Georgius Agricola Georgius Agricola (; born Georg Pawer or Georg Bauer; 24 March 1494 – 21 November 1555) was a German Humanist scholar, mineralogist and metallurgist. Born in the small town of Glauchau, in the Electorate of Saxony of the Holy Roman Empir ...

is considered the 'father of mineralogy'.

Nicolas Steno Niels Steensen ( da, Niels Steensen; Latinized to ''Nicolaus Steno'' or ''Nicolaus Stenonius''; 1 January 1638 – 25 November 1686stratigraphy (the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification)), the

geology Geology () is a branch of natural science concerned with Earth and other astronomical objects, the features or rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Ear ...

characterizes the rocks in each layer and the mineralogy characterizes the minerals in each rock. The chemical elements were discovered in identified

mineral In geology and mineralogy, a mineral or mineral species is, broadly speaking, a solid chemical compound with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form.John P. Rafferty, ed. (2 ...

s and with the help of the identified elements the mineral

crystal structure In crystallography, crystal structure is a description of the ordered arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules in a crystal, crystalline material. Ordered structures occur from the intrinsic nature of the constituent particles to form symmetric pat ...

could be described. One milestone was the discovery of the geometrical law of crystallization by

René Just Haüy René Just Haüy () FRS MWS FRSE (28 February 1743 – 1 June 1822) was a French priest and mineralogist, commonly styled the Abbé Haüy after he was made an honorary canon of Notre Dame. Due to his innovative work on crystal structure and hi ...

, a further development of the work by Nicolas Steno and Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle (the characterisation of a

crystalline A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macros ...

mineral needs knowledge on crystallography). Important contributions came from some Saxon "Bergraths"/ Freiberg Mining Academy: Johann F. Henckel,

Abraham Gottlob Werner Abraham Gottlob Werner (; 25 September 174930 June 1817) was a German geologist who set out an early theory about the stratification of the Earth's crust and propounded a history of the Earth that came to be known as Neptunism. While most tenet ...

and his students ( August Breithaupt,

Robert Jameson Robert Jameson Robert Jameson FRS FRSE (11 July 1774 – 19 April 1854) was a Scottish naturalist and mineralogist. As Regius Professor of Natural History at the University of Edinburgh for fifty years, developing his predecessor John ...

José Bonifácio de Andrada José is a predominantly Spanish and Portuguese form of the given name Joseph. While spelled alike, this name is pronounced differently in each language: Spanish ; Portuguese (or ). In French, the name ''José'', pronounced , is an old vernacul ...

and others). Other milestones were the notion that

metal A metal (from Greek μέταλλον ''métallon'', "mine, quarry, metal") is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are typicall ...

s are elements too (

Antoine Lavoisier Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier ( , ; ; 26 August 17438 May 1794),
CNRS (

periodic table of the elements by Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev. The overview of the organic bonds by Kekulé was necessary to understand the silicates, first refinements described by

Bragg Bragg may refer to: Places * Bragg City, Missouri, United States * Bragg, Texas, a ghost town, United States * Bragg, West Virginia, an unincorporated community, United States *Electoral district of Bragg, a state electoral district in South Austra ...

and Machatschki; and it was only possibly to understand a crystal structure with

Dalton Dalton may refer to: Science * Dalton (crater), a lunar crater * Dalton (program), chemistry software * Dalton (unit) (Da), the atomic mass unit * John Dalton, chemist, physicist and meteorologist Entertainment * Dalton (Buffyverse), minor ch ...

atomic theory Atomic theory is the scientific theory that matter is composed of particles called atoms. Atomic theory traces its origins to an ancient philosophical tradition known as atomism. According to this idea, if one were to take a lump of matter a ...

, the notion of

atomic orbital In atomic theory and quantum mechanics, an atomic orbital is a function describing the location and wave-like behavior of an electron in an atom. This function can be used to calculate the probability of finding any electron of an atom in any spe ...

and Goldschmidt's explanations.

Specific gravity Relative density, or specific gravity, is the ratio of the density (mass of a unit volume) of a substance to the density of a given reference material. Specific gravity for liquids is nearly always measured with respect to water at its densest ...

, streak (streak color and mineral hardness) and

X-ray powder diffraction An X-ray, or, much less commonly, X-radiation, is a penetrating form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 10 picometers to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 ...

are quite specific for a Nickel-Strunz identifier (updated 9th ed.). Nowadays, non-destructive

electron microprobe An electron microprobe (EMP), also known as an electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA) or electron micro probe analyzer (EMPA), is an analytical tool used to non-destructively determine the chemical composition of small volumes of solid materials. It ...

analysis is used to get the

empirical formula In chemistry, the empirical formula of a chemical compound is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms present in a compound. A simple example of this concept is that the empirical formula of sulfur monoxide, or SO, would simply be SO, as is the ...

of a mineral. Finally, the International Zeolite Association (IZA) took care of the

zeolite Zeolites are microporous, crystalline aluminosilicate materials commonly used as commercial adsorbents and catalysts. They mainly consist of silicon, aluminium, oxygen, and have the general formula ･y where is either a metal ion or H+. These p ...

frameworks (part of

molecular sieve A molecular sieve is a material with pores (very small holes) of uniform size. These pore diameters are similar in size to small molecules, and thus large molecules cannot enter or be adsorbed, while smaller molecules can. As a mixture of molecu ...

s and/or molecular cages). There are only a few thousand mineral species and 83 geochemically stable chemical elements combine to form them (84 elements, if

plutonium Plutonium is a radioactive chemical element with the symbol Pu and atomic number 94. It is an actinide metal of silvery-gray appearance that tarnishes when exposed to air, and forms a dull coating when oxidized. The element normally exhibi ...

and the

Atomic Age The Atomic Age, also known as the Atomic Era, is the period of history following the detonation of the first nuclear weapon, The Gadget at the ''Trinity'' test in New Mexico, on July 16, 1945, during World War II. Although nuclear chain reaction ...

are included). The mineral evolution in the geologic time context were discussed and summarised by Arkadii G. Zhabin (and subsequent Russian workers), Robert M. Hazen, William A. Deer,

Robert A. Howie Robert Andrew Howie (4 June 1923 – 10 March 2012) was a notable English petrologist. Life He joined the RAF University Six Months course in 1941. He was hoping to go to Cambridge (engineering), but he was assigned to Edinburgh (meteorology). ...

and Jack Zussman.

Milestones

Neolithic Age, and after it

Neolithic The Neolithic period, or New Stone Age, is an Old World archaeological period and the final division of the Stone Age. It saw the Neolithic Revolution, a wide-ranging set of developments that appear to have arisen independently in several parts ...

Age (new stone era) beginning about 10,200 years ago:

flint tool A stone tool is, in the most general sense, any tool made either partially or entirely out of stone. Although stone tool-dependent societies and cultures still exist today, most stone tools are associated with prehistoric (particularly Stone Ag ...

s (

diagenesis Diagenesis () is the process that describes physical and chemical changes in sediments first caused by water-rock interactions, microbial activity, and compaction after their deposition. Increased pressure and temperature only start to play a ...

of marine microfossils, microcristalline

opal Opal is a hydrated amorphous form of silica (SiO2·''n''H2O); its water content may range from 3 to 21% by weight, but is usually between 6 and 10%. Due to its amorphous property, it is classified as a mineraloid, unlike crystalline form ...

and

chalcedony Chalcedony ( , or ) is a cryptocrystalline form of silica, composed of very fine intergrowths of quartz and moganite. These are both silica minerals, but they differ in that quartz has a trigonal crystal structure, while moganite is monocli ...

), jade tools (usually

nephrite Nephrite is a variety of the calcium, magnesium, and iron-rich amphibole minerals tremolite or actinolite ( aggregates of which also make up one form of asbestos). The chemical formula for nephrite is Ca2( Mg, Fe)5 Si8 O22(O H)2. It is on ...

, jadeitite or jadeite-jade is less common),

kaolin Kaolinite ( ) is a clay mineral, with the chemical composition Al2 Si2 O5( OH)4. It is an important industrial mineral. It is a layered silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet of silica () linked through oxygen atoms to one octahedral ...

earth (

adobe Adobe ( ; ) is a building material made from earth and organic materials. is Spanish for ''mudbrick''. In some English-speaking regions of Spanish heritage, such as the Southwestern United States, the term is used to refer to any kind of e ...

bricks made by drying of clay),

copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkis ...

gold Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from la, aurum) and atomic number 79. This makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. It is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile met ...

silver Silver is a chemical element with the Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag (from the Latin ', derived from the Proto-Indo-European wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂erǵ-, ''h₂erǵ'': "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, whi ...

and

rocksalt Halite (), commonly known as rock salt, is a type of salt, the mineral (natural) form of sodium chloride ( Na Cl). Halite forms isometric crystals. The mineral is typically colorless or white, but may also be light blue, dark blue, purple, p ...

. Locally, beads of

turquoise Turquoise is an opaque, blue-to-green mineral that is a hydrated phosphate of copper and aluminium, with the chemical formula . It is rare and valuable in finer grades and has been prized as a gemstone and ornamental stone for thousands of year ...

and

lazurite Lazurite is a tectosilicate mineral with sulfate, sulfur and chloride with formula . It is a feldspathoid and a member of the sodalite group. Lazurite crystallizes in the isometric system although well‐formed crystals are rare. It is usually ...

are found. **

Göbekli Tepe Göbekli Tepe (, "Potbelly Hill"; known as ''Girê Mirazan'' or ''Xirabreşkê'' in Kurdish) is a Neolithic archaeological site in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. Dated to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, between 9500 and 8000 BCE, the ...

, Anatolia, dating back to the 10th–8th millennium BC. ** Note: nephrite is a microcristalline variety of

tremolite Tremolite is a member of the amphibole group of silicate minerals with composition: Ca2(Mg5.0-4.5Fe2+0.0-0.5)Si8O22(OH)2. Tremolite forms by metamorphism of sediments rich in dolomite and quartz. Tremolite forms a series with actinolite and fe ...

(

ferro-actinolite Ferro-actinolite is the ferrous iron-rich endmember of the actinolite-tremolite continuous solid solution series of the double chain calcareous amphibole group of inosilicate minerals. All the series members belong to the monoclinic crystal system. ...

–tremolite

solid solution A solid solution, a term popularly used for metals, is a homogenous mixture of two different kinds of atoms in solid state and have a single crystal structure. Many examples can be found in metallurgy, geology, and solid-state chemistry. The wor ...

series); white nephrite is almost pure tremolite and iron gives nephrite its green colour. *

Bronze Age The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second pri ...

, Near East (3600-1200 BC), Europe (3600-600 BC), Indian Subcontinent (3300-1200 BC). **

Chalcolithic The Copper Age, also called the Chalcolithic (; from grc-gre, χαλκός ''khalkós'', "copper" and ''líthos'', "stone") or (A)eneolithic (from Latin '' aeneus'' "of copper"), is an archaeological period characterized by regular ...

Age (copper age) beginning about 7,000 years ago:

, mercury. ** In the early

lead Lead is a chemical element with the symbol Pb (from the Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable, and also has a relatively low melting point. When freshly cu ...

was used with

antimony Antimony is a chemical element with the symbol Sb (from la, stibium) and atomic number 51. A lustrous gray metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite (Sb2S3). Antimony compounds have been known since ancient t ...

and

arsenic Arsenic is a chemical element with the symbol As and atomic number 33. Arsenic occurs in many minerals, usually in combination with sulfur and metals, but also as a pure elemental crystal. Arsenic is a metalloid. It has various allotropes, ...

. ** The use of meteoric iron–nickel alloy has been traced as far back as 3500 BC. *

Iron Age The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age division of the prehistory and protohistory of humanity. It was preceded by the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) and the Bronze Age (Chalcolithic). The concept has been mostly appl ...

, Ancient Near East (1300-600 BC), India (1200-200 BC), Europe (1200 BC – 400 AD). * Illustration,

Torah The Torah (; hbo, ''Tōrā'', "Instruction", "Teaching" or "Law") is the compilation of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, namely the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. In that sense, Torah means the ...

(in Hebrew),

Septuagint The Greek Old Testament, or Septuagint (, ; from the la, septuaginta, lit=seventy; often abbreviated ''70''; in Roman numerals, LXX), is the earliest extant Greek translation of books from the Hebrew Bible. It includes several books beyond ...

(translation in Ancient Greek),

Vulgate The Vulgate (; also called (Bible in common tongue), ) is a late-4th-century Latin translation of the Bible. The Vulgate is largely the work of Jerome who, in 382, had been commissioned by Pope Damasus I to revise the Gospels u ...

(translation in Latin),

Douay–Rheims Bible The Douay–Rheims Bible (, ), also known as the Douay–Rheims Version, Rheims–Douai Bible or Douai Bible, and abbreviated as D–R, DRB, and DRV, is a translation of the Bible from the Latin Vulgate into English made by member ...

(translation in English),

Book of Numbers The book of Numbers (from Greek Ἀριθμοί, ''Arithmoi''; he, בְּמִדְבַּר, ''Bəmīḏbar'', "In the desert f) is the fourth book of the Hebrew Bible, and the fourth of five books of the Jewish Torah. The book has a long and c ...

31:22: Gold, and silver, and brass, and iron, and lead, and tin (Latin: "aurum et argentum et aes et ferrum et stagnum et plumbum").

Book of Exodus The Book of Exodus (from grc, Ἔξοδος, translit=Éxodos; he, שְׁמוֹת ''Šəmōṯ'', "Names") is the second book of the Bible. It narrates the story of the Exodus, in which the Israelites leave slavery in Biblical Egypt through ...

28:16-20 cites following decorative stones ( list of precious stones in the Bible): (the "

breastplate A breastplate or chestplate is a device worn over the torso to protect it from injury, as an item of religious significance, or as an item of status. A breastplate is sometimes worn by mythological beings as a distinctive item of clothing. It is ...

" or "rational" of the Jewish High Priest) It shall be foursquare and doubled: it shall be the measure of a span both in length and in breadth. And thou shalt set in it four rows of stones: in the first row shall be a sardius stone, and a topaz, and an emerald (Latin: "primo versu erit lapis sardius et topazius et zmaragdus"): In the second a carbuncle, a sapphire and a jasper (Latin: "in secundo carbunculus sapphyrus et iaspis"). In the third a ligurius, an agate, and an amethyst (Latin: "in tertio ligyrius achates et amethistus"): In the fourth a chrysolite, an onyx, and a beryl (Latin: "in quarto chrysolitus onychinus et berillus"). They shall be set in gold by their rows.

Book of Revelation The Book of Revelation is the final book of the New Testament (and consequently the final book of the Christian Bible). Its title is derived from the first word of the Koine Greek text: , meaning "unveiling" or "revelation". The Book of R ...

21:19-20: And the foundations of the wall of the city were adorned with all manner of precious stones. The first foundation was jasper: the second, sapphire: the third, a chalcedony: the fourth, an emerald: The fifth, sardonyx: the sixth, sardius: the seventh, chrysolite: the eighth, beryl: the ninth, a topaz: the tenth, a chrysoprasus: the eleventh, a jacinth: the twelfth, an amethyst (Latin: "primum iaspis secundus sapphyrus tertius carcedonius quartus zmaragdus quintus sardonix sextus sardinus septimus chrysolitus octavus berillus nonus topazius decimus chrysoprassus undecimus hyacinthus duodecimus amethistus"). ** Suggested combined translation: a red aggregate of microgranular speckled ferruginous "

" ("from"

Heybeliada Heybeliada, or Heybeli Ada, is the second largest of the Prince' Islands in the Sea of Marmara, near Istanbull, Turkey. It is officially a neighbourhood of the Adalar district of Istanbul. Its name, meaning 'with a saddlebag' in Turkish, i ...

?, Prince Islands,

Chalcedon Chalcedon ( or ; , sometimes transliterated as ''Chalkedon'') was an ancient maritime town of Bithynia, in Asia Minor. It was located almost directly opposite Byzantium, south of Scutari (modern Üsküdar) and it is now a district of the cit ...

, Constantinople's sphere of influence) (iaspis,

jasper Jasper, an aggregate of microgranular quartz and/or cryptocrystalline chalcedony and other mineral phases,Kostov, R. I. 2010. Review on the mineralogical systematics of jasper and related rocks. – Archaeometry Workshop, 7, 3, 209-213PDF/ref> ...

; it means "spotted or speckled stone");

corundum Corundum is a crystalline form of aluminium oxide () typically containing traces of iron, titanium, vanadium and chromium. It is a rock-forming mineral. It is a naturally transparent material, but can have different colors depending on the pres ...

, var.

sapphire Sapphire is a precious gemstone, a variety of the mineral corundum, consisting of aluminium oxide () with trace amounts of elements such as iron, titanium, chromium, vanadium, or magnesium. The name sapphire is derived via the Latin "sa ...

; "chalcedony", var.

onyx Onyx primarily refers to the parallel banded variety of chalcedony, a silicate mineral. Agate and onyx are both varieties of layered chalcedony that differ only in the form of the bands: agate has curved bands and onyx has parallel bands. The ...

;

beryl Beryl ( ) is a mineral composed of beryllium aluminium silicate with the chemical formula Be3Al2Si6O18. Well-known varieties of beryl include emerald and aquamarine. Naturally occurring, hexagonal crystals of beryl can be up to several ...

, var. emerald ("from" Mons Smaragdus?, Wadi El Gamal National Park); "chalcedony", var.

agate Agate () is a common rock formation, consisting of chalcedony and quartz as its primary components, with a wide variety of colors. Agates are primarily formed within volcanic and metamorphic rocks. The ornamental use of agate was common in Anci ...

(sardonyx, "from" river "Achates" (river

Dirillo The Dirillo, or Acate, is a river in Sicily which springs from the Hyblaean Mountains and flows through the areas of Vizzini, Licodia Eubea, Mazzarrone, Chiaramonte Gulfi, Acate, Vittoria, Sicily, Vittoria, Gela. It enters the Strait of Sicily so ...

), Sicily); "chalcedony", var.

sard is a Japanese tuning company and racing team from Toyota, Aichi, mainly competing in the Super GT series and specialising in Toyota tuning parts. History The company was formed in 1972 as Sigma Automotive Co., Ltd by Shin Kato to develop and ...

(sardius; "from"

Sardis Sardis () or Sardes (; Lydian: 𐤳𐤱𐤠𐤭𐤣 ''Sfard''; el, Σάρδεις ''Sardeis''; peo, Sparda; hbo, ספרד ''Sfarad'') was an ancient city at the location of modern ''Sart'' (Sartmahmut before 19 October 2005), near Salihli, ...

, Asia Minor); topaz (chrysolite; "from" Topazon Island?, Seven Sisters,

Gulf of Tadjoura The Gulf of Tadjoura (; ) is a gulf or basin of the Indian Ocean in the Horn of Africa. It lies south of the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, or the entrance to the Red Sea, at . The gulf has many fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pe ...

); beryl, var. aquamarine; olive greenish yellow fosterite, var. peridot (topaz "from" Topazios ( Zabargad Island), Red Sea); "chalcedony", var.

chrysoprase Chrysoprase, chrysophrase or chrysoprasus is a gemstone variety of chalcedony (a cryptocrystalline form of silica) that contains small quantities of nickel. Its color is normally apple-green, but varies to deep green. The darker varieties of chry ...

("from"

Liguria Liguria (; lij, Ligûria ; french: Ligurie) is a Regions of Italy, region of north-western Italy; its Capital city, capital is Genoa. Its territory is crossed by the Alps and the Apennine Mountains, Apennines Mountain chain, mountain range and is ...

, Italy); red

pyrope The mineral pyrope is a member of the garnet group. Pyrope is the only member of the garnet family to always display red colouration in natural samples, and it is from this characteristic that it gets its name: from the Greek for ''fire'' and ''e ...

(carbuncle, jacinth, hyacinth; a

garnet Garnets () are a group of silicate minerals that have been used since the Bronze Age as gemstones and abrasives. All species of garnets possess similar physical properties and crystal forms, but differ in chemical composition. The different s ...

almandine Almandine (), also known as almandite, is a species of mineral belonging to the garnet group. The name is a corruption of alabandicus, which is the name applied by Pliny the Elder to a stone found or worked at Alabanda, a town in Caria in Asia M ...

-pyrope series); quartz, var. amethyst. Note: the fosterite–

fayalite Fayalite (, commonly abbreviated to Fa) is the iron-rich end-member of the olivine solid-solution series. In common with all minerals in the olivine group, fayalite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system (space group ''Pbnm'') with cell parame ...

solid solution series is called olivine. * Illustration, Ancient Egypt. Ancient Egyptian funerary practices: a natural material found in

Wadi Natrun Wadi El Natrun (Arabic: "Valley of Natron"; Coptic: , "measure of the hearts") is a depression in northern Egypt that is located below sea level and below the Nile River level. The valley contains several alkaline lakes, natron-rich salt de ...

is used (a mixture of

natron Natron is a naturally occurring mixture of sodium carbonate decahydrate ( Na2CO3·10H2O, a kind of soda ash) and around 17% sodium bicarbonate (also called baking soda, NaHCO3) along with small quantities of sodium chloride and sodium sulfate. ...

and rocksalt (?)). The iconic gold burial mask of

Tutankhamun Tutankhamun (, egy, twt-ꜥnḫ-jmn), Egyptological pronunciation Tutankhamen () (), sometimes referred to as King Tut, was an Egyptian pharaoh who was the last of his royal family to rule during the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty (ruled ...

, has inlays of turquoise, lapis lazuli,

carnelian Carnelian (also spelled cornelian) is a brownish-red mineral commonly used as a semi-precious gemstone. Similar to carnelian is sard, which is generally harder and darker (the difference is not rigidly defined, and the two names are often used ...

and coloured glass. Eye shadow (

kohl Kohl may refer to: *Kohl (cosmetics), an ancient eye cosmetic *Kohl (surname), including a list of people with the surname *Kohl's Kohl's (stylized in all caps) is an American department store retail chain, operated by Kohl's Corporation. ...

) using black

galena Galena, also called lead glance, is the natural mineral form of lead(II) sulfide (PbS). It is the most important ore of lead and an important source of silver. Galena is one of the most abundant and widely distributed sulfide minerals. It cryst ...

, green

malachite Malachite is a copper carbonate hydroxide mineral, with the formula Cu2CO3(OH)2. This opaque, green-banded mineral crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system, and most often forms botryoidal, fibrous, or stalagmitic masses, in fracture ...

stibnite Stibnite, sometimes called antimonite, is a sulfide mineral with the formula Sb2 S3. This soft grey material crystallizes in an orthorhombic space group. It is the most important source for the metalloid antimony. The name is derived from the ...

, lead or coal, for instance. * Illustration, Persian Empire (728–330 BC period) and

Babylonian Empire Babylonia (; Akkadian: , ''māt Akkadī'') was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Syria). It emerged as an Amorite-ruled state ...

: blue (lapis lazuli) glazed bricks, for instance (

Ishtar Gate The Ishtar Gate was the eighth gate to the inner city of Babylon (in the area of present-day Hillah, Babil Governorate, Iraq). It was constructed circa 575 BCE by order of King Nebuchadnezzar II on the north side of the city. It was part ...

Pergamon Museum The Pergamon Museum (; ) is a listed building on the Museum Island in the historic centre of Berlin. It was built from 1910 to 1930 by order of German Emperor Wilhelm II according to plans by Alfred Messel and Ludwig Hoffmann in Stripped Clas ...

Greco-Roman and Byzantine period, mainly

Greco-Roman period The Greco-Roman civilization (; also Greco-Roman culture; spelled Graeco-Roman in the Commonwealth), as understood by modern scholars and writers, includes the geographical regions and countries that culturally—and so historically—were dir ...

: ** ''De Anima Libri'' III of

Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of phil ...

(4th century BC). Description of mercury (metal). **

Theophrastus Theophrastus (; grc-gre, Θεόφραστος ; c. 371c. 287 BC), a Greek philosopher and the successor to Aristotle in the Peripatetic school. He was a native of Eresos in Lesbos.Gavin Hardy and Laurence Totelin, ''Ancient Botany'', Routle ...

(c. 371 – c. 287 BC) *** *** Illustration:

amber Amber is fossilized tree resin that has been appreciated for its color and natural beauty since Neolithic times. Much valued from antiquity to the present as a gemstone, amber is made into a variety of decorative objects."Amber" (2004). In ...

(lyncurion of Theophrastus),

chrysocolla Chrysocolla ( ) is a hydrated copper phyllosilicate mineral and mineraloid with formula (x<1) or . The structure of the mineral has been questioned, as a 2006 spectrographic study suggest material identified as ...

cinnabar Cinnabar (), or cinnabarite (), from the grc, κιννάβαρι (), is the bright scarlet to brick-red form of mercury(II) sulfide (HgS). It is the most common source ore for refining elemental mercury and is the historic source for the bri ...

orpiment Orpiment is a deep-colored, orange-yellow arsenic sulfide mineral with formula . It is found in volcanic fumaroles, low-temperature hydrothermal veins, and hot springs and is formed both by sublimation and as a byproduct of the decay of anothe ...

realgar Realgar ( ), also known as "ruby sulphur" or "ruby of arsenic", is an arsenic sulfide mineral with the chemical formula α-. It is a soft, sectile mineral occurring in monoclinic crystals, or in granular, compact, or powdery form, often in asso ...

. First brass (calamine plus copper process) appears in the middle of first century BC in the Roman Imperium, zircon and tourmalines are not found on ancient art works. ** The oldest known pills were made of the zinc carbonates

hydrozincite Hydrozincite, also known as zinc bloom or marionite, is a white carbonate mineral consisting of Zn5( CO3)2( OH)6. It is usually found in massive rather than crystalline form. It occurs as an oxidation product of zinc ores and as post mine incru ...

(described 1853) and

smithsonite Smithsonite, also known as zinc spar, is the mineral form of zinc carbonate ( Zn CO3). Historically, smithsonite was identified with hemimorphite before it was realized that they were two different minerals. The two minerals are very similar in a ...

(described 1832).

Calamine Calamine, also known as calamine lotion, is a medication used to treat mild itchiness. This includes from sunburn, insect bites, poison ivy, poison oak, and other mild skin conditions. It may also help dry out skin irritation. It is applie ...

is a historic name for an ore of zinc (

hemimorphite Hemimorphite is the chemical compound Zn4( Si2O7)( OH)2 ·H2O, a component of mineral calamine. It is a silicate mineral which, together with smithsonite (ZnCO3), has been historically mined from the upper parts of zinc and lead ores. Both ...

(IMA1962 s.p.) and smithsonite). ** '' De architectura'' (about 15 BC) of

Marcus Vitruvius Pollio Vitruvius (; c. 80–70 BC – after c. 15 BC) was a Roman architect and engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi-volume work entitled ''De architectura''. He originated the idea that all buildings should have three attribute ...

, Libri X, vol. VII, Caput 8. Note: description of natural mercury from the Cilbian fields near the former Greek city of

Ephesus Ephesus (; grc-gre, Ἔφεσος, Éphesos; tr, Efes; may ultimately derive from hit, 𒀀𒉺𒊭, Apaša) was a city in ancient Greece on the coast of Ionia, southwest of present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in t ...

. ** Book V: Minerals, description of

melanterite Melanterite is a mineral form of hydrous iron(II) sulfate: FeSO4·7H2O. It is the iron analogue of the copper sulfate chalcanthite. It alters to siderotil by loss of water. It is a secondary sulfate mineral which forms from the oxidation of pri ...

(50 AD) and

chalcanthite Chalcanthite (, ) is a richly colored blue-green water-soluble sulfate mineral . It is commonly found in the late-stage oxidation zones of copper deposits. Due to its ready solubility, chalcanthite is more common in arid regions. Chalcanthite i ...

(70 AD). ** ''

Naturalis Historia The ''Natural History'' ( la, Naturalis historia) is a work by Pliny the Elder. The largest single work to have survived from the Roman Empire to the modern day, the ''Natural History'' compiles information gleaned from other ancient authors. ...

'' he Natural History (77 AD) of Gaius Plinius Secundus (

Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic '' ...

, 23 AD – 25 August 79 AD). *** Volumes: liber xxxv (alumen); liber xxxvi (limestone); liber xxxvii ook XXXVII - The Natural History of Precious Stones(augites). *** Illustration: turquoise (callais of Pliny), tourmaline,

(corruption of alabandicus of Pliny), moroxite (

apatite Apatite is a group of phosphate minerals, usually hydroxyapatite, fluorapatite and chlorapatite, with high concentrations of OH−, F− and Cl− ions, respectively, in the crystal. The formula of the admixture of the three most common e ...

var.), limestone (

calcite Calcite is a Carbonate minerals, carbonate mineral and the most stable Polymorphism (materials science), polymorph of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). It is a very common mineral, particularly as a component of limestone. Calcite defines hardness 3 on ...

magnetite Magnetite is a mineral and one of the main iron ores, with the chemical formula Fe2+Fe3+2O4. It is one of the oxides of iron, and is ferrimagnetic; it is attracted to a magnet and can be magnetized to become a permanent magnet itself. With th ...

, emery (

hematite Hematite (), also spelled as haematite, is a common iron oxide compound with the formula, Fe2O3 and is widely found in rocks and soils. Hematite crystals belong to the rhombohedral lattice system which is designated the alpha polymorph of . ...

and magnetite), atramentum sutorium (

goslarite Goslarite is a hydrated zinc sulfate mineral () which was first found in the Rammelsberg mine, Goslar, Harz, Germany. It was described in 1847. Goslarite belongs to the epsomite group which also includes epsomite () and morenosite (). Goslarite i ...

, melanterite), misy from

Cyprus Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is geo ...

(

copiapite Copiapite is a hydrated iron sulfate mineral with formula: Fe2+Fe3+4(SO4)6(OH)2·20(H2O). Copiapite can also refer to a mineral group, the copiapite group. Copiapite is strictly a secondary mineral forming from the weathering or oxidation of iro ...

, hydroniumjarosite,

jarosite Jarosite is a basic hydrous sulfate of potassium and ferric iron (Fe-III) with a chemical formula of KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6. This sulfate mineral is formed in ore deposits by the oxidation of iron sulfides. Jarosite is often produced as a byproduct du ...

, natrojarosite). Note: alabandicus of Pliny is a garnet worked at

Alabanda Alabanda ( grc, Ἀλάβανδα) or Antiochia of the Chrysaorians was a city of ancient Caria, Anatolia, the site of which is near Doğanyurt, Çine, Aydın Province, Turkey. The city is located in the saddle between two heights. The area is ...

(Αλαβάνδα, an ancient city of

Caria Caria (; from Greek: Καρία, ''Karia''; tr, Karya) was a region of western Anatolia extending along the coast from mid- Ionia (Mycale) south to Lycia and east to Phrygia. The Ionian and Dorian Greeks colonized the west of it and joined ...

, Anatolia). ** Pliny the Younger (61 – c. 113 AD), '' Epistulae (Letters)'': description of calcite and beryl. * Damigeron de Lapidibus, "Orphei Lithica" (c. IV AD) ranslated to Latin by Eugenius Abel, 1881 Note: describes curing of ailments by 30 stones. *

Isidore of Seville Isidore of Seville ( la, Isidorus Hispalensis; c. 560 – 4 April 636) was a Spanish scholar, theologian, and archbishop of Seville. He is widely regarded, in the words of 19th-century historian Montalembert, as "the last scholar of ...

(c. 600 AD)

Etymologiae ''Etymologiae'' (Latin for "The Etymologies"), also known as the ''Origines'' ("Origins") and usually abbreviated ''Orig.'', is an etymological encyclopedia compiled by Isidore of Seville (c. 560–636) towards the end of his life. Isidore was ...

. * Turkish traveller Muḥammad Abū’l-Qāsim Ibn Ḥawqal:

Ibn Hawqal Muḥammad Abū’l-Qāsim Ibn Ḥawqal (), also known as Abū al-Qāsim b. ʻAlī Ibn Ḥawqal al-Naṣībī, born in Nisibis, Upper Mesopotamia; was a 10th-century Arab Muslim writer, geographer, and chronicler who travelled during the ye ...

(977 AD) "The Face of the Earth".Peridot from St. John's / Zabargad Island
/ref> * Abū al-Rayhān Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Bīrūnī (973–1048):

Al-Biruni Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni (973 – after 1050) commonly known as al-Biruni, was a Khwarazmian Iranian in scholar and polymath during the Islamic Golden Age. He has been called variously the "founder of Indology", "Father of Co ...

(1000) The Book Most Comprehensive in Knowledge On Precious Stones. He considers "zarnarrud" (emerald) and "zabarjad" (peridot) the same mineral. * Uzbek (Persian) scholar and physician, Avicenna (about 980 – June 1037). He wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. * Illustration, elements known to the ancients (about 1000 AD, timeline of chemical elements discoveries):

carbon Carbon () is a chemical element with the symbol C and atomic number 6. It is nonmetallic and tetravalent In chemistry, the valence (US spelling) or valency (British spelling) of an element is the measure of its combining capacity with o ...

sulfur Sulfur (or sulphur in British English) is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with a chemical formula ...

iron Iron () is a chemical element with symbol Fe (from la, ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, right in f ...

, arsenic, antimony,

zinc Zinc is a chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. Zinc is a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a shiny-greyish appearance when oxidation is removed. It is the first element in group 12 (IIB) of the periodi ...

, lead, silver,

tin Tin is a chemical element with the symbol Sn (from la, stannum) and atomic number 50. Tin is a silvery-coloured metal. Tin is soft enough to be cut with little force and a bar of tin can be bent by hand with little effort. When bent, t ...

, gold, mercury. * Marbode (1100). * *

Albertus Magnus Albertus Magnus (c. 1200 – 15 November 1280), also known as Saint Albert the Great or Albert of Cologne, was a German Dominican friar, philosopher, scientist, and bishop. Later canonised as a Catholic saint, he was known during his li ...

(Albert the Great, 1193/1206 – November 15, 1280). Isolation of arsenic. * Prior to the Spanish conquest (1492): ** Pre-Columbian Americans used

platinum Platinum is a chemical element with the symbol Pt and atomic number 78. It is a dense, malleable, ductile, highly unreactive, precious, silverish-white transition metal. Its name originates from Spanish , a diminutive of "silver". Pla ...

. **

Ancestral Puebloans The Ancestral Puebloans, also known as the Anasazi, were an ancient Native American culture that spanned the present-day Four Corners region of the United States, comprising southeastern Utah, northeastern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, a ...

(Anasazi) traded with turquoise. * Illustration: **

Realgar Realgar ( ), also known as "ruby sulphur" or "ruby of arsenic", is an arsenic sulfide mineral with the chemical formula α-. It is a soft, sectile mineral occurring in monoclinic crystals, or in granular, compact, or powdery form, often in asso ...

from Arabic "rahj al-gahr" (powder of the mine).

Salammoniac Salammoniac, also sal ammoniac or salmiac, is a rare naturally occurring mineral composed of ammonium chloride, NH4Cl. It forms colorless, white, or yellow-brown crystals in the isometric-hexoctahedral class. It has very poor cleavage and is ...

(άλς άμμωυιακός: sals ammonikos, salt of Ammon), for rocksalt mined by Amun's Temple, Egypt. Trabzonite (IMA1983-071a) for

Trabzon Trabzon (; Ancient Greek: Tραπεζοῦς (''Trapezous''), Ophitic Pontic Greek: Τραπεζούντα (''Trapezounta''); Georgian: ტრაპიზონი (''Trapizoni'')), historically known as Trebizond in English, is a city on the B ...

, Turkey (Τραπεζοῦς: Trapezous, Trebizond). ** There are three large peridots probably from the 12th century in the Shrine of the Three Magi in

Cologne Cathedral Cologne Cathedral (german: Kölner Dom, officially ', English: Cathedral Church of Saint Peter) is a Catholic cathedral in Cologne, North Rhine-Westphalia. It is the seat of the Archbishop of Cologne and of the administration of the Archdiocese o ...

, they were believed to be emeralds. **

Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom The Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom, originally the Crown Jewels of England, are a collection of royal ceremonial objects kept in the Tower of London which include the coronation regalia and vestments worn by British monarchs. Symbols of ov ...

: the Black Prince's Ruby (a spinel) was given in 1367 to its namesake, Edward of Woodstock (the "Black Prince").

After the fall of Constantinople (after 1453)

* Leonardi (1502) "Speculum lapidum". * Theophrast von Hohenheim (Paracelsus, 1493–1541), Swiss-born physician: description of bismuth and naming of zinc (1526). * Calbus Freibergius (Latin for Ulrich Rülein von Calw, 1527) Ein nützlich Bergbüchlin, Erffurd: Johan Loersfelt. Note: description of bismuth. *

(Latin for Georg Bauer, 24 March 1494 - 21 November 1555), he is "father of mineralogy". **Bermannus sive de re metallica (1530) [Bermannus; or a dialogue about the nature of metals]. Notes: based on "Ein nützlich Bergbüchlin", mention of fluorite. **De Ortu & Causis Subterraneorum (1546), liber v. Note: description of talc. **De Natura Fossilium, De natura fossilium (1546) [On the Nature of Rocks], liber x. Note: mention of alabandite (alabandicus lapis). **De re metallica (1556) [On Metals], liber xii. Note: description of salammoniac. ** Illustration: borax (chrysocolla of Agricola), marcasite (lebererz of Agricola),

(sapphis of Agricola), wolframite (hübnerite–ferberite series), orpiment. * Alchemist Alexander von Suchten (about 1520 – 1575) ** ''De Secretis Antimonij liber vnus'', Straßburg (1570); ''Zween Tractat, Vom Antimonio'', Mömpelgard (1604); ''Antimonii Mysteria Gemina'', Leipzig (1604) * Alchemist Johann Thölde (about 1565 – about 1614). He is probably one of the authors behind the pseudonym Basilius Valentinus and so he published about antimony. He published works by Alexander von Suchten and he published under his own name too, so his literature isn't clear. * Alchemist ** The book has a chapter about antimony ('antimony' means here its sulfide, antimonite or stibnite). The isolation of antimony was accomplished in the German territory at this time.
''De omni rerum fossilium genere, gemmis, lapidibus, metallis, et huiusmodi, libri aliquot, plerique nunc primum editi''
(1565) of Conrad Gesner, description of cerussite (synthetic lead carbonate was known as "ceruse") and alunite (as "alumen de Tolpha" from Monti della Tolfa). * 1603, Italian shoemaker and alchemist Vincenzo Cascariolo discovers that calcinated baryte (barium sulfate to barium sulfide, Bologna stone) from Mount Paderno (an extinct volcano in Bologna) has a luminescence. * Théodore de Mayerne (1573 – 1654 or 1655), Swiss-born physician who treated kings of France and England: calomel's description (treatment with mercury(I) chloride, specially against syphilis). * Song Yingxing (1637) "Tiangong Kaiwu" ["The Exploitation of the Works of Nature"]: description of

earth from Gaoling or Kauling, Fuliang County. ** Note: common kaolin earth bearing iron oxide and organic impurities can be used in the earthenware production, but not in the porcelain production. * Note: first definitive work of modern mineralogy. * Note: it was written with the help of 'de Boodt's' book. * Note: Johann Jacob Sener, professor of physics and mathematics, Akademie zu Halle; he named "minera plumbi viridis" (pyromorphite). * Hennig Brand (c. 1630 – c. 1710), discovery of phosphorus (around 1669). * John Woodward (naturalist), John Woodward (1665–1728), founder by bequest of the Woodwardian Professor of Geology, Woodwardian Professorship of Geology at Cambridge University. He collected and catalogued over 35 years nearly 10,000 specimens; they are in five walnut cabinets now in the Sedgwick Museum of Earth Sciences. He named a mineral of his collection "corinvindum" (from Sanskrit "Kuruvinda", meaning ruby, a variety of "

"); and he had a specimen of "minera plumbi viridis" (pyromorphite). ** *** Johann Jakob Scheuchzer (1672–1733), Swiss naturalist, one of the four city physicians of Zürich; he held the chair of physics and mathematics (University of Zürich). ** * He is one of the founders of modern stratigraphy and modern

Lavoisier, Werner, Haüy, Klaproth, Berzelius and Dalton (after 1715)

* Georg Brandt (26 June 1694 – 29 April 1768), discovery of cobalt (c. 1735). * Johan Gottschalk Wallerius (1709–1785). Note: he renamed Agricola's ''Lupi spuma'' (1546, tungsten, element symbol -W-), in ''Wolfrahm'' (German, 1747). ** ** * Johann F. Henckel (1678–1744), his library was the origin of the Freiberg Mining Academy. ** * Saxony had to pay reparations after the Seven Years' War: the mining industry got stronger and the Freiberg Mining Academy was founded (1765). * Carl Linnaeus, Carolus Linnaeus (1768) "Liber iii - Regnum Lapideum". ''Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, species cum characteribus & differentiis'' (12 ed.). Stockholm: Laurentii Salvii, Homiae, 236 p. It develops the binomial nomenclature for the species of the Tree of Life. ** Note: first description of Dolomite (mineral), dolomite. The binomial nomenclature could not be used for minerals; it is easier to administrate c. 5,000 valid minerals (the species of the Tree of Life are relatives of each other. A mineral classification needs the contributions of: Nicolas Steno, Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier, Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle, René Just Haüy, John Dalton, Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, August Kekulé, Victor Goldschmidt, chemical formula and unit cell structure, etc. * Note: founder of analytical chemistry. * Daniel Rutherford (1749–1819), isolation of nitrogen (1772). * * Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (26 August 1743 – 8 May 1794), naming of oxygen (1778) and hydrogen (1783), prediction of silicon (1778) and establishment of

as an element (1777). * Note: first description of mellite. * Note: René Haüy discovered that emeralds and beryls crystals are geometrically identical. He asked Vauquelin for a chemical analysis, and so Vauquelin found a new "earth" (beryllium oxide). * Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742 –1786), discovery of oxygen with Priestley; identification of molybdenum, tungsten, barium, hydrogen, and chlorine. ** Note: Scheele stated that molybdenite, molybdena was neither

nor graphite. Peter Jacob Hjelm isolated molybdenum from Scheele's molybdena (1781). ** Joseph Priestley (13 March 1733 – 6 February 1804), discovery of oxygen with Scheele. * Note: 3 volumes and atlas. * Note: based on the

's lectures. * Note: 2 volumes. * * Jean-Claude Delamétherie, Jean-Claude de la Métherie (1743–1817): ** Note: 5 volumes, it cites René Just Haüy. ** Note: 2 volumes. * Christian August Siegfried Hoffmann (1760–1813): ** Note: based on the Abraham Gottlob Werner's lectures, as well. ** Note: years later Breithaupt expanded it (1841). * * Johan Gadolin (5 June 1760 – 15 August 1852), discovery of yttrium (1789). * * Dietrich Ludwig Gustav Karsten (1768–1810): ** Note: mineral collection organized by Nathanael Gottfried Leske and Abraham Gottlob Werner. ** ** *

(1743–1822): He is "father of modern crystallography". ** Note: 5 volumes. ** Note: 2 volumes. * William Gregor (25 December 1761 – 11 June 1817), discovery of titanium (1791). * Martin Heinrich Klaproth (1 December 1743 – 1 January 1817), discovery of uranium (1789), zirconium (1789); establishment of tellurium, strontium, cerium and chromium. * Jöns Jacob Berzelius (20 August 1779 – 7 August 1848), discovery of silicon (1824), selenium (1817), thorium (1858), and cerium (1803, with Klaproth). * John Dalton (1766–1844), British physicist and chemist (Dalton's atomic theory, 1800 and later). * French physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836) suggests the element fluorine (1810). * Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet (17 December 1778 – 29 May 1829), discovery of sodium (1807), potassium (1807), calcium (1808), magnesium (1808), boron (1808); isolation of chlorine (1810), barium (1808); identification of aluminium. * Amedeo Avogadro proposes the Avogadro's law (1811). * Note: 3 volumes. *

Maxwell, periodic table, electron and mole (after 1815)

President & Mrs Hoover in Belvidere IL cph

* 1828, William Nicol (geologist), William Nicol (1770–1851), Scottish geologist and physicist, He invented the Nicol prism, the first device for obtaining plane-polarized light. * * * Note: 3 volumes. * August Breithaupt, Johann Friedrich August Breithaupt (16 May 1791 – 22 September 1873): ** Note: translated from the German, with considerable additions. ** Note: 4 volumes. ** Note: 4 volumes. * Notes: 2 volumes, volume 256 of the Encyclopedie Roret [Collection des Manuels]; first description of massicot. * Note: Tables (1846). * Ernst Friedrich Glocker (1793–1858): ** ** *** Note: it redefines rocksalt (a rock) and defines the mineral halite. * Spectroscopy (c. 1859): Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887) and Robert Wilhelm Bunsen (1811–1899) * Brothers Gustav Rose (1798–1873) and Heinrich Rose (1795–1864), German mineralogists. * Karl Friedrich August Rammelsberg, Carl Friedrich Rammelsberg (1813–1899), professor of inorganic chemistry, Berlin University. * Karlsruhe Congress (3 to 5 September 1860; in a way, the first international meeting of chemists): on the meeting's last day reprints of Stanislao Cannizzaro's (1826–1910, chemistry professor of Genoa) paper on atomic weights (1858), in which he utilized earlier work by Amedeo Avogadro, were distributed. This definition on atoms and molecules made the efforts by Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev and Julius Lothar Meyer (1830–1895) on the periodic table of elements, possible. The concept of atoms and molecules were known, but after the Congress the Avogadro-Ampère theory became accepted. * Maxwell's equations (1861–1864). ** The four pillars of physics: Isaac Newton (1642–1726/27), James Clerk Maxwell, James Maxwell (1831–1879), Max Planck (1858–1947) and Albert Einstein (1879–1955). * Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (8 February 1834 – 2 February 1907), periodic table (1869), with less than 70 elements in 1871. ** Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran finds eka-aluminium (gallium, 1875), samarium (1879) and dysprosium (1886); Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac finds ytterbium (1878) and gadolinium (1880-1886, with P.E.L. de Boisbaudran); Marc Delafontaine, Jacques-Louis Soret and Per Teodor Cleve discover holmium (1878–79); Lars Fredrik Nilson finds eka-boron (scandium, 1879); Carl Auer von Welsbach finds praseodymium and neodymium (1885) and Clemens Winkler finds eka-silicon (germanium, 1886). * Auguste Bravais (1811–1863): Bravais lattices (1850). * Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz (also August Kekulé) (1829–1896): description of the carbon bonds in organic compounds (1857/72). * Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906), Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution (1871). * ** * * Paul Heinrich von Groth (1843–1927) suggests the possibility that spherical atoms (Dalton's atomic theory) reside at equivalent positions of space lattices (1888). * Leonhard Sohncke (1842–1897): Sohncke's space groups (1876). * * Emil Wiechert and Joseph John Thomson characterise the electron (1897). * Henry Clifton Sorby (1826–1908), an English microscopist and geologist. His major contribution was the development of techniques for studying iron and steel with microscopes. * Albert Einstein (1879–1955), "annus mirabilis" papers (1906). * Wilhelm Ostwald (1853–1932) defines the Mole (unit), mole, he received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry (1909). He, Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff (1852–1911), and Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927) are usually credited with being the modern founders of the field of physical chemistry. * Max von Laue (1879–1960): diffraction of X-rays by crystals (1912). * Arthur Moritz Schoenflies (1853–1928) und Evgraf Fedorov (1853–1919): characterisation of all 230 crystal space groups (1890/91). * William Lawrence Bragg (1890–1971) and William Henry Bragg (1862–1942): Bragg's law, law on the diffraction of X-rays by crystals (1912). They are Nobel Prize for Physics laureates (1915). * 1912, Herbert Hoover (1874–1964; 31st President of the United States, 1929–1933) and his wife Lou Henry Hoover (1874–1944) translate George Agricola's ''De Re Metallica'' to English. Note: many mining expressions/words were Mediaeval German expressions, these expressions/words did not exist in Classical Latin. * Henry Moseley, Henry G. J. Moseley (1887–1915), Moseley's law (1913).

100 years 'American Mineralogist' (after 1915)

* January 1916, scientific journal: ''American Mineralogist'', first issue. * 1916,

: "Peter Debye (1884–1966) – Paul Scherrer (1890–1969) powder method". * 1919, founding of the Mineralogical Society of America (MSA). * Georg Menzer (1897–1989) solves the first crystal structure of

(1925). * 1926, around 1,500 mineral species were firmly established at that time, the Roebling mineral collection (nowadays at the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC) lacked less than 15 of those (Colonel Washington A. Roebling (1837–1926), founding member of the Mineralogical Society of America). * Carl Hintze (1851–1916): "Handbuch der Mineralogie" (1916) Leipzig: Veit. * The structure of silicates: ** Note: Felix Machatschki worked with Victor Goldschmidt as well as with William L. Bragg for a period of time. ** ** ** ** ** * Victor Goldschmidt, Victor Moritz Goldschmidt (1888–1947) founder of crystal chemistry: Goldschmidt classification (1937), Goldschmidt tolerance factor and Goldschmidt's law (1926). He is considered together with Vladimir Vernadsky (1863–1945) to be the founder of modern geochemistry. * 1941, foundation of the Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS). * * * * 7 April 1947, International Union of Crystallography (IUCr) was formally admitted to International Council for Science (ICSU) (former International Council of Scientific Unions, ICSU). * In 1948–1950, PhD candidate Raimond Castaing, Raymond Castaing (1921–1999), supervised by André Guinier, built the first “microsonde électronique” (

) at Office national d'études et de recherches aérospatiales, ONERA. ** Publication Office national d'études et de recherches aérospatiales, Office national d'études et de recherches aéronautiques (ONERA) [Institute for Aeronautical Research] Nr. 55 * 1955, Mark C. Bandy (1900–1963) and his wife Jean A. Bandy (1900–1991) translate George Agricola's ''De Natura Fossilium'' to English. * Max Hutchinson Hey (1904–1984); British Museum, London.

International Mineralogical Association period (after 1957)

* 1958, foundation of the International Mineralogical Association (IMA), Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names (CNMMN). It is affiliated to the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). * Note: this publication got delayed, as silicate minerals were being better understood. * Note: main work is a series with 11 volumes (as of 2013). * Michael Fleischer (mineralogist), Michael Fleischer's "''Alphabetical Index of New Mineral Names, Discredited Minerals, and Changes of Mineralogical Nomenclature, Volumes 1-50 (1916-1965), The American Mineralogist''" (1966). Note: "''Glossary of Mineral Species''" (1971) 1 ed. is based on it. * 3rd International Molecular Sieve Conference (1973): organisation of the International Zeolite Association (IZA). * * 1978, Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS) is renamed International Centre for Diffraction Data (ICDD). A lot of compounds have an 'ICDD Card'. * * * * 25 December 1993, beginning of the Mindat.org, MinDat database; it goes online in October 2000. * International Mineralogical Association's (IMA) zeolite group and International Zeolite Association's (IZA) zeolite frameworks have similarities (1997). * Note: webmineral.com's database. *

IMA Master List of Valid Minerals period (after 1999)

* 2001, Mineralienatlas database goes online. * * Bernard Elgey Leake (born 1932), Frank Christopher Hawthorne (born 1946) and Roberta Oberti (born 1952): classification of amphiboles, mainly (1978–2012). * Rruff Project, prof. Robert (Bob) Downs, Mineralogy and Crystallography, Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, funded in part by Michael Scott (Apple), Michael Scott. * 19th General Meeting of IMA, Kobe, Japan (July 2006). ** The merging of the Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names (CNMMN) and the Commission on Classification of Minerals (CCM) resulted in the Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification (CNMNC). ** It was decided to create a website presenting the "official" IMA list of minerals. * Nickel E H, Nichols M C (2007) IMA/CNMNC list of mineral names compiled by Ernest H. Nickel & Monte C. Nichols supplied through the courtesy of Materials Data, Inc.: it updates the Nickel-Strunz 9 ed mineral identifiers, with this publication the mineral database had increased from less than 3,000 to over 4,000 mineral species. Mainly through the work of Ernest Henry Nickel, Monte C. Nichols and Dorian G.W. Smith. The mineral list on the Rruff Project website was built up with the IMA/CNMNC list of mineral names (March 2007). * Robert M. Hazen, summary of mineral evolution in the geologic time context (2008). * October 2008: Erika Pohl-Ströher donates her mineral collection to the "Freiberg University of Mining and Technology, TU Bergakademie Freiberg", Freudenstein Castle, "terra mineralia" permanent exhibition. * Note: tetrarooseveltite (β-Bi(AsO₄), an arsenate mineral) is a member of the scheelite mineral group (a sulfate group). ** Moëlo et al. (2008) "''Sulfosalt systematics: a review''", sulfosalt minerals are redefined. * Nickel E H, Nichols M C (2009) IMA/CNMNC list of mineral names compiled by Ernest H. Nickel & Monte C. Nichols supplied through the courtesy of Materials Data, Inc. * Mineral group (strict sense) is redefined. * 'The IMA Master List' (November 2012): redefinition of amphibole minerals.

After 100 years 'American Mineralogist' (after 2015)

*Highlights: ** Polyoxometalates (POMs): heteropolymolybdates (betpakdalites), polyniobates (menezesites), polytungstates, arsenovanadates. ** Polysomatic series, e.g.: alnaperbøeite-(Ce) - perbøeite-(Ce) series, palygorskite - sepiolite series and epidote - törnebohmite series. ** Microporous minerals. ** Valid minerals with water as ligand (coordinative form), some even with crystallization water: polyphosphates, decavanadates, uranyl sulfates, tobermorites, titanium disilicates, pyrochlores, tellurium oxysalts, etc. E.g.: afmite, alunogen, bettertonite, ianbruceite, liskeardite, matulaite, penberthycroftite, schmidite, tvrdýite. * IMA Master List (March 2017), great mineral supergroups: alunites (IMA2010 s.p.),

s (IMA2010 s.p.), pyrochlores (betafite, elsmoreite, microlite, pyrochlore and roméite groups; IMA2010 s.p.), tourmalines (IMA2011 s.p.), amphiboles (IMA2012 s.p.), hydrotalcites (IMA2012 s.p.),

s (IMA2013 s.p.), hollandites (coronadite and priderite groups; IMA2013 s.p.), epidotes (IMA2016 s.p.), perovskites (IMA2016 s.p.) and seidozerites (titanium disilicates, IMA2016 s.p.). * IMA Master List (March 2017), mineral groups and supergroups sharing the same name: sapphirines (aenigmatite, rhönite and sapphirine groups; IMA2008 s.p.), pharmacosiderites (ivanyukite, pharmacoalumite and pharmacosiderite groups; Rumsey et al., 2010), betpakdalites (betpakdalite, mendozavilite and obradovicite; IMA2012 s.p.), gadolinites (datolite, gadolinite and herderite groups; IMA2016-A), dumortierites (dumortierite, holtite and szklaryite groups; IMA2013 s.p.), mayenites (mayenite and wadalite groups; IMA2013-C), chevkinites (chevkinite and perrierite groups; Macdonald et al., 2012), högbomites (högbomite, nigerite and taaffeite groups; IMA2009 s.p.), labuntsovites (IMA2009 s.p.).

Beginnings of the 'IMA Master List of Minerals'

* * James A. Ferraiolo (1982) "''Systematic Classification of Nonsilicate Minerals''", Bulletin 172, American Museum of Natural History (AMNH). Note: the Bulletin 172 was used to update the Dana (7 ed) IDs. The Nickel-Strunz (10 ed) IDs on webmineral.com are partially from his collaboration. * John W. Anthony, Richard A. Bideaux, Kenneth W. Bladh, and Monte C. Nichols, Eds., Handbook of Mineralogy (HOM), Mineralogical Society of America (MSA), Chantilly, VA 20151-1110, US. * * * * Ernest Nickel & Monte Nichols. ''Mineral Names, Redefinitions & Discreditations Passed by the CNMMN of the IMA'' (ARD List of Minerals, 2002), updated 2004 (Burke, 2006). Abbreviation (ARD): approved (A), revalidated (R) and discredited minerals (D). * 19th General Meeting of IMA, Kobe, Japan (July 2006): it was decided to create a website presenting the "official" IMA list of minerals. * Abbreviation (GQN): grandfathered (G), questionable (Q) and published without approval minerals. Note: questionable minerals that could not be discredited got grandfathered as well. * Rruff.info/IMA database is built up based on 'IMA/CNMNC List of Mineral Names' compiled by Ernest H. Nickel & Monte C. Nichols (March 2007), courtesy of Minerals Data, Inc. This list is the result of the GQN list and the ARD list. ** Buserite's status is 'approved' (IMA1970-024): * Courtesy of Minerals Data, Inc.; is released. ** Orthochamosite is discredited: * 'The New IMA List of Minerals' is released (2011/ September 2012). Note: the CNMNC revised the 'ARD List of minerals', reducing the number of grandfathered minerals. ** 'Metauranocircite II' gets dumped: , * Note: nowadays, there are more or less hundred new minerals every year (it was made possible by the 'IMA Master List of Minerals' as reference).

Handbooks on mineralogy/ petrology

The System of Mineralogy of James D. Dana

* 580 pages. * 640 pages. * 711 pages. * ** Note: 2 volumes; Vol. I, 320 pages and Vol. II, 534 pages. It uses for the first time a chemical classification system (elements, sulfides, oxides, silicates, and so on). * 827 pages. * 1134 pages. ** James Dwight Dana; Edward Salisbury Dana (1899) First appendix to the sixth edition of Dana's System of mineralogy : Completing the work to 1899, 75 pages. ** James Dwight Dana; Edward Salisbury Dana; William E Ford (1914) Second appendix to the sixth edition of Dana's System of mineralogy : Completing the work to 1909, 114 pages. ** William Ebenezer Ford; James Dwight Dana (1915) Third appendix to the sixth edition of Dana's System of mineralogy : Completing the work to 1915, 87 pages. * Note: 3 volumes; Vol. I (1944), 834 pages, Vol. II (1951), 1124 pages, Vol. III (Silica Minerals, Clifford Frondel, 1962), 334 pages. * 1872 pages. Note: a more compact edition.

Glossary of Mineral Species

* * * * * * * * * * Note: no mineral groups section in this edition. * * *

Strunz Mineralogical Tables

* * * * * ** Note: corrected edition. ** Note: reprint. * *

Rock-Forming Minerals series

* * * * * * * * * * * *

Carl Friedrich Rammelsberg series

* ** Erstes Supplement zu dem Handwörterbuch des chemischen Theils der Mineralogie (1843), Zweites Supplement zu dem Handwörterbuch des chemischen Theils der Mineralogie (1845), Drittes Supplement zu dem Handwörterbuch des chemischen Theils der Mineralogie (1847), Viertes Supplement zu dem Handwörterbuch des chemischen Theils der Mineralogie (1849) and Fünftes Supplement zu dem Handwörterbuch des chemischen Theils der Mineralogie (1853). ** * **

Carl Hintze

* Note: 6 volumes. * * * * * Carl Hintze, Karl F Chudoba (1968 and 2011). Handbuch der Mineralogie : Ergänzungsband III: Neue Mineralien und neue Mineralnamen (mit Nachträgen, Richtigstellungen und Ergänzungen). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co. Note: digital file.

Handbook for chemists and physicists (D’Ans Lax)

* Note: 3 volumes. * * *

Max H. Hey

* * *

References

{{Reflist Mineralogy