agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to ...

and

gardening Gardening is the practice of growing and cultivating plants as part of horticulture. In gardens, ornamental plants are often grown for their flowers, foliage, or overall appearance; useful plants, such as root vegetables, leaf vegetables, fruits ...

, transplanting or replanting is the technique of moving a plant from one location to another. Most often this takes the form of starting a

plant Plants are predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi; however, all current definitions of Plantae exclud ...

from

seed A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiospe ...

in optimal conditions, such as in a

greenhouse A greenhouse (also called a glasshouse, or, if with sufficient heating, a hothouse) is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of Transparent ceramics, transparent material, such as glass, in which plants requiring regulated climatic condit ...

or protected nursery bed, then replanting it in another, usually outdoor, growing location. The

agricultural machine Agricultural machinery relates to the mechanical structures and devices used in farming or other agriculture. There are many types of such equipment, from hand tools and power tools to tractors and the countless kinds of farm implements that they ...

that does this is called a

transplanter A transplanter is an agricultural machine used for transplanting seedlings to the field. Transplanters greatly reduce time required to transplant seedlings compared to manual transplanting. Among the crops that are transplanted with transplanter ...

. This is common in

market garden A market garden is the relatively small-scale production of fruits, vegetables and flowers as cash crops, frequently sold directly to consumer A consumer is a person or a group who intends to order, or uses purchased goods, products, or s ...

ing and truck farming, where setting out or planting out are synonymous with transplanting. In the

horticulture Horticulture is the branch of agriculture that deals with the art, science, technology, and business of plant cultivation. It includes the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, herbs, sprouts, mushrooms, algae, flowers, seaweeds and no ...

of some

ornamental plant Ornamental plants or garden plants are plants that are primarily grown for their beauty but also for qualities such as scent or how they shape physical space. Many flowering plants and garden varieties tend to be specially bred cultivars that i ...

s, transplants are used infrequently and carefully because they carry with them a significant risk of killing the plant.Basics of horticulture - Simson, Straus. Oxford Book Company, Edition 2010 Transplanting has a variety of applications, including: * Extending the

growing season A season is a division of the year marked by changes in weather, ecology, and the amount of daylight. The growing season is that portion of the year in which local conditions (i.e. rainfall, temperature, daylight) permit normal plant growth. Whil ...

by starting plants indoors, before outdoor conditions are favorable; * Protecting young plants from

disease A disease is a particular abnormal condition that negatively affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism, and that is not immediately due to any external injury. Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that a ...

s and

pests PESTS was an anonymous American activist group formed in 1986 to critique racism, tokenism, and exclusion in the art world. PESTS produced newsletters, posters, and other print material highlighting examples of discrimination in gallery represent ...

until they are sufficiently established; * Avoiding

germination Germination is the process by which an organism grows from a seed or spore. The term is applied to the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm, the growth of a sporeling from a spore, such as the spores of fungi, fer ...

problems by setting out

seedling A seedling is a young sporophyte developing out of a plant embryo from a seed. Seedling development starts with germination of the seed. A typical young seedling consists of three main parts: the radicle (embryonic root), the hypocotyl (embry ...

s instead of

direct seeding Sowing is the process of planting seeds. An area or object that has had seeds planted in it will be described as a sowed or sown area. Plants which are usually sown Among the major field crops, oats, wheat, and rye are sown, grasses and leg ...

. Different

species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...

and varieties react differently to transplanting; for some, it is not recommended. In all cases, avoiding ''transplant shock''—the stress or damage received in the process—is the principal concern. Plants raised in protected conditions usually need a period of

acclimatization Acclimatization or acclimatisation ( also called acclimation or acclimatation) is the process in which an individual organism adjusts to a change in its environment (such as a change in altitude, temperature, humidity, photoperiod, or pH), ...

, known as hardening off (see also frost hardiness). Also,

root In vascular plants, the roots are the organs of a plant that are modified to provide anchorage for the plant and take in water and nutrients into the plant body, which allows plants to grow taller and faster. They are most often below the sur ...

disturbance should be minimized. The stage of growth at which transplanting takes place, the

weather Weather is the state of the atmosphere, describing for example the degree to which it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy. On Earth, most weather phenomena occur in the lowest layer of the planet's atmosphere, the ...

conditions during transplanting, and treatment immediately after transplanting are other important factors.

Transplant production systems

Commercial growers employ what are called containerized and non-containerized transplant production. Containerized transplants or plugs allow separately grown plants to be transplanted with the roots and soil intact. Typically grown in

peat pot A flowerpot, planter, planterette or plant pot, is a container in which flowers and other plants are cultivated and displayed. Historically, and still to a significant extent today, they are made from plain terracotta with no ceramic glaze, wi ...

s (a pot made of compressed

peat Peat (), also known as turf (), is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter. It is unique to natural areas called peatlands, bogs, mires, moors, or muskegs. The peatland ecosystem covers and is the most efficien ...

), soil blocks (compressed blocks of soil),

paper pot A flowerpot, planter, planterette or plant pot, is a container in which flowers and other plants are cultivated and displayed. Historically, and still to a significant extent today, they are made from plain terracotta with no ceramic glaze, wi ...

s or multiple-cell containers such as plastic packs (four to twelve cells) or larger plug trays made of plastic or styrofoam. Non-containerized transplants are typically grown in greenhouse ground beds or benches, outdoors in-ground with row covers and hotbeds, and in-ground in the open field. The plants are pulled with bare roots for transplanting, which are less-expensive than containerized transplants, but with lower yields due to poorer plant reestablishment.

Containerized stock

Containerized planting stock is classified by the type and size of container used. A great variety of containers has been used, with various degrees of success. Some containers are designed to be planted with the tree e.g., the tar paper pot, the Alberta peat sausage, the Walters square bullet, and paper pot systems, are filled with rooting medium and planted with the tree (Tinus and McDonald 1979).Tinus, R.W.; McDonald, S.E. 1979. How to grow tree seedlings in containers in greenhouses. USDA, For. Serv., Rocky Mountain For. Range Exp. Sta., Fort Collins CO, Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-60. 256 p. (Cited in Nienstaedt and Zasada 1990). Also planted with the tree are other containers that are not filled with rooting medium, but in which the container is a molded block of growing medium, as with Polyloam, Tree Start, and BR-8 Blocks. Designs of containers for raising planting stock have been many and various. Containerized white spruce stock is now the norm. Most containers are tube-like; both diameter and volume affect white spruce growth (Hocking and Mitchell 1975, Carlson and Endean 1976).Hocking, D.; Mitchell, D.L. 1975. The influences of rooting volume, seedling espacement and substratum density on greenhouse growth of lodgepole pine, white spruce, and Douglas fir grown in extruded peat cylinders. Can. J. For. Res. 5:440–451. j, Coates et al. 1994/ref>Carlson, L.W.; Endean, F. 1976. The effect of rooting volume and container configuration on the early growth of white spruce seedlings. Can. J. For. Res. 6:221–225. White spruce grown in a container having a 1:1 height:diameter produced significantly greater dry weight than those in containers of 3:1 and 6:1 height:diameter configurations. Total dry weight and shoot length increased with increasing container volume. Transplanting 101z

The larger the bag the fewer deployed per unit area. However, the biological advantage of size has been enough to influence a pronounced swing towards larger containers in British Columbia (Coates et al. 1994).Coates, K.D.; Haeussler, S.; Lindeburgh, S.; Pojar, R.; Stock, A.J. 1994. Ecology and silviculture of interior spruce in British Columbia. Canada/British Columbia Partnership Agreement For. Resour. Devel., Victoria BC, FRDA Rep. 220. 182 p. The number of PSB211 (2 cm top diameter, 11 cm long) styroblock plugs ordered in British Columbia decreased from 14,246,000 in 1981 to zero in 1990, while orders for PSB415 (4 cm top diameter, 15 cm long) styroblock plugs increased in the same period from 257 000 to 41 008 000, although large stock is more expensive than small to raise, distribute, and plant. Other containers are not planted with the tree, e.g., Styroblock, Superblock, Copperblock, and Miniblock container systems, produce Styroplug seedlings with roots in a cohesive plug of growing medium. The plug cavities vary in volume by various combinations of top diameter and depth, from 39 to 3260 mL, but those most commonly used, at least in British Columbia, are in the range 39 mL to 133 mL (Van Eerden and Gates 1990).Van Eerden, E.; Gates, J.W. 1990. Seedling production and processing: container. p. 226–234 ''in'' Lavender, D.P.; Parish, R.; Johnson, C.M.; Montgomery, G.; Vyse, A.; Willis, R.A.; Winston, D. (Eds.). Regenerating British Columbia’s Forests. Univ. B.C. Press, Vancouver BC. (Cited in Coates et al. 1994) The BC-CFS Styroblock plug, developed in 1969/70, has become the dominant stock type for interior spruce in British Columbia (Van Eerden and Gates 1990, Coates et al. 1994). Plug sizes are indicated by a 3-figure designation, the 1st figure of which gives the top diameter and the other 2 figures the depth of the plug cavity, both dimensions approximations in centimetres. The demand for larger plugs has been increasing strongly (Table 6.24; Coates et al. 1994). Stock raised in some sizes of plug can vary in age class. In British Columbia, for example, PSB 415 and PSB 313 plugs are raised as 1+0 or 2+0. PSB 615 plugs are seldom raised other than as 2+0. Initially, the intention was to leave the plugs in situ in the Styroblocks until immediately before planting. But this led to logistic problems and reduced the efficiency of planting operations. Studies to compare the performance of extracted, packaged stock versus ''in situ'' stock seem not to have been carried out, but packaged stock has performed well and given no indication of distress.

Forestry

Field storage

As advocated by Coates et al. (1994),Coates, K.D.; Haeussler, S.; Lindeburgh, S.; Pojar, R.; Stock, A.J. 1994. Ecology and silviculture of interior spruce in British Columbia. Canada/British Columbia Partnership Agreement For. Resour. Devel., Victoria BC, FRDA Rep. 220. 182 p. thawed planting stock taken to the field should optimally be kept cool at 1 °C to 2 °C in relative humidities over 90% (Ronco 1972a).Ronco, F. 1972a. Planting Engelmann spruce. USDA, For. Serv., Fort Collins CO, Res. Pap. RM-89. 24 p. For a few days, storage temperatures around 4.5 °C and humidities about 50% can be tolerated. Binder and Fielder (1988)Binder, W.D.; Fielder, P. 1988. The effects of elevated post-storage temperatures on the physiology and survival of white spruce seedlings. p. 122–126 ''in ''Landis, T.D. (Tech. Coord.). Proc. Combined Meet. Western For. Nursery Assoc’ns. USDA, For. Serv., Rocky Mount. For. Range Exp. Sta., Fort Collins CO, Gen. Tech., Rep. RM-167. 227 p. recommended that boxed seedlings retrieved from cold storage should not be exposed to temperatures above 10 °C. Refrigerator vans commonly used for transportation and on-site storage normally ‘maintain seedlings at 2 °C to 4 °C (Mitchell et al. 1980).Mitchell, W.K.; Dunsworth, G.; Simpson, D.F.; Vyse, A. 1980. Planting and seeding. p. 235–253 ''in ''Lavender, D.P., Parish, R., Johnson, C.M., Montgomery, G., Vyse, A., Willis, R.A.; Winston, E. (Eds.). Regenerating British Columbia’s Forests. Univ. B.C. Press, Vancouver BC. oates et al. 1994/ref> Ronco (1972a, b)Ronco, F. 1972a. Planting Engelmann spruce. USDA, For. Serv., Fort Collins CO, Res. Pap. RM-89. 24 p.Ronco, F. 1972b. Planting Engelmann spruce: a field guide. USDA, For. Serv., Fort Collins CO, Res. Pap. RM-89A. 11 p. cautioned against using dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) to cool seedlings; he claimed that respiration and water transport in

seedlings A seedling is a young sporophyte developing out of a plant embryo from a seed. Seedling development starts with germination of the seed. A typical young seedling consists of three main parts: the radicle (embryonic root), the hypocotyl (embry ...

are disrupted by high concentrations of gaseous carbon dioxide.

Coniferous Conifers are a group of cone-bearing seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. Scientifically, they make up the division Pinophyta (), also known as Coniferophyta () or Coniferae. The division contains a single extant class, Pinopsida. All extant ...

planting stock is often held in frozen storage, mostly at −2 °C, for extended periods and then cool-stored (+2 °C) to thaw the root plug prior to outplanting. Thawing is necessary if frozen seedlings cannot be separated from one another and has been advocated by some in order to avoid possible loss of contact between plug and soil with shrinkage of the plug with melting of ice in the plug. Physiological activity is also greater under cool rather than frozen storage, but seedlings of interior spruce and Engelmann spruce that were planted while still frozen had only brief and transient physiological effects, including xylem water potential, (Camm et al. 1995, Silem and Guy 1998).Camm, E.L.; Guy, R.D.; Kubien, D.S.; Goetze, D.C.; Silim, S.N.; Burton, P.J. 1995. Physiological recovery of freezer-stored white and Engelmann spruce seedlings planted following different thawing regimes. New For. 10(1):55–77.Silem, S.N.; Guy, R.D. 1998. Influence of thawing duration on performance of conifer seedlings. p. 155–162 ''in'' Kooistra, C.M. (Tech. Coord.). Proc. 1995, 1996, and 1997 Ann. Meet. For. Nursery Assoc., B.C., For. Nursery Assoc.. B.C., Vernon BC. After 1 growing season, growth parameters did not differ between seedlings planted frozen and those planted thawed. Studies of storage and planting practices have generally focussed on the effects of duration of frozen storage and the effects of subsequent cool storage (e.g., Ritchie et al. 1985, Chomba et al. 1993, Harper and Camm 1993).Ritchie, G.A.; Roden, J.R.; Kleyn, N. 1985. Physiological quality of lodgepole pine and interior spruce seedlings: effects of lift date and duration of freezer storage. Can. J. For. Res. 15(4):636–645.Chomba, B.M.; Guy, R.D.; Weger, H.G. 1993. Carbohydrate reserve accumulation and depletion in Engelmann spruce (''Picea engelmannii'' Parry): effects of cold storage and pre-storage CO2 enrichment. Tree Physiol. 13:351–364.Harper, G.J.; Camm, E.L. 1993. Effects of frozen storage duration and soil temperature on the stomatal conductance and net photosynthesis of ''Picea glauca'' seedlings. Can. J. For. Res. 23(12):2459–2466. Reviews of colds storage techniques have paid little attention to the thawing process (Camm et al. 1994),Camm, E.L.; Goetze, D.C.; Silim, S.N.; Lavender, D.P. 1994. Cold storage of conifer seedlings: an update from the British Columbia perspective. For. Chron.70:311–316. or have merely noted that the rate of thawing is unlikely to cause damage (

McKay McKay, MacKay or Mackay is a Scottish / Irish surname. The last phoneme in the name is traditionally pronounced to rhyme with 'eye', but in some parts of the world this has come to rhyme with 'hey'. In Scotland, it corresponds to Clan Mackay. Not ...

1997). McKay, H.M. 1997. A review of the effect of stresses between lifting and planting on nursery stock quality and performance. New For. 13(1–3):369–399. Kooistra and Bakker (2002)Kooistra, C.M.; Bakker, J.D. 2002. Planting frozen conifer seedlings: warming trends and effects on seedling performance. New For. 23:225–237. noted several lines of evidence suggesting that cool storage can have negative effects on seedling health. The rate of respiration is faster during cool storage than in frozen storage, so depleting carbohydrate reserves more rapidly. Certainly in the absence of light during cool storage, and to an indeterminate extent if seedlings are exposed to light (unusual), carbohydrate reserves are depleted (Wang and Zwiacek 1999).Wang, Y.; Zwiazek, J.J. 1999. Effects of early spring photosynthesis on carbohydrate content, bud flushing and root and shoot growth of ''Picea glauca'' bareroot seedlings. Scand. J. For. Res. 14:295–302. As well, Silem and Guy (1998), for instance, found that interior spruce seedlings had significantly lower total carbohydrate reserves if stored for 2 weeks at 2 °C than if thawed rapidly for 24 hours at 15 °C. Seedlings can rapidly lose cold hardiness in cool storage through increased respiration and consumption of intracellular sugars that function as cryoprotectants (Ogren 1997).Ogren, E. 1997. Relationship between temperature, respiratory loss of sugar and premature hardening in dormant Scots pine seedlings. Tree Physiology 17:47–51. Also, depletion of carbohydrate reserves impairs the ability of seedlings to make root growth. Finally, storage moulds are much more of a problem during cool than frozen storage. Transplanting 18zc

Kooistra and Bakker (2002), therefore, tested the hypothesis that such thawing is unnecessary. Seedlings of 3 species, including interior spruce were planted with frozen root plugs (frozen seedlings) and with thawed root plugs (thawed seedlings). Thawed root plugs warmed to soil temperature in about 20 minutes; frozen root plugs took about 2 hours, ice in the plug having to melt before the temperature could rise above zero. Size of root plug influenced thawing time. These outplantings were into warm soil by

boreal Boreal may refer to: Climatology and geography *Boreal (age), the first climatic phase of the Blytt-Sernander sequence of northern Europe, during the Holocene epoch *Boreal climate, a climate characterized by long winters and short, cool to mild ...

standards, and seedlings with frozen plugs might fare differently if outplanted into soil at temperatures more typical of planting sites in spring and at high elevations. Variable fluorescence did not differ between thawed and frozen seedlings. Bud break was no faster among thawed interior spruce seedlings than among frozen. Field performance did not differ between thawed and frozen seedlings.

Gallery

File:Transplanting 102z .jpg, Transplanting a bilimbi tree (''

Averrhoa bilimbi ''Averrhoa bilimbi'' (commonly known as bilimbi, cucumber tree, or tree sorrel) is a fruit-bearing tree of the genus ''Averrhoa'', family Oxalidaceae. It is a close relative of the carambola tree. Description ''Averrhoa bilimbi'' is a small tro ...

'') File:Transplanting 101z .jpg, Bilimbi tree after replanting File:Transplanting 103 .jpg File:Transplanting 104.jpg File:Transplanting 105 .jpg File:Tree transplanting in Australia.jpg, Tree transplanting in Australia File:Tree transplantaion 3zz.jpg, Transplanting / Tree transplantation in Kerala File:Tree transplantaion 2zz.jpg, Transplanting / Tree transplantation in Kerala File:Tree transplantaion 1zz.jpg, Transplanting / Tree transplantation in Kerala File:Anish nellickal 19cm .jpg, Transplanting / Tree transplantation in Kerala File:Anish nellickal 21cm .jpg, Transplanting / Tree transplantation in Kerala File:പറിച്ചു നടല്‍ 7 .jpg, Transplanting / Tree transplantation in Kerala File:ജെ.സി.ബി 8z .jpg, Transplanting / Tree transplantation in Kerala File:പറിച്ചു നടല്‍ 9 .jpg, Transplanting / Tree transplantation in Kerala File:Anish nellickal 8cm .jpg, Transplanting / Tree transplantation in Kerala File:ജെ.സി.ബി 6z .jpg, Transplanting / Tree transplantation in Kerala File:Anish nellickal 16cm .jpg, Transplanting / Tree transplantation in Kerala File:കേരളം 7z .jpg, Transplanting / Tree transplantation in Kerala File:Anish nellickal 18cm .jpg, Transplanting / Tree transplantation in Kerala File:Anish nellickal 3cm .jpg, Transplanting / Tree transplantation in Kerala File:Anish nellickal 26ss .jpg, Transplanting / Tree transplantation in Kerala File:പൊന്നാനി നഗരസഭ 12z .jpg, Transplanting / Tree transplantation in Kerala File:പൊന്നാനി നഗരസഭ 11z .jpg, Transplanting / Tree transplantation in Kerala File:Transplanting 12zc.jpg, Transplanting / Tree tansplantation in Feliz Homes Kottakkal Malappuram Kerala India. File:Transplanting 12zc.jpg, Transplanting / Tree tansplantation in Feliz Homes Kottakkal Malappuram Kerala India, File:Transplantation 28zc.jpg, Transplanting / Tree tansplantation in Feliz Homes Kottakkal Malappuram Kerala India. File:Transplanting 24zc.jpg, Transplanting / Tree tansplantation in Feliz Homes Kottakkal Malappuram Kerala India File:Transplanting 22zc.jpg, Transplanting / Tree tansplantation in Feliz Homes Kottakkal Malappuram Kerala India. File:Transplating 19zc.jpg, Transplanting / Tree tansplantation in Feliz Homes Kottakkal Malappuram Kerala India. File:Transplanting 21zc.jpg, Transplanting / Tree tansplantation in Feliz Homes Kottakkal Malappuram Kerala India. File:Transplanting 17zc.jpg, Transplanting / Tree tansplantation in Feliz Homes Kottakkal Malappuram Kerala India. File:Transplanting 20zc.jpg, Transplanting / Tree tansplantation in Feliz Homes Kottakkal Malappuram Kerala India. File:Transplanting 23zc.jpg, Transplanting / Tree tansplantation in Feliz Homes Kottakkal Malappuram Kerala India. File:Transplanting 25zc.jpg, Transplanting / Tree tansplantation in Feliz Homes Kottakkal Malappuram Kerala India. File:Transplanting 26zc.jpg, Transplanting / Tree tansplantation in Feliz Homes Kottakkal Malappuram Kerala India. File:Transplanting 27zc.jpg, Transplanting / Tree tansplantation in Feliz Homes Kottakkal Malappuram Kerala India. File:Transplanting 30zc.jpg, Transplanting / Tree tansplantation in Feliz Homes Kottakkal Malappuram Kerala India. File:Transplanting 13zc.jpg, Transplanting / Tree tansplantation in Feliz Homes Kottakkal Malappuram Kerala India. File:Transplanting 14zc.jpg, Transplanting / Tree tansplantation in Feliz Homes Kottakkal Malappuram Kerala India.

References

External links

Transplanting to improve the landscape of your Garden

Planting and Transplanting Trees and Shrubs in the Home Landscape

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(in German) {{Plant disorders Horticulture