Kharkiv Kharkiv ( uk, wikt:Харків, Ха́рків, ), also known as Kharkov (russian: Харькoв, ), is the second-largest List of cities in Ukraine, city and List of hromadas of Ukraine, municipality in Ukraine.SBU headquarters in

Luhansk Luhansk (, ; uk, Луганськ, ), also known as Lugansk (, ; russian: Луганск, ), is a city in what is internationally recognised as Ukraine, although it is administered by Russia as capital of the Luhansk People's Republic (LPR). A ...

. The groups created a people's council and demanded a

referendum A referendum (plural: referendums or less commonly referenda) is a direct vote by the electorate on a proposal, law, or political issue. This is in contrast to an issue being voted on by a representative. This may result in the adoption of a ...

like the one held in Crimea. Within a few days, several government buildings in cities such as

Kramatorsk Kramatorsk ( uk, Краматорськ, translit=Kramatorsk ) is a city and the administrative centre of Kramatorsk Raion in the northern portion of Donetsk Oblast, in eastern Ukraine. Prior to 2020, Kramatorsk was a City of regional significa ...

and

Sloviansk Sloviansk ( uk, Слов'янськ, Sloviansk ; russian: Славянск, Slavyansk or ; prior to 1784 – Tor) is a city in the Kramatorsk district of the Donetsk region of Ukraine, the administrative center of the Slovyansk urban commun ...

were also stormed. On 12 April, the supporters of the Donetsk People's Republic and members of Donbas People's Militia set up checkpoints and barricades in Sloviansk. The same day, former members of the Donetsk " Berkut" unit joined the ranks of the Donbas People's Militia. On 13 April, the newly established Ukrainian government gave the separatists a deadline to disarm or face a "full-scale anti-terrorist campaign" in the region. Later that day, the first reports came in of fighting between the people's militia and Ukrainian troops near Sloviansk, with casualties on both sides. On 14 April, members of the Donbas People's Militia blocked Ukrainian military

KrAZ KrAZ ( uk, Кременчуцький автомобільний завод, ''Kremenchutskyi Avtomobilnyi Zavod'', Kremenchuk Automobile Plant, АвтоКрА́З or AvtoKrAZ) is a Ukrainian factory that produces trucks and other special-purpos ...

trucks armed with Grad missiles from entering the city. On 15 April, a full scale " Anti-Terrorist Operation" was launched by the Ukrainian government with aim of restoring their authority over the areas seized by the militia. 2014-04-14 Sloviansk city council - 2

On 16 April, the militia entered Sloviansk with six BMD airborne amphibious tracked

infantry fighting vehicle An infantry fighting vehicle (IFV), also known as a mechanized infantry combat vehicle (MICV), is a type of armoured fighting vehicle used to carry infantry into battle and provide direct-fire support. The 1990 Treaty on Conventional Armed Forc ...

s they had obtained from elements of the

25th Airborne Brigade The 25th Separate Airbone Sicheslav Brigade ( uk, 25-та окрема повітрянодесантна Січеславська бригада) is an airborne formation of the Ukrainian Air Assault Forces. It is the only airborne unit of Ukrai ...

who had switched allegiance. A Ukrainian military column was disarmed after the vehicles were blockaded by locals in Kramatorsk. The militia also received a 2S9 "Nona-S" self-propelled 120 mm mortar. On April 20, an unidentified armed group in civilian clothes attacked a militia checkpoint at the entrance to the city of Sloviansk. Three attackers and three members of the militia were killed. On May 14, eight members of the militia seized an IMR armored vehicle from Novokramatorsky Mashinostroitelny Zavod. On May 15, the Donbas People's Militia sent an ultimatum to Kiev. They demanded the withdrawal of all Ukrainian troops from

Donetsk oblast The Donetsk Oblast ( ukr, Донецька область, Donetska oblast, ), also referred to as Donechchyna ( ukr, Донеччина, links=no), is an oblast of eastern Ukraine. It is Ukraine's most populous province, with around 4.1 mill ...

. On May 17, several members of the militia seized two

BRDM BRDM is an initialism for ''Boyevaya Razvedyvatelnaya Dozornaya Mashina'', (RU Боевая Разведывательная Дозорная Машина), literally "Combat Reconnaissance Patrol Vehicle". The BRDM is a four-wheeled amphibious ve ...

unarmed armored vehicles from

Severodonetsk russian: Северодоне́цк , other_name = Severodonetsk , settlement_type = City , image_skyline = , image_caption = , image_flag = Severodoneck prapor.png , image_shield ...

and

Lysychansk Lysychansk ( uk, Лисича́нськ ; russian: Лисича́нск ) is a city in the Sievierodonetsk Raion of the Luhansk Oblast in Ukraine. Prior to 2020 municipal classification reforms, it was incorporated as a city of oblast significa ...

(

Luhansk Oblast Luhansk Oblast ( uk, Луга́нська о́бласть, translit=Luhanska oblast; russian: Луганская область, translit=Luganskaya oblast; also referred to as Luhanshchyna, uk, Луга́нщина) is the easternmost oblast ...

) On May 22, the

Federal State of Novorossiya Novorossiya or New Russia (russian: Новороссия, ; uk, Новоросія, Novorosiia, ovoroˈsijɐ, also referred to as the Union of People's Republics ( rus, Союз народных республик, Soyuz narodnykh respubli ...

was declared. On May 23, several members of the people's militia seized another BRDM-RKh unarmed armored vehicle from Loskutovka (

)

In July 2014, the estimated manpower of the separatists was around 10,000–20,000.Ukraine's next battle is Donetsk, but no bombs, please
''USA Today''. 12 July 2014. The militia were widely suspected to have been involved in the downing of a civilian airliner,

Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 (MH17/MAS17) was a scheduled passenger flight from Amsterdam to Kuala Lumpur that was shot down by Russian forces on 17 July 2014, while flying over eastern Ukraine. All 283 passengers and 15 crew were killed. Cont ...

, on 17 July 2014. On August 8, the militia claimed that after battles near the Russian border, they had captured 67 pieces of equipment in varying conditions (serviceable equipment without ammunition and fuel, with faults, damaged in battle and completely unusable), including 18 "Grad" multiple rocket launching systems, 15

tank A tank is an armoured fighting vehicle intended as a primary offensive weapon in front-line ground combat. Tank designs are a balance of heavy firepower, strong armour, and good battlefield mobility provided by tracks and a powerful engin ...

s and armored personnel carriers,

howitzer A howitzer () is a long- ranged weapon, falling between a cannon (also known as an artillery gun in the United States), which fires shells at flat trajectories, and a mortar, which fires at high angles of ascent and descent. Howitzers, like ot ...

MANPADS Man-portable air-defense systems (MANPADS or MPADS) are portable surface-to-air missiles. They are guided weapons and are a threat to low-flying aircraft, especially helicopters. Overview MANPADS were developed in the 1950s to provide military ...

, etc. As of August 12, the militia had at least 200 armored vehicles. The months of July and early August were disastrous for the militias, with many analysts saying they were on the verge of defeat, before a sudden counteroffensive, which the

Ukrainian government The Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine ( uk, Кабінет Міністрів України, translit=Kabinet Ministriv Ukrainy; shortened to CabMin), commonly referred to as the Government of Ukraine ( uk, Уряд України, ''Uriad Ukrai ...

said was supported by Russian troops, encircled thousands of Ukrainian troops and forced them into a retreat. The militias soon re-captured several strategic positions such as

Savur-Mohyla Savur-Mohyla ( uk, Савур-могила), often transliterated using the Russian spelling Saur-Mogila (russian: Саур-Могила), is a strategic height in the Donets ridge near the city of Snizhne, in occupied Ukraine. The tall hill is ...

and

Luhansk International Airport Luhansk International Airport ( uk, Міжнародний аеропорт "Луганськ") was an airport in Luhansk, Ukraine . The airport was located 20 km (12 miles) south of the city center, 9 km to the city limit. Since 11 Ju ...

. The armies of both the

Donetsk People's Republic The Donetsk People's Republic ( rus, Донецкая Народная Республика, Donetskaya Narodnaya Respublika, dɐˈnʲetskəjə nɐˈrodnəjə rʲɪˈspublʲɪkə; abbreviated as DPR or DNR, rus, ДНР) is a Territorial ...

(DPR) and

Luhansk People's Republic The Luhansk or Lugansk People's Republic (russian: Луга́нская Наро́дная Респу́блика, Luganskaya Narodnaya Respublika, ; abbreviated as LPR or LNR, rus, ЛНР) is a disputed entity created by Russian-backed ...

(LPR) merged on 16 September 2014 to form the "United Armed Forces of Novorossiya". It was formed under the command of Lieutenant General Ivan Korsun as commander-in-chief. On 2 February 2015, Head of the DPR,

Alexander Zakharchenko Alexander Vladimirovich Zakharchenko uk, Олекса́ндр Володи́мирович Заха́рченко, translit=Oleksandr Volodymyrovych Zakharchenko (26 June 1976 – 31 August 2018) was a Ukrainian separatist leader who was the h ...

, announced that there would be a general mobilization in the DPR of 10,000 volunteers, and he aimed to eventually expand the NAF to 100,000 soldiers. In March 2015, the estimated manpower of the separatists rose to 30,000–35,000 personnel. On 20 May 2015 the leadership of the Federal State of Novorossiya announced the termination of the confederation 'project' but the United Armed Forces was retained as the joint armed service of the DPR and LPR.Euan MacDonald: Divide and re-conquer?

Kyiv Post The ''Kyiv Post'' is the oldest English-language newspaper in Ukraine, founded in October 1995 by Jed Sunden. History American Jed Sunden founded the ''Kyiv Post'' weekly newspaper on Oct. 18, 1995 and later created KP Media for his holdings. ...

(11 June 2016) The Ukrainian government in mid-2015 claimed there were about 42,500 fighters on the separatists' side, which include 9,000 Russian soldiers.

2022 Russian invasion

During the

prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine In March and April 2021, the Russian Armed Forces began massing thousands of personnel and military equipment near Russia's border with Ukraine and in Crimea, representing the largest mobilization since the illegal annexation of Crimea ...

, the Donetsk and Luhansk People's Republic started a process of

mass mobilization Mass mobilization (also known as social mobilization or popular mobilization) refers to mobilization of civilian population as part of contentious politics. Mass mobilization is defined as a process that engages and motivates a wide range of partne ...

of its population in order to build an army for the Russian invasion. As there weren't enough volunteers in the separatist army, and the Russian government wasn't willing to start mobilization of its own population, men from ages 18 until 65 from any background were conscripted to form the separatist army. Groups of DPR/LPR officers roamed the streets searching for men at the age range, arresting and sending to conscription offices any they found. Most of the Donbas conscripts are unexperienced, received little-to-no training and were badly equipped, and suffered from morale issues and heavy casulties. The role of Donbas conscripts by Russian forces has been described as "

cannon fodder Cannon fodder is an informal, derogatory term for combatants who are regarded or treated by government or military command as expendable in the face of enemy fire. The term is generally used in situations where combatants are forced to deliberately ...

". There were reports of conscipts being issued antiquated equipment such as

World War I World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...

-era Mosin–Nagant rifles and the early

Cold War The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term '' cold war'' is used because the ...

-era

T-62 The T-62 is a Soviet Union, Soviet main battle tank that was first introduced in 1961. As a further development of the T-54/T-55, T-55 series, the T-62 retained many similar design elements of its predecessor including low profile and thick ...

tanks. By November, the DPR ombudsman reported that the DPR militia suffered almost 20,000 casualties (both

wounded in action Wounded in Action (WIA) describes combatants who have been wounded while fighting in a combat zone during wartime, but have not been killed. Typically, it implies that they are temporarily or permanently incapable of bearing arms or continuing ...

and killed in action), translating into a staggering 50% casualty rate, with outside observers believing it could possibly be higher. The mass conscription has been considered a war crime by some, as the Article 51 of the

Fourth Geneva Convention The Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, more commonly referred to as the Fourth Geneva Convention and abbreviated as GCIV, is one of the four treaties of the Geneva Conventions. It was adopted in Augus ...

bans the forceful conscription of soldiers from occupied territory, but Russian authorities claimed they are part of the independent sovereign nations of the

and

. After the leaders of the Russian proxy republics signed treaties of annexation with the Russian president on September 30, 2022, the

Russian State Duma The State Duma (russian: Госуда́рственная ду́ма, r=Gosudárstvennaja dúma), commonly abbreviated in Russian as Gosduma ( rus, Госду́ма), is the lower house of the Federal Assembly of Russia, while the upper house ...

approved legislation on October 3 mandating the integration of the "people's militias" into the Russian military, backdated to the date of annexation. Upon the "annexation" of Ukrainian territories in September 2022, Russian occupation officials began forcibly conscripting Ukrainian men in occupied parts of Kherson oblast, and were reportedly ready to mobilize 3,000 in occupied Zaporizhzhia oblast.

Structure

The militias consist of different armed groups, sworn to the

and

. Militant groups which refused to do so were disarmed as gangs in the DPR. Other groups are autonomous forces. According to ''

Ukrainskyi Tyzhden ''The Ukrainian Week'' ( uk, Український Тиждень, translit=Ukrainskyi Tyzhden) is an illustrated weekly magazine covering politics, economics and the arts and aimed at the socially engaged Ukrainian-language reader. It provides ...

'', a Donetsk Operative Command set up in May 2016 by Russia coordinates the military efforts of the Donetsk People's Republic. The tank battalions they claim Russia can deploy include the DPR Diesel Battalion, and LPR August Battalion.

Euromaidan Press ''Euromaidan Press'' (EP) is an English-language news website launched in 2014 by contributors from Ukraine, sponsored by reader contributions and the International Renaissance Foundation. It shares its name with the Euromaidan movement in Ukrain ...

reported in September 2018 that the United Armed Forces of Novorossiya comprised two army

corps Corps (; plural ''corps'' ; from French , from the Latin "body") is a term used for several different kinds of organization. A military innovation by Napoleon I, the formation was first named as such in 1805. The size of a corps varies great ...

: the 1st Corps, called the "People's Militia of the DNR" and the 2nd Corps, called "People's Militia of the LNR".Who is who in the Kremlin proxy "Luhansk People's Republic"

(7 September 2018) On 28 December 2018 commander of the

Ukrainian Navy The Military Naval Forces of the Armed Forces of Ukraine ( uk, Військо́во-морські́ си́ли Збро́йних сил Украї́ни, ВМС ЗСУ) is the maritime forces of Ukraine and one of the five branches of the Arme ...

Ihor Voronchenko Ihor Oleksandrovych Voronchenko ( ua, Воронченко Ігор Олександрович; born 22 August 1964) is a Ukrainian Vice Admiral and a former Commander of the Navy (Ukraine), commander of the Ukrainian Navy.

claimed that the DPR had created a

flotilla A flotilla (from Spanish, meaning a small ''flota'' (fleet) of ships), or naval flotilla, is a formation of small warships that may be part of a larger fleet. Composition A flotilla is usually composed of a homogeneous group of the same class ...

stationed at

Novoazovsk Novoazovsk (, ; rus, Новоазовск}) is a border town on the south-eastern tip of Ukraine (near the border with Russia), According to Voronchenko, the DPR had named this flotilla the "9th Regiment of the Marine Corps".The militants created a "flotilla" in the Azov Sea – Voronchenko

Ukrayinska Pravda ''Ukrainska Pravda'' ( uk, Українська правда, lit=Ukrainian Truth) is a Ukrainian online newspaper founded by Georgiy Gongadze on 16 April 2000 (the day of the Ukrainian constitutional referendum). Published mainly in Ukraini ...

(28 December 2018)

Combat forces

Flag of the Vostok Battalion (Donetsk People's Republic)

Donetsk People's Republic

DPR People's Militia (russian: Народная милиция ДНР), or 1st Army Corps – Formed on 14 November 2014. *REGULAR FORCES ** 1st Slavyansk Brigade (russian: link=no, 1-ая Славянская бригада) – Brigade formerly commanded by Igor "Strelkov" Girkin. He was the Minister of Defense of allied separatist militias in the DPR and LPR from 16 May to 14 August 2014. Strelkov's name was later revealed to be Igor Girkin, a

Moscow Moscow ( , US chiefly ; rus, links=no, Москва, r=Moskva, p=mɐskˈva, a=Москва.ogg) is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 13.0 million ...

-born Russian,

Ground Forces An army (from Old French ''armee'', itself derived from the Latin verb ''armāre'', meaning "to arm", and related to the Latin noun ''arma'', meaning "arms" or "weapons"), ground force or land force is a fighting force that fights primarily on ...

veteran and former FSB agent.Russia's Donetsk Proxies Anticipate Ukrainian Siege

Jamestown Foundation The Jamestown Foundation is a Washington, D.C.-based conservative defense policy think tank. Founded in 1984 as a platform to support Soviet defectors, its stated mission today is to inform and educate policy makers about events and trends, which ...

, Eurasia Daily Monitor Volume: 11 Issue: 149. 13 August 2014 ** AA Regiment ** Danube Group ** Diesel Battalion SSI

Diesel Battalion (russian: link=no, Батальон «Дизель») – Separate tank battalion formed in 2015, equipped with Soviet equipment, including

T-72 The T-72 is a family of Soviet/Russian main battle tanks that entered production in 1969. The T-72 was a development of the T-64, which was troubled by high costs and its reliance on immature developmental technology. About 25,000 T-72 tanks ha ...

B1s. ** Dome Group ** Horlivka Group ** Oplot 5th Separate Infantry Brigade or Oplot Brigade (russian: link=no, Батальон «Оплот», meaning "Bulwark Battalion") – First commanded by

. Originally a Donbas People's Militia battalion, it expanded to a brigade by September 2014 during the DPR militia restructuring. ** Kolchuga Group ** Russian Imperial Legion (russian: link=no, Имперский легион) is the military arm of the Russian Imperial Movement, a Russian white supremacist Orthodox nationalist organization that has recruited thousands to fight for the separatists. Imperial Legion and RIM have been recognized as a terrorist movement by

Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...

and

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...

for their links to neo-fascist terrorists. ** Novoazovsk Group ** Oplot Group ** Reconnaissance Battalion ** SSI of the Sparta Battalion

Sparta Battalion The Sparta Battalion (russian: батальон «Спарта») is a Russian separatist military unit of the breakaway Donetsk People's Republic (DPR) in eastern Ukraine. It has been fighting against the Armed Forces of Ukraine in the Donba ...

(russian: link=no, Батальон «Спарта») – Special forces battalion formed and led by

Arsen Pavlov Arsen Sergeyevich Pavlov (russian: Арсе́н Серге́евич Па́влов; 2 February 1983 – 16 October 2016), known by his Motorola (Моторо́ла), was a Russian militant known for murdering and torturing Ukrainian POWs, wh ...

, known as Motorola, until his assassination in 2016. His successor was

Vladimir Zhoga Vladimir Artyomovich Zhoga (, ; 26 May 1993 – 5 March 2022), also known by his ''nom de guerre'' Vokha (russian: Воха), was a Russians in Ukraine, Russian-Ukrainian separatist who commanded the Sparta Battalion, a Russian separatist forces ...

, from Sloviansk, and known by Voha. Zhoga was killed in battle in March 2022 during Russia's invasion of Ukraine. ** SSI of the Somalia Battalion

1st Separate Battalion-Tactical Group "Somalia" or

Somalia Battalion The Somalia Battalion (russian: Батальон «Сомали») is a separatist military unit of the self-declared Donetsk People's Republic in Ukraine, which has been fighting against the Armed Forces of Ukraine in the Donbas War and the 20 ...

(russian: link=no, Батальон «Сомали») – Tactical group led by Lieutenant colonel

Mikhail Tolstykh Mikhail Sergeyevich Tolstykh ( uk, Михайло Сергійович Толстих, russian: Михаи́л Сергéевич Толсты́х; 19 July 1980 – 8 February 2017), better known by his '' nom de guerre'' Givi (Ги́ви), ...

, known as Givi until his assassination in 2017. In 2022 the Battalion's leader was Lieutenant Colonel Timur Kurilkin. ** Typhoon unit *SPECIAL FORCES ** 1st Battalion Khan ** 3rd Battalion ** DShRG Rusich (russian: link=no, ДШРГ «Русич») – Special forces-type company affiliated with the Kremlin-backed Wagner Group and commanded by Aleksey Milchakov, a Russian

Neo Nazi Neo-Nazism comprises the post–World War II militant, social, and political movements that seek to revive and reinstate Nazi ideology. Neo-Nazis employ their ideology to promote hatred and racial supremacy (often white supremacy), attack r ...

. Made up of far-right Russian and other European volunteers. On July 10, 2015, Milchakov announced that the Rusich Company would be withdrawing from Donbas for retraining and refitting. In April 2022, it was reported that Rusich had returned to eastern Ukraine, this time as part of the private military company

Wagner Group The Wagner Group (russian: Группа Вагнера, Gruppa Vagnera), also known as PMC Wagner ( «Вагнер», ChVK «Vagner»; ), is a Russian paramilitary organization. It is variously described as a private military company (PMC), a ...

. **

Kalmius Brigade (russian: link=no, Бригада «Кальмиус») – Special forces brigade commanded by Sergei Petrovskiy. ** Rapid Response Team ** Vostok Brigade SSI (2015)

Vostok Brigade (russian: link=no, Бригада «Восток», meaning "East Brigade") – Special forces brigade founded and led by

Alexander Khodakovsky Alexander Sergeevich Khodakovsky ( rus, Алекса́ндр Серге́евич Ходако́вский, p=ɐlʲɪkˈsandr sʲɪrˈɡʲejɪvʲɪtɕ xədɐˈkofskʲɪj) is the commander of the pro-Russian Vostok Battalion formed in early May ...

. It has foreign volunteers including Russians and North Ossetians. Begun as a battalion, as of June 2014 it had about 500 men, according to Khodakovsky. It later expanded to a brigade. *REAR FORCES ** Engineering Battalion ** Patriotic Forces of Donbas (russian: link=no, Патриотические силы Донбасса) ** Electric Warfare unit ** Steppe Battalion (russian: link=no, Батальон «Степь») ** DPR Republican Guard (russian: link=no, Республиканская гвардия ДНР) – Elite unit created by Alexander Zakharchenko on January 12, 2015. Commanded by Major-general Ivan Kondratov, and composed of six battalions that total more than 3,000 fighters. ** ReceBogaSwargi

Slavic Unification and Revival Battalion or

Svarozhich Svarozhits (Latin: Zuarasiz, Zuarasici, Old East Slavic: Сварожиць, Russian: Сварожиц), Svarozhich (Old East Slavic: Сварожичь, Russian: Сварожич) is a Slavic god of fire, son of Svarog. One of the few Pan-Slavi ...

Battalion – formed by members of the

Rodnovery The Slavic Native Faith, commonly known as Rodnovery * bg, Родноверие, translit=Rоdnoverie * bs, Rodnovjerje * mk, Родноверие, translit=Rodnoverie * cz, Rodnověří * hr, Rodnovjerje * pl, Rodzimowierstwo; Rodzima ...

(Slavic native faith) movement, at its peak 1,200 fighters, now part of the Vostok Brigade. ** Repair Battalion ** International Brigade "Pyatnashka" (russian: link=no, Бригада «Пятнашка», meaning "15th Brigade") – International brigade commanded by Akhra Avidzba, known by Abkhaz. DPR positions in Marinka are held by this unit. ** Support Battalion **

Mariupol-Khingan Naval Infantry (russian: link=no, Мариупольско-Хинганский морская пехота) – Formed in 2016. The name is based on the Soviet

World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...

221st Infantry Mariupol-Khingan Red Banner Order of Suvorov Rifle Division. ** Vikings Battalion – Motorized infantry unit formed in 2015. ** DPR Security Service Battalion (russian: link=no, Батальон службы безопасности Донецкой народной республики) – Security Service of the Donetsk People's Republic. ** Horlivka Group *TERRITORIAL DEFENSE ** 1st Battalion ** 2nd Territorial Defense Battalion "Miner's Division" (russian: link=no, Шахтёрская дивизия) – Reorganized into a territorial defensive battalion after September 2014. ** 3rd Battalion ** 4th Battalion ** 5th Battalion ** 6th Battalion

Luhansk People’s Republic

Patch of the People's Militia of Lugansk People's Republic

LPR People's Militia (russian: Народная милиция ЛНР), or 2nd Army Corps – Formed on 7 October 2014. *REGULAR FORCES ** 1st Separate Mechanized Brigade "August" or August Battalion – The only tank battalion in the LPR People's Militia. ** 2nd Guards Motorized Rifle Brigade named after

Kliment Voroshilov Kliment Yefremovich Voroshilov (, uk, Климент Охрімович Ворошилов, ''Klyment Okhrimovyč Vorošylov''), popularly known as Klim Voroshilov (russian: link=no, Клим Вороши́лов, ''Klim Vorošilov''; 4 Februa ...

. ** 4th Guards Motorized Rifle Brigade ** 6th Separate Cossack Motorized Rifle Regiment named after

Ataman Ataman (variants: ''otaman'', ''wataman'', ''vataman''; Russian: атаман, uk, отаман) was a title of Cossack and haidamak leaders of various kinds. In the Russian Empire, the term was the official title of the supreme military comman ...

Matvei Platov Count Matvei Ivanovich Platov (8 (19) August 1753 – 3 (15) January 1818) was a Russian general who commanded the Don Cossacks in the Napoleonic wars and founded Novocherkassk as the new capital of the Don Host Province. Biography Platov ...

. ** 7th Chistyakovskaya Motorized Rifle Brigade ** Zarya Battalion (russian: link=no, Батальон «Заря», meaning "Dawn Battalion") – First commander was

Igor Plotnitsky Igor Venediktovich Plotnitsky uk, Ігор Венедиктович Плотницький, translit=Ihor Venedyktovych Plotnytskyi (born 25 June 1964) is a former Ukrainian separatist leader who served as the head of the self-proclaimed Luhan ...

. Commanded by Andrei Patrushev. ** AA Battalion ** Artillery Brigade ** Command Regiment ** Cossacks Motorized Brigade – Registered Cossacks of the Russian Federation, Don Cossack volunteer group commanded by Rashid Shakirzanov. The group has over 4,000 fighters and access to armor and artillery. From May to November 2014, the group was commanded by

Nikolai Kozitsyn. Kozitsyn was forcibly removed from power in November 2014 and replaced by Shakirzanov. The group's headquarters is in Antratsyt, and their rule expands to Krasnyi Luch. Initially, this group was identified as Spetsnaz GRU, Russian Special Forces by the United States Department of State, U.S. State Department following the takeover of the Sloviansk city council. In November 2014, the group instated capital punishment in Perevalsk to deter crime. Kozitsyn stated that there is no more marauding, burglaries or car-jacking in the city. They refused to join the LPR's military command, but cooperate with them, remaining autonomous and controlling territory. ** Dawn Battalion ** Tank Battalion *SPECIAL FORCES ** Leshiy Battalion (russian: link=no, :ru:Батальон Леший, Батальон «Леший», meaning "Forest-spirit Battalion") – Special forces battalion commanded by Aleksey Pavlov. ** Recon Battalion ** Special Forces Battalion *REAR FORCES ** Repair Battalion ** Support Battalion ** First Cossack Regiment SSI

First Cossack Regiment (russian: link=no, Первый казачий полк) – Don Cossack volunteer group commanded by Ataman Pavel Dryomov. The group has around 1,300 fighters, and its headquarters is in Stakhanov, Luhansk Oblast, Stakhanov. Originally part of Kozitsyn's Cossack National Guard until it split in September 2014. Dryomov denounced the LPR's leadership as corrupt and "pro-oligarchic". Dryomov was killed on 12 December 2015 when his car was blown up by an unknown perpetrator the day after his wedding. ** Interbrigades – Russian volunteers – National Bolshevik Party, national-bolsheviks, members of The Other Russia of E. V. Limonov, The Other Russia. ** 7th Motorized Brigade ** Mechanized Brigade "Prizrak" or Prizrak Brigade (russian: link=no, :ru:Призрак (батальон), Бригада «Призрак», meaning "Ghost Brigade") – Mechanized infantry brigade commanded by Yuri Shevchenko, formed and led by Aleksey Mozgovoy until his assassination on 23 May 2015. The group keeps its distance from LPR authorities and is based in Alchevsk and the surrounding district. ** AA Battalion ** Continental Unit (french: link=no, Unité Continentale) – French, Serbian and Brazilian volunteer group. ** DKO (russian: link=no, ДКО – Добровольческий коммунистический отряд) – Volunteer Communist Detachment, an international organisation commanded by Piotr Biriukov. ** Artillery Brigade *TERRITORIAL DEFENSE ** 17th Battalion ** Ataman Battalion ** Kulkin Battalion ** Lishi Battalion ** Poid Battalion ** Prizrak Battalion ** Rim Battalion ** USSR Bryanka Battalion

Former units

Forma Armii Donetskoy Narodnoy Respubliki

* Combatants of the war in Donbas, Army of the South-East (russian: Армия Юго-Востока) – Main militia forces of the Luhansk People's Republic from Mid April to 16 September 2014. * Cossack Army – An international organisation that recruits volunteers from Ukraine and Russia. * Death * Luhansk People's Militia (russian: Народное ополчение Луганщины) * Donbas People's Militia (russian: Народное ополчение Донбасса) – Main militia of the Donetsk People's Republic from 3 March to 16 September 2014. * Russian Orthodox Army (russian: link=no, Русская православная армия) – A senior commander of the unit is Alexander Verin. One of the armed groups which control

Donetsk Donetsk ( , ; uk, Донецьк, translit=Donets'k ; russian: Донецк ), formerly known as Aleksandrovka, Yuzivka (or Hughesovka), Stalin and Stalino (see also: Names of European cities in different languages (C–D), cities' alternat ...

, mostly firmed from locals from coal mine towns. It reportedly had 100 members at its founding. According to Ukrainian sources, in June 2014 it had at least 350 fighters. According to independent sources, as fighting between separatists and the

worsened in

Donbas The Donbas or Donbass (, ; uk, Донба́с ; russian: Донба́сс ) is a historical, cultural, and economic region in eastern Ukraine. Parts of the Donbas are controlled by Russian separatist groups as a result of the Russo-Ukrai ...

, membership rose to 4,000. In September 2014, the ROA changed its format and merged with the newly created Oplot 5th Separate Infantry Brigade of the DPR People's Militia. * Pyatnashka * Miners' Division (russian: link=no, Шахтёрская дивизия) – Founded shortly after the rebel withdrawal from Sloviansk and Kramatorsk, commanded by Konstantin Kuzmin. Fighters range from ages 22–60. Composed of former coal miners. Reorganized into a territorial defensive battalion after September 2014. * Novorossiya Humanitarian Battalion (russian: link=no, Гуманитарный батальон «Новороссия») – Non-combat unit involved in protecting the delivery of humanitarian aid. * DShRG Ratibor (russian: link=no, ДШРГ Ратибор) – Group that was formed by Russian nationalists. * Ratibor * United Battalions of the DPR and LPR. * SSI of the Kalmius Battalion

Kalmius Brigade, Kalmius Battalion (russian: link=no, Бригада «Кальмиус») – Special forces battalion commanded by Sergei Petrovskiy. Formerly a subsidiary of the Miner's Division, until they split post-September 2014. * Consolidated Orthodox Battalion "Voshod" or Voshod Battalion (russian: link=no, Батальон «Восход», meaning "Sunrise Battalion") – Formed in June 2014, it had 300 fighters. * North Battalion (DPR) (russian: link=no, Батальон «Север») (unofficial) * Jovan Šević Detachment ( sr, link=no, :ru:Йован Шевич (отряд), одред «Јован Шевић») – Serbian Chetniks, Chetnik-led group commanded by Bratislav Živković, with 450 fighters. * Orthodox Dawn ( bg, link=no, Православна Зора) – Bulgarian nationalist volunteer group. * Legion of Saint Stephen (russian: link=no, Легион Святого Иштвана) – Hungary, Hungarian subgroup of international battalions. The group espouses a Hungarian nationalism, Hungarian nationalist platform, demanding self-determination for the Hungarian minority in Zakarpattia Oblast, and has been accused of being close to the far-right Jobbik party in Hungary. * Carlos Palomino International Brigade (Spanish: Brigada Internacional Carlos Palomino) – Spain, Spanish antifascist volunteer group. * Varyag Battalion (russian: link=no, Батальон «Варяг»), meaning "Varangians, Varangian Battalion," and named for a Russian volunteer Nazi brigade – Volunteer battalion commanded by Alexander Matyushin, a neo-Nazi and former head of Donetsk Russkiy Obraz. * Rapid Response Group "Batman" or Batman Battalion (russian: link=no, Группа быстрого реагирования «Бэтмен») – Commanded by Alexander Bednov until he was killed in an attack on his convoy on 1 January 2015. Members of the group said that the attack was ordered by head of the Luhansk People's Republic

. According to them, Bednov and his fighters were killed "by order of Plotnitsky" because he was "ordered to sweep all intransigent commanders." Following this attack, the LPR arrested some of Bednov's men, and dissolved the battalion. Some of its personnel were dispersed into other LPR units, while DPR field commanders Givi and Motorola invited former members to join their battalions. * Patch of the Odessa Brigade

Odessa Brigade, Separate Brigade of Special Purpose "Odessa" (russian: link=no, Отдельная бригада особого назначения «Одесса») * Patch of Interunit

Interunit – A far-left military political unit build inside the Prizrak Brigade composed of internationalist volunteers formed in 2015. The bulk of the volunteers came from Spain, while was commanded by an Italian fighter called "Nemo". It was operational until 2017.

Commanders

Donetsk People's Republic * Denis Pushilin – Head of the DPR *

* Vladimir Kononov (Donetsk People's Republic), Vladimir Kononov * Eduard Basurin *

Pavel Gubarev Pavel Yuryevich Gubarev (russian: Па́вел Ю́рьевич Гу́барев, ; or Pavlo Yuriyovych Hubariev uk, Павло Юрійович Губарєв; born 10 February 1983) is a Russian activist who proclaimed himself the "People's ...

(former) * "Romashka" (nom de guerre), real name Sergei Zhurikov (Russian: :ru:Журиков, Сергей Николаевич, Сергей Журиков) *

* Igor Bezler (former) * Alexander Verin * "Botsman" * Konstantin Kuzmin * Sergei Petrovskiy * Arsen Pavlov, Motorola (nom de guerre), real name Arsen Pavlov * Mikhail Tolstykh, Givi (nom de guerre), real name Mikhail Tolstykh * Akhra Avidzba * Ivan Milosevic * Roman Kutuzov (general), Roman Kutuzov, commander 1AC, major general in the Russian Ground Forces, killed 5 May 2022, in Popasna Raion, Luhansk Oblast, Ukraine Luhansk People's Republic * Leonid Pasechnik – Head of the LPR *

(former) * Valery Bolotov (former) * Nikolai Kozitsyn (former) * Pavel Dryomov (his car was blown up by unknown)Separatist Cossack Commander Reported Killed In Ukraine's Luhansk
Radio Free Europe (12 December 2015) * Aleksey Mozgovoy * Alexander Bednov * Yuri Shevchenko *Oleg Bugrov , former Minister of Defence, a position which was allegedly abolished in the DPR on 1 October 2018.

Equipment

According to Armament Research Services (ARES), the rebels mostly used equipment that was available domestically before the 2013–2015 Ukrainian crisis, Ukrainian crisis. However, they were also seen with weapons that were not known to have been exported to Ukraine, or otherwise be available there, including some of the latest models of Russian military equipment, never exported outside Russia. According to the

, all of its military equipment is "hardware that we took from the Ukrainian military". However, according to the Ukrainian government and the United States Department of State, this is a false. They claim the separatists have received military equipment from Russia, including multiple rocket launch systems and tanks. Although Russian officials deny supplying arms to the militia, substantial evidence proves supports this. In August 2014 Ministry of Defence (Ukraine), Ukrainian Defense Minister Valeriy Heletey said the proof for the weapons supply from Russia was that the fighters of the Donbas People's Militia were using Russian-made weapons never used (or bought) by the Ukrainian army.Militants have Russian weapons that have never been in service with Ukrainian army – Heletei
Interfax-Ukraine (22 August 2014) Troops of pro-Russian separatist forces advance towards Lisichansk

Troops of pro-Russian separatist forces advance towards Lisichansk

Such exclusively Russian equipment seen with pro-Russian separatists includes Russian modifications of

tanks (particularly T-72B3 and T-72BA seen destroyed in Ukraine), BTR-82AM infantry fighting vehicle (adopted in Russia in 2013), BPM-97 armored personnel carriers, sophisticated anti-aircraft system Pantsir-S1, multipurpose vehicle GAZ Vodnik (adopted in Russia in 2005), Russian modifications of MT-LB, rocket-propelled flamethrower MRO-A, anti-tank missile 9M133 Kornet, Kornet, anti-materiel rifle ASVK, suppressed sniper rifle VSS Vintorez and others.

Military training

Higher Combined Arms Command School

The Donetsk Higher Combined Arms Command School () is a higher level institution in the ideological training of cadets. People from both the DPR and LPR can enroll at the school. It prepares future command cadres in four areas: reconnaissance, tank forces, infantry, and political officers. Upon graduation, the cadets are commissioned as lieutenants. Since the fall of 2016, the Military Lyceum is affiliated to the DHCACS.

Military-Physical Training Lyceum

The Georgy Beregovoy Military-Physical Training Lyceum () is an educational facility of the People's Militia, being akin to the Suvorov Military School or the Ivan Bohun Military High School. It was established on 15 May 1993 by decree of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine as the Donetsk Higher Military-Political School of Engineering and Signal Corps. From 1993 to 2000, the Lyceum was with a three-year form of study. Over two decades, 2,793 graduates graduated from the institution, more than 1,000 of them currently serve in officer posts in various power structures of Ukraine. It was renamed and converted in 2014; since then more than 300 students have graduated. The school is open to boys between 14 and 16 years old, many of whom come from military families. The cadets live at the school six days a week.

Relationship with Russia

As the conflict intensified, the Donbas People's Militia was bolstered with many volunteers from the former Soviet Union, mainly Russia; including fighters from Chechnya and North Ossetia. According to the Ukrainian government and the United States Department of State the Donbas People's Militia has received military equipment from Russia, including Russian tanks and multiple rocket launchers.US: Separatists in eastern Ukraine have weapons, military equipment from Russia
Fox News (June 13, 2014) Russia has denied supplying weapons and has described the Russian citizens fighting with the Donbas People's Militia as volunteers. The

claimed on 16 August 2014 that it had received (together with 30 tanks and 120 other armoured vehicles of undisclosed origin) 1,200 "individuals who have gone through training over a four-month period on the territory of the Russian Federation". Prime Minister of the DPR

said in August 2014 that it had not received military equipment from Russia; and all of its military equipment was "hardware that we took from the Ukrainian military". Some injured militia members received medical care in Russia. In mid-August 2014, hospitals such as the Donetsk Central Hospital in Donetsk, Russia tended to between ten and twenty injured fighters daily. The Russian Emergency Ministry assisted with treatment logistics. Those questioned and registered by the (Russian) Federal Security Service and treated in Russia during this period stated that they would not return to Ukraine if the Ukrainian army won the

Russo-Ukrainian War The Russo-Ukrainian War; uk, російсько-українська війна, rosiisko-ukrainska viina. has been ongoing between Russia (alongside Russian separatist forces in Donbas, Russian separatists in Ukraine) and Ukraine since Feb ...

, but would, instead, engage in a partisan warfare campaign in

Eastern Ukraine Eastern Ukraine or east Ukraine ( uk, Східна Україна, Skhidna Ukrayina; russian: Восточная Украина, Vostochnaya Ukraina) is primarily the territory of Ukraine east of the Dnipro (or Dnieper) river, particularly Khark ...

. According to various sources, the troops of the separatists forces are under direct control of officers of the

Russian Armed Forces The Armed Forces of the Russian Federation (, ), commonly referred to as the Russian Armed Forces, are the military forces of Russia. In terms of active-duty personnel, they are the world's fifth-largest military force, with at least two m ...

. Specifically the 8th Guards Combined Arms Army, which has been recreated for this specific task.

Ideology of the forces

According to a 2016 report by Institut français des relations internationales, French Institute of International Relations (IFRI), Russian nationalism, Russian ethnic and imperialist nationalism has shaped the official ideology of the Donetsk and Luhansk People's Republics. During the War in Donbas (2014–2022), War in Donbas, especially at the beginning, far-right groups played an important role on the pro-Russian side, arguably more so than on the Ukrainian side. They gradually became less important in Donbas as the need for Russian radical nationalists waned. According to Marlène Laruelle, separatists in Donbas produced an ideology composed of three strands of Russian nationalism: Rashism, Fascist, Christian nationalism, Orthodox and Soviet patriotism, Soviet.

Far-right

Members and former members of Russian National Unity (RNU), the National Bolshevik Party, the Eurasian Youth Union, and Combatants of the war in Donbas#Cossacks, Cossack groups formed branches to recruit volunteers to join the separatists.Yudina, Natalia (2015)
"Russian nationalists fight Ukrainian war"
in: ''Journal on Baltic Security'', Volume 1, Issue 1 (de Gruyter). pp.47–69. doi:10.1515/jobs-2016-0012. A former RNU member,

, was founder of the Donbas People's Militia and first "governor" of the Donetsk People's Republic. RNU is particularly linked to the Russian Orthodox Army, one of a number of separatist units described as "pro-Tsarist" and "extremist" Orthodox nationalists. In June 2014, the Russian Orthodox Army was accused of Murder of Pentecostals in Sloviansk, murdering four Pentecostals in Sloviansk. The men were accused of spying for the Ukrainian government, but the case has been cited as part of a policy of religious persecution by the separatists. Neo-Nazi units such as 'Rusich Group, Rusich', 'Varyag' and 'Svarozhich' fought as part of the Russian militias from early 2014 and used Slavic swastikas on their badges, although some, such as 'Varyag', have since been disbanded. 'Rusich' is part of the

, a Russian mercenary group in Ukraine which has been linked to far-right extremism.Šmíd, Tomáš & Šmídová, Alexandra. (2021)
Anti-government Non-state Armed Actors in the Conflict in Eastern Ukraine
''Czech Journal of International Relations'', Volume 56, Issue 2. pp.48-49. Quote: "Another group of Russian citizens who became involved in the armed conflict in Eastern Ukraine were members of the so-called right-wing units of the Russian Spring." Some of the most influential far-right Russian separatists are Russian imperialism, neo-imperialists, who seek to revive the Russian Empire. These included Igor Girkin, Igor 'Strelkov' Girkin, first "minister of defence" of the Donetsk People's Republic, who espouses Russian neo-imperialism and ethno-nationalism. The Russian Imperial Legion, the fighting arm of the Russian Imperial Movement, a white supremacist militant group, has recruited thousands of volunteers to join the separatists. Some separatists have flown the black-yellow-white Russian imperial flag, such as the

and the (now disbanded) 'Ratibor' unit. In 2014, volunteers from the National Liberation Movement (Russia), National Liberation Movement joined the Donetsk People's Militia bearing portraits of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, Nicholas II. Other Russian nationalist volunteers involved in separatist militias included members of banned groups such as the Slavic Union and Movement Against Illegal Immigration. Another Russian separatist paramilitary unit, the Interbrigades, is made up of activists from the National Bolshevism, National Bolshevik (Nazbol) group The Other Russia of E. V. Limonov, Other Russia. An article in ''Dissent (American magazine), Dissent'' noted that "despite their neo-Stalinist paraphernalia, many of the Russian-speaking nationalists Russia supports in the Donbass are just as right-wing as their counterparts from the Azov Battalion". Dobrovoljci-sa-novorus

Far-right nationalists from other countries have also fought for the Russian separatists, such as the Hungarian nationalism, Hungarian nationalist 'Legion of Saint Stephen', the Bulgarian nationalism, Bulgarian nationalist 'Orthodox Dawn' and the Serbian Chetnik#Contemporary period, Chetnik 'Jovan Šević Detachment', as well as members of Serbian Action. According to the Italian newspaper ''la Repubblica'', well-known Italian neo-fascist Andrea Palmeri (former member of the far-right New Force (Italy), New Force party) has been fighting for the Donetsk People's Republic since 2014 and was hailed by Gubarev as a "real fascist". Professor Anton Shekhovtsov, an expert on far-right movements in Russia and abroad, reported in 2014 that members of Polish neo-fascist group "Falanga" and Italian far-right group "Millennium" had joined the Donbas separatists. French Eurasianism, Eurasianists, notably the far-right organization "Continental Unity", have also been accused of recruiting far-right extremists across Europe to fight for the Donbas separatists. Swedish and Finnish far-right groups, such as the "Power Belongs to the People" party, reportedly recruited volunteers to fight for the separatists, while members of the neo-Nazi "Nordic Resistance Movement" were seen attending paramilitary training in Russia. Other far-right foreign fighters from Europe and North America have fought alongside the pro-Russian separatists in Donbas, including white nationalists, neo-Nazis, Neo-fascism, neo-fascists and Christian nationalism, Christian nationalists. Motivations for these fighters have included the belief that they are fighting America and Western interests and that Vladimir Putin is a bulwark for "traditional white European values" who they must support against the "decadent West". In April 2022, news outlets noted that a video posted on Donetsk People's Republic's website showed Denis Pushilin awarding a medal to Lieutenant Roman Vorobyov (

), while Vorobyov was wearing patches affiliated with neo-Nazism: the ''Totenkopf'' used by the 3rd SS Panzer Division Totenkopf, 3rd SS Panzer Division, and the ''valknut''. However, the video did not show Vorobyov getting his medal when it was posted on Pushilin's website. While far-right activists played a part in the early days of the conflict, their importance was often exaggerated, and their importance on both sides of the conflict declined over time. The political climate in Donetsk further pushed far-right groups into the margins.

Far-left

Far-left volunteers have also fought for pro-Russian forces, accusing the Ukrainian government of being a "fascist state" and seeking to engage in an "Anti-fascism, anti-fascist struggle". However, these leftist volunteers have co-operated with far-right groups in Donbas. Among the initial volunteers were members of the Communist Party of Ukraine, as well as some members of Trade union, trade unions and labor organizations opposed to the new government that emerged after the Ukrainian Revolution. A small number of Spanish socialists travelled to Ukraine to fight for the separatists, with some explaining they were "repaying the favour" to Russia for the International response to the Spanish Civil War#Soviet Union, USSR's support to Republicans during the Spanish Civil War. They were also enlisting in solidarity with those who died in the 2014 Odesa clashes#Trade Unions House fire, Unions House fire. Spanish fighters established the 'Carlos Palomino International Brigade', which fought under the flag of the Second Spanish Republic. In 2015, it reportedly had less than ten members, and was later disbanded. Beness Aijo, a Latvian National Bolshevism, National Bolshevik of Ugandan and Russians in Latvia, Russian descent, was arrested in Donetsk in 2014 for fighting with separatist forces and the National Bolshevik Interbrigades. A female member of the Maki (political party), Israeli Communist Party had also reportedly joined the separatists in 2015. Other examples were the 'DKO' (Volunteer Communist Unit) and the Interunit, both composed of foreign communist volunteers; the Interunit has been inactive since 2017.

War crime allegations

An 18 November 2014 United Nations report on eastern Ukraine stated that the DPR was in a state of "total breakdown of law and order". The report noted "cases of serious human rights abuses by the armed groups continued to be reported, including torture, arbitrary and incommunicado detention, summary executions, forced labour, sexual violence, as well as the destruction and illegal seizure of property may amount to crimes against humanity".Almost 1,000 dead since east Ukraine truce – UN
,

BBC News BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs in the UK and around the world. The department is the world's largest broadca ...

(21 November 2014)
Ukraine death toll rises to more than 4,300 despite ceasefire – U.N.
, Reuters (21 November 2014) In September 2015, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) published a report on the testimonies of victims held in places of illegal detention in Donbas. In December 2015, a team led by Małgorzata Gosiewska published a comprehensive report on war crimes in Donbas.

Notes

References

{{War in Donbas Separatist forces of the war in Donbas 2014 establishments in Ukraine History of Donetsk Oblast Pro-Russian militant groups, * Military units and formations established in 2014 Organizations based in Europe designated as terrorist Novorossiya (confederation)

History