estimates on when the Brahma Sutras were complete vary, with Nakamura in 1989 and Nicholson in his 2013 review stating, that they were most likely compiled in the present form around 400–450 CE. Isaeva suggests they were complete and in current form by 200 CE, while Nakamura states that "the great part of the ''Sutra'' must have been in existence much earlier than that" (800 - 500 BCE). The book is composed of four chapters, each divided into four-quarters or sections. These sutras attempt to synthesize the diverse teachings of the Upanishads. However, the cryptic nature of aphorisms of the ''Brahma Sutras'' have required exegetical commentaries. These commentaries have resulted in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own commentary.

Between the ''Brahma Sutras'' and Adi Shankara (5th–8th centuries)

Little with specificity is known of the period between the ''Brahma Sutras'' (5th century CE) and Adi Shankara (8th century CE). Only two writings of this period have survived: the ''Vākyapadīya'', written by Bhartṛhari (second half 5th century,) and the ''Kārikā'' written by Gaudapada (early 6th or 7th century CE). Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his school in his commentaries. A number of important early Vedanta thinkers have been listed in the ''Siddhitraya'' by Yamunācārya (c. 1050), the ''Vedārthasamgraha'' by Rāmānuja (c. 1050–1157), and the ''Yatīndramatadīpikā'' by Śrīnivāsa Dāsa. At least fourteen thinkers are known to have existed between the composition of the Brahma Sutras and Shankara's lifetime. A noted scholar of this period was Bhartriprapancha. Bhartriprapancha maintained that the Brahman is one and there is unity, but that this unity has varieties. Scholars see Bhartriprapancha as an early philosopher in the line who teach the tenet of

Gaudapada, Adi Shankara (Advaita Vedanta) (6th–9th centuries)

Influenced by Buddhism, Advaita vedanta departs from the bhedabheda-philosophy, instead postulating the identity of ''Atman'' with the Whole (''Brahman''),

Gaudapada

Gaudapada (c. 6th century CE), was the teacher or a more distant predecessor of Govindapada, the teacher of Adi Shankara. Shankara is widely considered as the apostle of

Advaita Vedanta ''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hinduism, Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the Āstika and nāstika, orthodox Hindu school Ved ...

. Gaudapada's treatise, the ' – also known as the ' or the ' – is the earliest surviving complete text on Advaita Vedanta. Gaudapada's ' relied on the

Mandukya The Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad ( sa, माण्डूक्य उपनिषद्, ) is the shortest of all the Upanishads, and is assigned to Atharvaveda. It is listed as number 6 in the Muktikā canon of 108 Upanishads. It is in prose, co ...

, Brihadaranyaka and Chhandogya ''Upanishads''. In the ', Advaita (non-dualism) is established on rational grounds (''upapatti'') independent of scriptural revelation; its arguments are devoid of all religious, mystical or scholastic elements. Scholars are divided on a possible influence of

on Gaudapada's philosophy. The fact that Shankara, in addition to the '' Brahma Sutras'', the principal ''Upanishads'' and the '' Bhagvad Gita'', wrote an independent commentary on the ' proves its importance in literature.

Adi Shankara

Adi Shankara (788–820), elaborated on Gaudapada's work and more ancient scholarship to write detailed commentaries on the Prasthanatrayi and the '. The Mandukya Upanishad and the ' have been described by Shankara as containing "the epitome of the substance of the import of Vedanta". It was Shankara who integrated Gaudapada work with the ancient ''Brahma Sutras'', "and give it a ''locus classicus''" alongside the realistic strain of the ''Brahma Sutras''. A noted contemporary of Shankara was

Maṇḍana Miśra Mandana Mishra (; c. ) was a Hindu philosopher who wrote on the Mīmāṃsā and Advaita systems of thought. He was a follower of the Karma Mimamsa school of philosophy and a staunch defender of the holistic sphota doctrine of language. He ...

, who regarded Mimamsa and Vedanta as forming a single system and advocated their combination known as ''Karma-jnana-samuchchaya-vada''. The treatise on the differences between the Vedanta school and the Mimamsa school was a contribution of Adi Shankara. Advaita Vedanta rejects rituals in favor of renunciation, for example.

Early Vaishnavism Vedanta (7th–9th centuries)

Early Vaishnava Vedanta retains the tradition of ''bhedabheda'', equating Brahman with Vishnu or Krishna.

Nimbārka and Dvaitādvaita

(7th century) sometimes identified with Bhāskara, propounded ''

'' or Bhedābheda.

Bhāskara and Upadhika

Bhāskara (8th–9th century) also taught Bhedabheda. In postulating ''Upadhika'', he considers both identity and difference to be equally real. As the causal principle, ''Brahman'' is considered non-dual and formless pure being and intelligence. The same ''Brahman'', manifest as events, becomes the world of plurality. ' is ''Brahman'' limited by the mind. Matter and its limitations are considered real, not a manifestation of ignorance. Bhaskara advocated ''bhakti'' as ''dhyana'' (meditation) directed toward the transcendental ''Brahman''. He refuted the idea of ''Maya'' and denied the possibility of liberation in bodily existence.

Vaishnavism Bhakti Vedanta (11th–16th centuries)

The

Bhakti movement The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6th centur ...

of late medieval Hinduism started in the 7th century, but rapidly expanded after the 12th century. It was supported by the Puranic literature such as the

Bhagavata Purana The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in Sa ...

, poetic works, as well as many scholarly bhasyas and

samhitas Saṃhitā literally means "put together, joined, union", a "collection", and "a methodically, rule-based combination of text or verses".Ramanujacharya Ramanuja (Middle Tamil: Rāmāṉujam; Classical Sanskrit: Rāmanuja; 1017 CE – 1137 CE; ; ), also known as Ramanujacharya, was an Indian Hindu philosopher, guru and a social reformer. He is noted to be one of the most important exponents o ...

Vedanta Desika Vedanta Desikan (1268–1369), also rendered Vedanta Desikar, Swami Vedanta Desikan, and Thoopul Nigamaantha Desikan, was an Indian polymath who wrote philosophical as well as religious and poetical works in several languages, including Sans ...

and

. Bhakti poets or teachers such as

Manavala Mamunigal Alagiya Manavalan, best known by his epithet Manavala Mamunigal (1370–1450), was a Hindu theologian. He was a major proponent of the Sri Vaishnavism tradition in the 15th century in Tamilakam, disseminating it with the help of his eight di ...

Namdev Shri Sant Namdev Maharaj (Pronunciation: aːmdeʋ, also transliterated as Nam Dayv, Namdeo, Namadeva, (traditionally, ) was a Marathi Bahujan saint from Narsi, Hingoli, Maharashtra, India within the Varkari tradition of Hinduism. He lived a ...

Ramananda Sri Ramanandacharya (IAST: Rāmānanda) was a 14th-century Vaishnava devotional poet saint, who lived in the Gangetic basin of northern India. The Hindu tradition recognizes him as the founder of the Ramanandi Sampradaya, the largest monastic ...

, Surdas,

Tulsidas Tulsidas (; born Rambola Dubey; also known as Goswami Tulsidas; c.1511pp. 23–34.–1623) was a Ramanandi Vaishnava Hindu saint and poet, renowned for his devotion to the deity Rama. He wrote several popular works in Sanskrit and Awadhi, but ...

Eknath Eknath (IAST: Eka-nātha, Marathi language, Marathi pronunciation: Help:IPA/Marathi, knath (1533–1599), commonly known as Sant (religion), Sant Eknath was an Indian Hindu saint, philosopher and poet. He was a devotee of the Hindu deity ...

Tyagaraja Thyagaraja (Telugu: త్యాగరాజ) (4 May 1767 – 6 January 1847), also known as Thyāgayya and in full as Kakarla Thyagabrahmam, was a composer and vocalist of Carnatic music, a form of Indian classical music. Tyagaraja and his ...

, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and many others influenced the expansion of Vaishnavism. These Vaishnavism sampradaya founders challenged the then dominant Shankara's doctrines of Advaita Vedanta, particularly

in the 12th century,

and Madhva in the 13th, building their theology on the devotional tradition of the

Alvars The Alvars ( ta, ஆழ்வார், Āḻvār, translit-std=ISO, lit=The Immersed) were the Tamil poet-saints of South India who espoused ''bhakti'' (devotion) to the Hindu preserver deity Vishnu, in their songs of longing, ecstasy, and ...

(

Shri Vaishnavas Sri Vaishnavism, or the Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya, is a denomination within the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism. The name refers to goddess Lakshmi (also known as Sri), as well as a prefix that means "sacred, revered", and the god Vishnu, who ...

), and

in the 16th century. In North and Eastern India, Vaishnavism gave rise to various late Medieval movements:

in the 14th century,

Sankaradeva Srimanta Sankardev( শ্ৰীমন্ত শংকৰদেৱ )(; ; 1449–1568) was a 15th–16th century Assamese polymath; a saint-scholar, poet, playwright, dancer, actor, musician, artist social-religious reformer and a figure of im ...

in the 15th and

and

in the 16th century.

Ramanuja (Vishishtadvaita Vedanta) (11th–12th centuries)

Rāmānuja (1017–1137 CE) was the most influential philosopher in the

tradition. As the philosophical architect of Vishishtadvaita, he taught qualified non-dualism. Ramanuja's teacher, Yadava Prakasha, followed the Advaita monastic tradition. Tradition has it that Ramanuja disagreed with Yadava and Advaita Vedanta, and instead followed

and Yāmuna. Ramanuja reconciled the ''Prasthanatrayi'' with the theism and philosophy of the Vaishnava

poet-saints. Ramanuja wrote a number of influential texts, such as a bhasya on the ''Brahma Sutras'' and the ''Bhagavad Gita'', all in Sanskrit. Ramanuja presented the

epistemological Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Episte ...

and

soteriological Soteriology (; el, σωτηρία ' "salvation" from σωτήρ ' "savior, preserver" and λόγος ' "study" or "word") is the study of religious doctrines of salvation. Salvation theory occupies a place of special significance in many religio ...

importance of bhakti, or the devotion to a personal God (Vishnu in Ramanuja's case) as a means to spiritual liberation. His theories assert that there exists a plurality and distinction between Atman (souls) and Brahman (metaphysical, ultimate reality), while he also affirmed that there is unity of all souls and that the individual soul has the potential to realize identity with the Brahman.; ; Vishishtadvaiata provides the philosophical basis of

Sri Vaishnavism Sri Vaishnavism, or the Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya, is a denomination within the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism. The name refers to goddess Lakshmi (also known as Sri), as well as a prefix that means "sacred, revered", and the god Vishnu, who ...

. Ramanuja was influential in integrating ''

Bhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...

'', the devotional worship, into Vedanta premises.

Madhva (Tattvavada or Dvaita Vedanta)(13th–14th centuries)

Tattvavada or

Dvaita Vedanta Dvaita Vedanta (); (originally known as Tattvavada; IAST:Tattvavāda), is a sub-school in the Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy. The term Tattvavada literally means "arguments from a realist viewpoint". The Tattvavada (Dvaita) Vedanta sub ...

was propounded by

(1238–1317 CE). He presented the opposite interpretation of Shankara in his Dvaita, or dualistic system. In contrast to Shankara's non-dualism and Ramanuja's qualified non-dualism, he championed unqualified dualism. Madhva wrote commentaries on the chief ''Upanishads'', the ''Bhagavad Gita'' and the ''Brahma Sutra''. Madhva started his Vedic studies at age seven, joined an Advaita Vedanta monastery in Dwarka (Gujarat), studied under

guru Guru ( sa, गुरु, IAST: ''guru;'' Pali'': garu'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverentia ...

Achyutrapreksha, frequently disagreed with him, left the Advaita monastery, and founded Dvaita. Madhva and his followers Jayatirtha and Vyasatirtha, were critical of all competing Hindu philosophies, Jainism and Buddhism, but particularly intense in their criticism of Advaita Vedanta and Adi Shankara. Dvaita Vedanta is theistic and it identifies Brahman with Narayana, or more specifically Vishnu, in a manner similar to Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta. But it is more explicitly pluralistic. Madhva's emphasis for difference between soul and Brahman was so pronounced that he taught there were differences (1) between material things; (2) between material things and souls; (3) between material things and God; (4) between souls; and (5) between souls and God. He also advocated for a difference in degrees in the possession of knowledge. He also advocated for differences in the enjoyment of bliss even in the case of liberated souls, a doctrine found in no other system of Indian philosophy.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (Achintya Bheda Abheda) (16th century)

'' Achintya Bheda Abheda'' (Vaishnava), founded by

(1486–1534 CE), was propagated by Gaudiya Vaishnava. Historically, it was

who founded congregational chanting of holy names of Krishna in the early 16th century after becoming a

sannyasi ''Sannyasa'' (Sanskrit: संन्यास; IAST: ), sometimes spelled Sanyasa (सन्न्यास) or Sanyasi (for the person), is life of renunciation and the fourth stage within the Hindu system of four life stages known as '' As ...

Modern times (19th century – present)

Swaminarayan and Akshar-Purushottam Darshan (19th century)

The

Swaminarayan Darshana The Swaminarayan Sampradaya, also known as Swaminarayan Hinduism and Swaminarayan movement, is a Hindu Vaishnava sampradaya rooted in Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita, characterized by the worship of its charismatic founder Sahajanand Swami, bet ...

, which is rooted in Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita, was founded in 1801 by

(1781-1830 CE), and is contemporarily most notably propagated by BAPS. Due to the commentarial work of

Bhadreshdas Swami Bhadreshdas Swami is a Sanskrit scholar and an ordained monk of the Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS). In 2007 he completed the ''Swaminarayan Bhashyam'', a five-volume classical Sanskrit commentary on the Prasthanatr ...

, the Akshar-Purushottam teachings were recognized as a distinct school of Vedanta by the ''Shri Kashi Vidvat Parishad'' in 2017 and by members of the 17th World Sanskrit Conference in 2018. Swami Paramtattvadas describes the Akshar-Purushottam teachings as "a distinct school of thought within the larger expanse of classical Vedanta," presenting the Akshar-Purushottam teachings as a seventh school of Vedanta.

Neo-Vedanta (19th century)

Neo-Vedanta, variously called as "Hindu modernism", "neo-Hinduism", and "neo-Advaita", is a term that denotes some novel interpretations of

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...

that developed in the 19th century, presumably as a reaction to the colonial British rule. writes that these notions accorded the Hindu nationalists an opportunity to attempt the construction of a nationalist ideology to help unite the Hindus to fight colonial oppression. Western orientalists, in their search for its "essence", attempted to formulate a notion of "Hinduism" based on a single interpretation of Vedanta as a unified body of religious praxis. This was contra-factual as, historically, Hinduism and Vedanta had always accepted a diversity of traditions. asserts that the neo-Vedantic theory of "overarching tolerance and acceptance" was used by the Hindu reformers, together with the ideas of Universalism and Perennialism, to challenge the polemic dogmatism of Judaeo-Christian-Islamic missionaries against the Hindus. The neo-Vedantins argued that the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy were perspectives on a single truth, all valid and complementary to each other. sees these interpretations as incorporating western ideas into traditional systems, especially

. It is the modern form of Advaita Vedanta, states , the neo-Vedantists subsumed the Buddhist philosophies as part of the Vedanta tradition and then argued that all the world religions are same "non-dualistic position as the philosophia perennis", ignoring the differences within and outside of Hinduism. According to , neo-Vedanta is Advaita Vedanta which accepts universal realism: A major proponent in the popularization of this Universalist and Perennialist interpretation of Advaita Vedanta was

, who played a major role in the revival of Hinduism. He was also instrumental in the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the West via the

Vedanta Society Vedanta Societies refer to organizations, groups, or societies formed for the study, practice, and propagation of Vedanta, the ancient religion based on the Vedas. More specifically, they "comprise the American arm of the Indian Ramakrishna move ...

, the international arm of the Ramakrishna Order.

= Criticism of Neo-Vedanta label

= writes that the attempts at integration which came to be known as neo-Vedanta were evident as early as between the 12th and the 16th century− Matilal criticizes Neo-Hinduism as an oddity developed by West-inspired Western Indologists and attributes it to the flawed Western perception of Hinduism in modern India. In his scathing criticism of this school of reasoning, says:

Influence

According to , the Vedanta school has had a historic and central influence on Hinduism:

Frithjof Schuon Frithjof Schuon (, , ; 18 June 1907 – 5 May 1998) was a Swiss metaphysician of German descent, belonging to the Perennialist or Traditionalist School of thought. He was the author of more than twenty works in French on metaphysics, spirituali ...

summarizes the influence of Vedanta on Hinduism as follows: Gavin Flood states,

Hindu traditions

Vedanta, adopting ideas from other orthodox (''āstika'') schools, became the most prominent school of

. Vedanta traditions led to the development of many traditions in Hinduism.

of south and southeastern India is based on Ramanuja's ''Vishishtadvaita'' Vedanta. Ramananda led to the ''Vaishnav Bhakti'' Movement in north, east, central and west India. This movement draws its philosophical and theistic basis from ''Vishishtadvaita''. A large number of devotional ''Vaishnavism'' traditions of east India, north India (particularly the Braj region), west and central India are based on various sub-schools of ''Bhedabheda'' Vedanta. ''Advaita'' Vedanta influenced ''Krishna Vaishnavism'' in the northeastern state of

Assam Assam (; ) is a state in northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of . The state is bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh to the north; Nagaland and Manipur ...

. The Madhva school of Vaishnavism found in coastal

Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Karnat ...

is based on ''Dvaita'' Vedanta. '' Āgamas'', the classical literature of ''

Shaivism Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...

'', though independent in origin, show Vedanta association and premises. Of the 92 ''Āgamas'', ten are (''

dvaita Dvaita Vedanta (); (originally known as Tattvavada; IAST:Tattvavāda), is a sub-school in the Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy. The term Tattvavada literally means "arguments from a realist viewpoint". The Tattvavada (Dvaita) Vedanta su ...

'') texts, eighteen (''

bhedabheda Bhedābheda Vedānta is a subschool of Vedānta, which teaches that the individual self (''jīvātman'') is both different and not different from the ultimate reality known as Brahman. Etymology ''Bhedābheda'' (Devanagari: ) is a Sanskrit wor ...

''), and sixty-four (''

advaita ''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' (lit ...

'') texts. While the ''Bhairava Shastras'' are monistic, ''Shiva Shastras'' are dualistic. finds the link between Gaudapada's ''Advaita'' Vedanta and ''

Kashmir Shaivism Kashmir Shaivism or Trika Shaivism, is a nondualist tradition of Shaiva-Shakta Tantra which originated sometime after 850 CE. Since this tradition originated in Kashmir it is often called "Kashmiri Shaivism". It later went on to become a pan ...

'' evident and natural.

Tirumular Tirumular (also spelt Thirumoolar etc., originally known as Suntaranāthar) was a Tamil Shaivite mystic and writer, considered one of the sixty-three Nayanmars and one of the 18 Siddhars. His main work, the ''Tirumantiram'' (also sometimes wri ...

, the Tamil ''Shaiva Siddhanta'' scholar, credited with creating "Vedanta–Siddhanta" (Advaita Vedanta and Shaiva Siddhanta synthesis), stated, "becoming ''Shiva'' is the goal of Vedanta and ''Siddhanta''; all other goals are secondary to it and are vain." ''

Shaktism Shaktism ( sa, शाक्त, , ) is one of several major Hindu denominations, wherein the metaphysical reality is considered metaphorically a woman and Shakti ( Mahadevi) is regarded as the supreme godhead. It includes many goddesses, al ...

'', or traditions where a goddess is considered identical to ''

'', has similarly flowered from a syncretism of the monist premises of ''Advaita'' Vedanta and dualism premises of ''Samkhya–Yoga'' school of Hindu philosophy, sometimes referred to as ''Shaktadavaitavada'' (literally, the path of nondualistic ''Shakti'').; ;

Influence on Western thinkers

An exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia since the late 18th century as a result of colonization of parts of Asia by Western powers. This also influenced western religiosity. The first translation of ''Upanishads'', published in two parts in 1801 and 1802, significantly influenced

Arthur Schopenhauer Arthur Schopenhauer ( , ; 22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860) was a German philosopher. He is best known for his 1818 work ''The World as Will and Representation'' (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the phenomenal world as the prod ...

, who called them the consolation of his life. He drew explicit parallels between his philosophy, as set out in ''The World as Will and Representation'', and that of the Vedanta philosophy as described in the work of Sir William Jones. Early translations also appeared in other European languages. Influenced by Śaṅkara's concepts of ''Brahman'' (God) and ''māyā'' (illusion),

Lucian Blaga Lucian Blaga (; 9 May 1895 – 6 May 1961) was a Romanian philosopher, poet, playwright, poetry translator and novelist. He was a commanding personality of the Romanian culture of the interbellum period. Biography Blaga was born on 9 May 1895 ...

often used the concepts ''marele anonim'' (the Great Anonymous) and ''cenzura transcendentă'' (the transcendental censorship) in his philosophy.

Similarities with Spinoza's philosophy

German Sanskritist

Theodore Goldstücker Theodore may refer to: Places * Theodore, Alabama, United States * Theodore, Australian Capital Territory * Theodore, Queensland, a town in the Shire of Banana, Australia * Theodore, Saskatchewan, Canada * Theodore Reservoir, a lake in Saskatche ...

was among the early scholars to notice similarities between the religious conceptions of the Vedanta and those of the Dutch Jewish philosopher

Baruch Spinoza Baruch (de) Spinoza (born Bento de Espinosa; later as an author and a correspondent ''Benedictus de Spinoza'', anglicized to ''Benedict de Spinoza''; 24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677) was a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese-Jewish origin, b ...

, writing that Spinoza's thought was

Max Müller Friedrich Max Müller (; 6 December 1823 – 28 October 1900) was a German-born philologist and Orientalist, who lived and studied in Britain for most of his life. He was one of the founders of the western academic disciplines of Indian ...

noted the striking similarities between Vedanta and the system of Spinoza, saying,

Helena Blavatsky Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, uk, Олена Петрівна Блаватська, Olena Petrivna Blavatska (; – 8 May 1891), often known as Madame Blavatsky, was a Russian mystic and author who co-founded the Theosophical Society in 187 ...

, a founder of the

Theosophical Society The Theosophical Society, founded in 1875, is a worldwide body with the aim to advance the ideas of Theosophy in continuation of previous Theosophists, especially the Greek and Alexandrian Neo-Platonic philosophers dating back to 3rd century CE ...

, also compared Spinoza's religious thought to Vedanta, writing in an unfinished essay,

Notes

References

Sources

Printed sources

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External links

* * {{Authority control Āstika Consciousness Dualism in cosmology Hindu philosophical concepts Metaphilosophy Movements in ancient Indian philosophy Nondualism Philosophical movements Philosophical schools and traditions Vedas