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The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to cryptography:
Cryptography Cryptography, or cryptology (from "hidden, secret"; and ''graphein'', "to write", or ''-logy, -logia'', "study", respectively), is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of Adversary (cryptography), ...
(or cryptology) – practice and study of hiding
information Information is an Abstraction, abstract concept that refers to something which has the power Communication, to inform. At the most fundamental level, it pertains to the Interpretation (philosophy), interpretation (perhaps Interpretation (log ...
. Modern cryptography intersects the disciplines of
mathematics Mathematics is a field of study that discovers and organizes methods, Mathematical theory, theories and theorems that are developed and Mathematical proof, proved for the needs of empirical sciences and mathematics itself. There are many ar ...
,
computer science Computer science is the study of computation, information, and automation. Computer science spans Theoretical computer science, theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, and information theory) to Applied science, ...
, and
engineering Engineering is the practice of using natural science, mathematics, and the engineering design process to Problem solving#Engineering, solve problems within technology, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve Systems engineering, s ...
. Applications of cryptography include ATM cards, computer passwords, and
electronic commerce E-commerce (electronic commerce) refers to Commerce, commercial activities including the electronic buying or selling Goods and services, products and services which are conducted on online platforms or over the Internet. E-commerce draws on tec ...
.


Essence of cryptography

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Cryptographer Cryptography, or cryptology (from "hidden, secret"; and ''graphein'', "to write", or '' -logia'', "study", respectively), is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of adversarial behavior. More gen ...
*
Encryption In Cryptography law, cryptography, encryption (more specifically, Code, encoding) is the process of transforming information in a way that, ideally, only authorized parties can decode. This process converts the original representation of the inf ...
/
decryption In cryptography, encryption (more specifically, encoding) is the process of transforming information in a way that, ideally, only authorized parties can decode. This process converts the original representation of the information, known as plai ...
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Cryptographic key A key in cryptography is a piece of information, usually a string of numbers or letters that are stored in a file, which, when processed through a cryptographic algorithm In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm () is a finite sequenc ...
*
Cipher In cryptography, a cipher (or cypher) is an algorithm for performing encryption or decryption—a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure. An alternative, less common term is ''encipherment''. To encipher or encode i ...
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Ciphertext In cryptography, ciphertext or cyphertext is the result of encryption performed on plaintext using an algorithm, called a cipher. Ciphertext is also known as encrypted or encoded information because it contains a form of the original plaintext ...
*
Plaintext In cryptography, plaintext usually means unencrypted information pending input into cryptographic algorithms, usually encryption algorithms. This usually refers to data that is transmitted or stored unencrypted. Overview With the advent of comp ...
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Code In communications and information processing, code is a system of rules to convert information—such as a letter, word, sound, image, or gesture—into another form, sometimes shortened or secret, for communication through a communicati ...
*
Tabula recta In cryptography, the ''tabula recta'' (from Latin language, Latin ''wikt:tabula#Latin, tabula wikt:rectus#Latin, rēcta'') is a square table of alphabets, each row of which is made by shifting the previous one to the left. The term was invented ...
*
Alice and Bob Alice and Bob are fictional characters commonly used as placeholders in discussions about cryptography, cryptographic systems and Cryptographic protocol, protocols, and in other science and engineering literature where there are several partici ...


Uses of cryptographic techniques

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Commitment scheme A commitment scheme is a cryptographic primitive that allows one to commit to a chosen value (or chosen statement) while keeping it hidden to others, with the ability to reveal the committed value later.Oded Goldreich (2001). Foundations of Crypt ...
s * Secure multiparty computation *
Electronic voting Electronic voting is voting that uses electronic means to either aid or handle casting and counting ballots including voting time. Depending on the particular implementation, e-voting may use standalone '' electronic voting machines'' (also ...
*
Authentication Authentication (from ''authentikos'', "real, genuine", from αὐθέντης ''authentes'', "author") is the act of proving an Logical assertion, assertion, such as the Digital identity, identity of a computer system user. In contrast with iden ...
* Digital signatures * Crypto systems * Dining cryptographers problem *
Anonymous remailer An anonymous remailer is a server that receives messages with embedded instructions on where to send them next, and that forwards them without revealing where they originally came from. There are cypherpunk anonymous remailers, mixmaster anony ...
*
Pseudonymity A pseudonym (; ) or alias () is a fictitious name that a person assumes for a particular purpose, which differs from their original or true meaning (orthonym). This also differs from a new name that entirely or legally replaces an individual's ow ...
*
Onion routing Onion routing is a technique for anonymous communication over a computer network. In an onion network, messages are encapsulated in layers of encryption, analogous to the layers of an onion. The encrypted data is transmitted through a series o ...
*
Digital currency Digital currency (digital money, electronic money or electronic currency) is any currency, money, or money-like asset that is primarily managed, stored or exchanged on digital computer systems, especially over the internet. Types of digital cu ...
*
Secret sharing Secret sharing (also called secret splitting) refers to methods for distributing a secrecy, secret among a group, in such a way that no individual holds any intelligible information about the secret, but when a sufficient number of individuals c ...
* Indistinguishability obfuscation


Branches of cryptography

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Multivariate cryptography Multivariate cryptography is the generic term for asymmetric cryptographic primitives based on multivariate polynomials over a finite field F. In certain cases, those polynomials could be defined over both a ground and an extension field. If t ...
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Post-quantum cryptography Post-quantum cryptography (PQC), sometimes referred to as quantum-proof, quantum-safe, or quantum-resistant, is the development of cryptographic algorithms (usually public-key algorithms) that are currently thought to be secure against a crypt ...
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Quantum cryptography Quantum cryptography is the science of exploiting quantum mechanical properties to perform cryptographic tasks. The best known example of quantum cryptography is quantum key distribution, which offers an information-theoretically secure soluti ...
*
Steganography Steganography ( ) is the practice of representing information within another message or physical object, in such a manner that the presence of the concealed information would not be evident to an unsuspecting person's examination. In computing/ ...
* Visual cryptography * Chaotic cryptology


History of cryptography

* Japanese cryptology from the 1500s to Meiji * World War I cryptography * World War II cryptography ** Reservehandverfahren ** Venona project ** Ultra


Ciphers


Classical


Substitution

* Monoalphabetic substitution ** Caesar cipher ***
ROT13 ROT13 is a simple letter substitution cipher that replaces a letter with the 13th letter after it in the Latin alphabet. ROT13 is a special case of the Caesar cipher which was developed in ancient Rome, used by Julius Caesar in the 1st centur ...
** Affine cipher ** Atbash cipher ** Keyword cipher * Polyalphabetic substitution **
Vigenère cipher The Vigenère cipher () is a method of encryption, encrypting alphabetic text where each letter of the plaintext is encoded with a different Caesar cipher, whose increment is determined by the corresponding letter of another text, the key (crypt ...
** Autokey cipher **
Homophonic substitution cipher In cryptography, a substitution cipher is a method of encrypting in which units of plaintext are replaced with the ciphertext, in a defined manner, with the help of a key; the "units" may be single letters (the most common), pairs of letters, t ...
* Polygraphic substitution ** Playfair cipher ** Hill cipher


Transposition

*
Scytale In cryptography, a scytale (; also transliterated skytale, ''skutálē'' "baton, cylinder", also ''skútalon'') is a tool used to perform a transposition cipher, consisting of a cylinder with a strip of parchment wound around it on which is wr ...
* Grille * Permutation cipher * VIC cipher – complex hand cypher used by at least one Soviet spy in the early 1950s; it proved quite secure for the time


Modern symmetric-key algorithms


Stream ciphers A stream cipher is a symmetric key algorithm, symmetric key cipher where plaintext digits are combined with a pseudorandom cipher digit stream (keystream). In a stream cipher, each plaintext numerical digit, digit is encrypted one at a time with ...

* A5/1 & A5/2 – ciphers specified for the
GSM The Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is a family of standards to describe the protocols for second-generation (2G) digital cellular networks, as used by mobile devices such as mobile phones and Mobile broadband modem, mobile broadba ...
cellular telephone standard * BMGL *
Chameleon Chameleons or chamaeleons (Family (biology), family Chamaeleonidae) are a distinctive and highly specialized clade of Old World lizards with 200 species described as of June 2015. The members of this Family (biology), family are best known for ...
*
FISH A fish (: fish or fishes) is an aquatic animal, aquatic, Anamniotes, anamniotic, gill-bearing vertebrate animal with swimming fish fin, fins and craniate, a hard skull, but lacking limb (anatomy), limbs with digit (anatomy), digits. Fish can ...
– by Siemens AG * WWII 'Fish' cyphers **
Geheimfernschreiber The Siemens & Halske T52, also known as the Geheimschreiber ("secret teleprinter"), or ''Schlüsselfernschreibmaschine'' (SFM), was a World War II German cipher machine and teleprinter produced by the electrical engineering firm Siemens & Halske. ...
– WWII mechanical onetime pad by
Siemens AG Siemens AG ( ) is a German multinational technology conglomerate. It is focused on industrial automation, building automation, rail transport and health technology. Siemens is the largest engineering company in Europe, and holds the posit ...
, called
STURGEON Sturgeon (from Old English ultimately from Proto-Indo-European language, Proto-Indo-European *''str̥(Hx)yón''-) is the common name for the 27 species of fish belonging to the family Acipenseridae. The earliest sturgeon fossils date to the ...
by
Bletchley Park Bletchley Park is an English country house and Bletchley Park estate, estate in Bletchley, Milton Keynes (Buckinghamshire), that became the principal centre of Allies of World War II, Allied World War II cryptography, code-breaking during the S ...
** Pike – improvement on FISH by Ross Anderson ** Schlusselzusatz – WWII mechanical onetime pad by
Lorenz Lorenz is an originally German name derived from the Roman surname Laurentius, which means "from Laurentum". Given name People with the given name Lorenz include: * Prince Lorenz of Belgium (born 1955), member of the Belgian royal family by h ...
, called ''tunny'' by
Bletchley Park Bletchley Park is an English country house and Bletchley Park estate, estate in Bletchley, Milton Keynes (Buckinghamshire), that became the principal centre of Allies of World War II, Allied World War II cryptography, code-breaking during the S ...
*
HELIX A helix (; ) is a shape like a cylindrical coil spring or the thread of a machine screw. It is a type of smooth space curve with tangent lines at a constant angle to a fixed axis. Helices are important in biology, as the DNA molecule is for ...
*
ISAAC Isaac ( ; ; ; ; ; ) is one of the three patriarchs (Bible), patriarchs of the Israelites and an important figure in the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and the Baháʼí Faith. Isaac first appears in the Torah, in wh ...
– intended as a PRNG *
Leviathan Leviathan ( ; ; ) is a sea serpent demon noted in theology and mythology. It is referenced in several books of the Hebrew Bible, including Psalms, the Book of Job, the Book of Isaiah, and the pseudepigraphical Book of Enoch. Leviathan is of ...
* LILI-128 * MUGICRYPTREC recommendation * MULTI-S01 - CRYPTREC recommendation *
One-time pad The one-time pad (OTP) is an encryption technique that cannot be Cryptanalysis, cracked in cryptography. It requires the use of a single-use pre-shared key that is larger than or equal to the size of the message being sent. In this technique, ...
– Vernam and Mauborgne, patented 1919; an extreme stream cypher *
Panama Panama, officially the Republic of Panama, is a country in Latin America at the southern end of Central America, bordering South America. It is bordered by Costa Rica to the west, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north, and ...
* RC4 (ARCFOUR) – one of a series by Professor Ron Rivest of
MIT The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Established in 1861, MIT has played a significant role in the development of many areas of modern technology and sc ...
; CRYPTREC recommended limited to 128-bit key ** CipherSaber – ( RC4 variant with 10 byte random IV, easy to implement * Salsa20 – an eSTREAM recommended cipher ** ChaCha20 – A Salsa20 variant. *
SEAL Seal may refer to any of the following: Common uses * Pinniped, a diverse group of semi-aquatic marine mammals, many of which are commonly called seals, particularly: ** Earless seal, also called "true seal" ** Fur seal ** Eared seal * Seal ( ...
*
SNOW Snow consists of individual ice crystals that grow while suspended in the atmosphere—usually within clouds—and then fall, accumulating on the ground where they undergo further changes. It consists of frozen crystalline water througho ...
* SOBER ** SOBER-t16 ** SOBER-t32 * WAKE


Block ciphers

* Product cipher *
Feistel cipher In cryptography, a Feistel cipher (also known as Luby–Rackoff block cipher) is a symmetric structure used in the construction of block ciphers, named after the German-born physicist and cryptographer Horst Feistel, who did pioneering resear ...
– pattern by Horst Feistel *
Advanced Encryption Standard The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), also known by its original name Rijndael (), is a specification for the encryption of electronic data established by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 2001. AES is a variant ...
(Rijndael) – 128-bit block;
NIST The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is an agency of the United States Department of Commerce whose mission is to promote American innovation and industrial competitiveness. NIST's activities are organized into physical s ...
selection for the AES, FIPS 197; Created 2001—by
Joan Daemen Joan Daemen (; born 1965) is a Belgians, Belgian cryptographer who is currently professor of digital security (symmetric encryption) at Radboud University. He co-designed with Vincent Rijmen the Rijndael cipher, which was selected as the Advance ...
and
Vincent Rijmen Vincent Rijmen (; born 16 October 1970) is a Belgium, Belgian cryptographer and one of the two designers of the Rijndael, the Advanced Encryption Standard. Rijmen is also the co-designer of the WHIRLPOOL cryptographic hash function, and the block ...
; NESSIE selection; CRYPTREC recommendation. *
Anubis Anubis (; ), also known as Inpu, Inpw, Jnpw, or Anpu in Ancient Egyptian (), is the god of funerary rites, protector of graves, and guide to the underworld in ancient Egyptian religion, usually depicted as a canine or a man with a canine hea ...
– 128-bit block *
BEAR Bears are carnivoran mammals of the family (biology), family Ursidae (). They are classified as caniforms, or doglike carnivorans. Although only eight species of bears are extant, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of habitats ...
– built from a stream cypher and hash function, by Ross Anderson * Blowfish – 64-bit block; by
Bruce Schneier Bruce Schneier (; born January 15, 1963) is an American cryptographer, computer security professional, privacy specialist, and writer. Schneier is an Adjunct Lecturer in Public Policy at the Harvard Kennedy School and a Fellow at the Berkman ...
''et al.'' *
Camellia ''Camellia'' (pronounced or ) is a genus of flowering plants in the family Theaceae. They are found in tropical and subtropical areas in East Asia, eastern and South Asia, southern Asia, from the Himalayas east to Japan and Indonesia. There are ...
– 128-bit block; NESSIE selection (NTT & Mitsubishi Electric); CRYPTREC recommendation * CAST-128 ( CAST5) – 64-bit block; one of a series of algorithms by Carlisle Adams and Stafford Tavares, insistent that the name is not due to their initials ** CAST-256 ( CAST6) – 128-bit block; the successor to CAST-128 and a candidate for the AES competition * CIPHERUNICORN-A – 128-bit block; CRYPTREC recommendation * CIPHERUNICORN-E – 64-bit block; CRYPTREC recommendation (limited) * CMEA – cipher used in US cellphones, found to have weaknesses. * CS-Cipher – 64-bit block *
Data Encryption Standard The Data Encryption Standard (DES ) is a symmetric-key algorithm for the encryption of digital data. Although its short key length of 56 bits makes it too insecure for modern applications, it has been highly influential in the advancement of cryp ...
(DES) – 64-bit block; FIPS 46-3, 1976 * DEAL – an AES candidate derived from DES * DES-X – a variant of DES to increase the key size. * FEAL * GDES – a DES variant designed to speed up encryption * Grand Cru – 128-bit block * Hierocrypt-3 – 128-bit block; CRYPTREC recommendation * Hierocrypt-L1 – 64-bit block; CRYPTREC recommendation (limited) * IDEA NXT – project name FOX, 64-bit and 128-bit block family; Mediacrypt (Switzerland); by Pascal Junod & Serge Vaudenay of Swiss Institute of Technology Lausanne *
International Data Encryption Algorithm In cryptography, the International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA), originally called Improved Proposed Encryption Standard (IPES), is a Symmetric-key algorithm, symmetric-key block cipher designed by James Massey of ETH Zurich and Xuejia Lai an ...
(IDEA) – 64-bit block; James Massey & X Lai of ETH Zurich * Iraqi Block Cipher (IBC) * KASUMI – 64-bit block; based on MISTY1, adopted for next generation
W-CDMA The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is a 3G mobile cellular system for networks based on the GSM standard. UMTS uses wideband code-division multiple access (W-CDMA) radio access technology to offer greater spectral efficiency ...
cellular phone A mobile phone or cell phone is a portable telephone that allows users to make and receive calls over a radio frequency link while moving within a designated telephone service area, unlike fixed-location phones ( landline phones). This radi ...
security * KHAZAD – 64-bit block designed by Barretto and Rijmen * Khufu and Khafre – 64-bit block ciphers * Kuznyechik – Russian 128-bit block cipher, defined in GOST R 34.12-2015 and RFC 7801. *
LION The lion (''Panthera leo'') is a large Felidae, cat of the genus ''Panthera'', native to Sub-Saharan Africa and India. It has a muscular, broad-chested body (biology), body; a short, rounded head; round ears; and a dark, hairy tuft at the ...
– block cypher built from stream cypher and hash function, by Ross Anderson * LOKI89/91 – 64-bit block ciphers * LOKI97 – 128-bit block cipher, AES candidate *
Lucifer The most common meaning for Lucifer in English is as a name for the Devil in Christian theology. He appeared in the King James Version of the Bible in Isaiah and before that in the Vulgate (the late-4th-century Latin translation of the Bib ...
– by Tuchman ''et al.'' of IBM, early 1970s; modified by NSA/National Institute of Standards and Technology, NBS and released as DES * MAGENTA – AES candidate * Mars (cipher), Mars – AES finalist, by Don Coppersmith et al. * MISTY1NESSIE selection 64-bit block; Mitsubishi Electric (Japan); CRYPTREC recommendation (limited) * MISTY2 – 128-bit block: Mitsubishi Electric (Japan) * Nimbus (cipher), Nimbus – 64-bit block * NOEKEON – 128-bit block * NUSH – variable block length (64-256-bit) * Q (cipher), Q – 128-bit block * RC2 – 64-bit block, variable key length ** RC6 – variable block length; AES finalist, by Ron Rivest ''et al.'' ** RC5 – Ron Rivest * Secure and Fast Encryption Routine, SAFER – variable block length * SC2000 – 128-bit block; CRYPTREC recommendation * Serpent (cipher), Serpent – 128-bit block; AES finalist by Ross Anderson, Eli Biham, Lars Knudsen * SHACAL-1 – 160-bit block * SHACAL-2 – 256-bit block cypher; NESSIE selection Gemplus (France) * Shark (cipher), Shark – grandfather of Rijndael/Advanced Encryption Standard, AES, by Daemen and Rijmen ** Square (cipher), Square – father of Rijndael/Advanced Encryption Standard, AES, by Daemen and Rijmen * Tiny Encryption Algorithm, TEA – by David Wheeler (computer scientist), David Wheeler & Roger Needham * Triple DES – by Walter Tuchman, leader of the
Lucifer The most common meaning for Lucifer in English is as a name for the Devil in Christian theology. He appeared in the King James Version of the Bible in Isaiah and before that in the Vulgate (the late-4th-century Latin translation of the Bib ...
design team—not all triple uses of DES increase security, Tuchman's does; CRYPTREC recommendation (limited), only when used as in FIPS Pub 46-3 * Twofish – 128-bit block; AES finalist by
Bruce Schneier Bruce Schneier (; born January 15, 1963) is an American cryptographer, computer security professional, privacy specialist, and writer. Schneier is an Adjunct Lecturer in Public Policy at the Harvard Kennedy School and a Fellow at the Berkman ...
''et al.'' * XTEA – by David Wheeler (computer scientist), David Wheeler & Roger Needham * 3-Way – 96-bit block by
Joan Daemen Joan Daemen (; born 1965) is a Belgians, Belgian cryptographer who is currently professor of digital security (symmetric encryption) at Radboud University. He co-designed with Vincent Rijmen the Rijndael cipher, which was selected as the Advance ...
* Polyalphabetic substitution machine cyphers ** Enigma (machine), Enigma – WWII German rotor cypher machine—many variants, any user networks for most of the variants ** Purple code, Purple – highest security WWII Japanese Foreign Office cypher machine; by Japanese Navy Captain ** SIGABA – WWII US cypher machine by William Friedman, Frank Rowlett ''et al.'' ** TypeX – WWII UK cypher machine *Hybrid code/cypher combinations ** JN-25 – WWII Japanese Navy superencyphered code; many variants ** Naval Cypher 3 – superencrypted code used by the Royal Navy in the 1930s and into WWII


Modern asymmetric-key algorithms


Asymmetric key algorithm

* ACE-KEM – NESSIE selection asymmetric encryption scheme; IBM Zurich Research ** ACE Encrypt * Chor-Rivest * Diffie-Hellman – key agreement; CRYPTREC recommendation * El Gamal – discrete logarithm * Elliptic curve cryptography – (discrete logarithm variant) * PSEC-KEM – NESSIE selection asymmetric encryption scheme; NTT (Japan); CRYPTREC recommendation only in DEM construction w/SEC1 parameters ** ECIES – ''Elliptic Curve Integrated Encryption System'', Certicom Corporation ** ECIES-KEM ** ECDH – ''Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman key agreement'', CRYPTREC recommendation * Efficient Probabilistic Public-Key Encryption Scheme, EPOC * Kyber * Merkle–Hellman knapsack cryptosystem – knapsack scheme * McEliece cryptosystem * Niederreiter cryptosystem * NTRUEncrypt * RSA (algorithm), RSA – factoring ** RSA-KEM – NESSIE selection asymmetric encryption scheme; ISO/IEC 18033-2 draft ** RSA-OAEP – CRYPTREC recommendation * Rabin cryptosystem – factoring ** Rabin-SAEP ** HIME(R) * Paillier cryptosystem * Threshold cryptosystem * XTR


Keys


Key authentication

* Public key infrastructure ** X.509 ** OpenPGP * Public key certificate ** Certificate authority ** Certificate revocation * ID-based cryptography * Certificate-based encryption * Secure key issuing cryptography * Certificateless cryptography * Merkle tree


Transport/exchange

* Diffie–Hellman * Man-in-the-middle attack * Needham–Schroeder * Offline private key * Otway–Rees * Trusted paper key * Wide Mouth Frog


Weak keys

* Brute force attack * Dictionary attack * Related key attack * Key derivation function * Key strengthening * Password * Password-authenticated key agreement * Passphrase * Salt (cryptography), Salt * Factorization


Cryptographic hash functions

* Message authentication code * Keyed-hash message authentication code ** Encrypted CBC-MAC (EMAC) – NESSIE selection MAC ** HMAC – NESSIE selection MAC; ISO/IEC 9797-1, FIPS PUB 113 and IETF Request for Comments, RFC ** TTMAC – (Two-Track-MAC) NESSIE selection MAC; K.U.Leuven (Belgium) & debis AG (Germany) ** UMAC (cryptography), UMAC – NESSIE selection MAC; Intel, UNevada Reno, IBM, Technion, & UC Davis ** Oblivious Pseudorandom Function * MD5 – one of a series of message digest algorithms by Prof Ron Rivest of MIT; 128-bit digest * SHA-1 – developed at NSA 160-bit digest, an FIPS standard; the first released version was defective and replaced by this; NIST/NSA have released several variants with longer 'digest' lengths; CRYPTREC recommendation (limited) ** SHA-256 – NESSIE selection hash function, FIPS 180-2, 256-bit digest; CRYPTREC recommendation ** SHA-384 – NESSIE selection hash function, FIPS 180-2, 384-bit digest; CRYPTREC recommendation ** SHA-512 – NESSIE selection hash function, FIPS 180-2, 512-bit digest; CRYPTREC recommendation * SHA-3 – originally known as Keccak; was the winner of the NIST hash function competition using sponge function. * Streebog – Russian algorithm created to replace an obsolete GOST hash function defined in obsolete standard GOST R 34.11-94. * RIPEMD-160 – developed in Europe for the RIPE project, 160-bit digest; CRYPTREC recommendation (limited) * RTR0 – one of Retter series; developed by Maciej A. Czyzewski; 160-bit digest * Tiger (hash function), Tiger – by Ross Anderson ''et al.'' * Snefru (cryptography), Snefru – NIST hash function competition * Whirlpool (algorithm), Whirlpool – NESSIE selection hash function, Scopus Tecnologia S.A. (Brazil) & K.U.Leuven (Belgium)


Cryptanalysis


Classical

* Frequency analysis * Contact analysis (cryptanalysis), Contact analysis * Index of coincidence * Kasiski examination


Modern

* Symmetric algorithms ** Boomerang attack ** Brute force attack ** Davies' attack ** Differential cryptanalysis ** Impossible differential cryptanalysis ** Integral cryptanalysis ** Linear cryptanalysis ** Meet-in-the-middle attack ** Mod-n cryptanalysis ** Related-key attack ** Slide attack ** XSL attack * Hash functions: ** Birthday attack * Attack models **Chosen-ciphertext attack, Chosen-ciphertext **Chosen-plaintext attack, Chosen-plaintext **Ciphertext-only attack, Ciphertext-only **Known-plaintext attack, Known-plaintext * Side channel attacks ** Power analysis ** Timing attack ** Cold boot attack ** Differential fault analysis * Network attacks ** Man-in-the-middle attack ** Replay attack * External attacks ** Black-bag cryptanalysis ** Rubber-hose cryptanalysis


Robustness properties

* Provable security * Random oracle, Random oracle model * Ciphertext indistinguishability * Semantic security * Malleability (cryptography), Malleability * Forward secrecy * Forward anonymity * Freshness (cryptography), Freshness *


Undeciphered historical codes and ciphers

* Beale ciphers * Chaocipher * D'Agapeyeff cipher * Dorabella cipher * Rongorongo * Shugborough inscription * Voynich manuscript


Organizations and selection projects


Cryptography standards

* Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) Publication Program – run by
NIST The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is an agency of the United States Department of Commerce whose mission is to promote American innovation and industrial competitiveness. NIST's activities are organized into physical s ...
to produce standards in many areas to guide operations of the US Federal government; many FIPS publications are ongoing and related to cryptography * American National Standards Institute (ANSI) – standardization process that produces many standards in many areas; some are cryptography related, ongoing) * International Organization for Standardization (ISO) – standardization process produces many standards in many areas; some are cryptography related, ongoing * Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) – standardization process produces many standards in many areas; some are cryptography related, ongoing * Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) – standardization process that produces many standards called Request for Comments, RFCs) in many areas; some are cryptography related, ongoing)


General cryptographic

* National Security Agency (NSA) – internal evaluation/selections, charged with assisting NIST in its cryptographic responsibilities * Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) – internal evaluation/selections, a division is charged with developing and recommending cryptographic standards for the UK government * Defence Signals Directorate (DSD) – Australian SIGINT agency, part of ECHELON * Communications Security Establishment (CSE) – Canadian intelligence agency


Open efforts

*
Data Encryption Standard The Data Encryption Standard (DES ) is a symmetric-key algorithm for the encryption of digital data. Although its short key length of 56 bits makes it too insecure for modern applications, it has been highly influential in the advancement of cryp ...
(DES) – NIST, NBS selection process, ended 1976 * RIPE – division of the RACE project sponsored by the European Union, ended mid-1980s *
Advanced Encryption Standard The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), also known by its original name Rijndael (), is a specification for the encryption of electronic data established by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 2001. AES is a variant ...
(AES) – a "break-off" competition sponsored by
NIST The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is an agency of the United States Department of Commerce whose mission is to promote American innovation and industrial competitiveness. NIST's activities are organized into physical s ...
, ended in 2001 * NESSIE Project – an evaluation/selection program sponsored by the European Union, ended in 2002 * eSTREAM– program funded by ECRYPT; motivated by the failure of all of the stream ciphers submitted to NESSIE, ended in 2008 * CRYPTREC – evaluation/recommendation program sponsored by the Japanese government; draft recommendations published 2003 * CrypTool – an e-learning freeware programme in English and German— exhaustive educational tool about cryptography and cryptanalysis


Influential cryptographers

List of cryptographers


Legal issues

* AACS encryption key controversy * Free speech ** ''Bernstein v. United States'' - Daniel J. Bernstein's challenge to the restrictions on the export of cryptography from the United States. ** ''Junger v. Daley'' ** DeCSS ** Phil Zimmermann#Arms Export Control Act investigation, Phil Zimmermann - Arms Export Control Act investigation regarding the Pretty Good Privacy, PGP software. * Export of cryptography * Key escrow and Clipper Chip * Digital Millennium Copyright Act * Digital rights management (DRM) * Patents ** RSA (algorithm), RSA – now public domain ** David Chaum – and digital cash * Cryptography and law enforcement ** Telephone tapping, Telephone wiretapping ** Espionage * Cryptography laws in different nations ** Official Secrets Act – United Kingdom, India, Ireland, Malaysia, and formerly New Zealand ** Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 – United Kingdom


Academic and professional publications

* Journal of Cryptology * Encyclopedia of Cryptography and Security * Cryptologia – quarterly journal focusing on historical aspects * Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems – cryptography from the viewpoint of information theory * International Association for Cryptologic Research
website


Allied sciences

* Security engineering


See also

*Outline of computer science *Outline of computer security


References

{{Outline footer Outlines of sciences, Cryptography Outlines, Cryptography Cryptography lists and comparisons, *