![Guoqing Temple, 2014-12-27 09](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Guoqing_Temple%2C_2014-12-27_09.JPG)
Tiantai or T'ien-t'ai () is an
East Asian Buddhist school of
Mahāyāna Buddhism
''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing bra ...
that developed in
6th-century China.
The school emphasizes the ''
Lotus Sutra
The ''Lotus Sūtra'' ( zh, 妙法蓮華經; sa, सद्धर्मपुण्डरीकसूत्रम्, translit=Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram, lit=Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma, italic=) is one of the most influ ...
's'' doctrine of the "One Vehicle" (''
Ekayāna
Ekayāna ( sa, एकयान, ) is a Sanskrit word that can mean "one path" or "one vehicle". It is used both in the Upanishads and the Mahāyāna sūtras.
Upanishads
In the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'', "ekayāna" took on special significance ...
'') as well as
Mādhyamaka
Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhist ...
philosophy
Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. Some ...
, particularly as articulated in the works of the fourth patriarch
Zhiyi
Zhiyi (; 538–597 CE) also Chen De'an (陳德安), is the fourth patriarch of the Tiantai tradition of Buddhism in China. His standard title was Śramaṇa Zhiyi (沙門智顗), linking him to the broad tradition of Indian asceticism. Zhiyi i ...
(538–597 CE).
Brook Ziporyn states that Tiantai is "the earliest attempt at a thoroughgoing Sinitic reworking of the Indian Buddhist tradition." According to Paul Swanson, Tiantai Buddhism grew to become "one of the most influential Buddhist traditions in China and Japan."
The name of the school is derived from the fact that Zhiyi lived on
Tiantai Mountain
Tiantai Mountain (also Tí Taî in the local language) is a list of mountains in China, mountain in Tiantai County, Taizhou, Zhejiang, Taizhou, Zhejiang, Zhejiang Province, China. Its highest peak, Huading, reaches a height of . The mountain w ...
(Tiantai means "platform of the sky"),
which then became a major center for the tradition. Zhiyi is also regarded as the first major figure to form an indigenous Chinese Buddhist system. Tiantai is sometimes also called "The Lotus School", after the central role of the ''Lotus Sutra'' in its teachings.
During the
Sui dynasty
The Sui dynasty (, ) was a short-lived imperial dynasty of China that lasted from 581 to 618. The Sui unified the Northern and Southern dynasties, thus ending the long period of division following the fall of the Western Jin dynasty, and layi ...
, the Tiantai school became one of the leading schools of
Chinese Buddhism
Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism which has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas including art, politics, literature, philosophy, ...
, with numerous large temples supported by emperors and wealthy patrons. The school's influence waned and was revived again through the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
and also rose again during the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
. Chinese Tiantai remains a living tradition to this day, being particularly strong in
Hong Kong
Hong Kong ( (US) or (UK); , ), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China ( abbr. Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR), is a city and special administrative region of China on the eastern Pearl River Delt ...
.
The Japanese
Tendai school is also an influential tradition which branched off from Tiantai during the 9th century, and played a major role in the development of
Japanese Buddhism
Buddhism has been practiced in Japan since about the 6th century CE. Japanese Buddhism () created many new Buddhist schools, and some schools are original to Japan and some are derived from Chinese Buddhist schools. Japanese Buddhism has had a ...
. A
Korean offshoot, the
Cheontae school, was also established during the 12th century. Furthermore, Tiantai (and its offshoots) were very influential in the development of other forms of East Asian Buddhism, such as
Zen
Zen ( zh, t=禪, p=Chán; ja, text= 禅, translit=zen; ko, text=선, translit=Seon; vi, text=Thiền) is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty, known as the Chan School (''Chánzong'' 禪宗), and ...
and
Pure Land
A pure land is the celestial realm of a buddha or bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism. The term "pure land" is particular to East Asian Buddhism () and related traditions; in Sanskrit the equivalent concept is called a buddha-field (Sanskrit ). Th ...
.
History
![Mount Tiantai by Wu Bin, 1605, Honolulu Museum of Art 3678](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Mount_Tiantai_by_Wu_Bin%2C_1605%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art_3678.1b.JPG)
Unlike earlier schools of
Chinese Buddhism
Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism which has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas including art, politics, literature, philosophy, ...
, the Tiantai school was entirely of Chinese origin. The schools of Buddhism that had existed in China prior to the emergence of the Tiantai are generally believed to represent direct transplantations from
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
, with little modification to their basic doctrines and methods. However, Tiantai grew and flourished as a native Chinese Buddhist school under the 4th patriarch,
Zhiyi
Zhiyi (; 538–597 CE) also Chen De'an (陳德安), is the fourth patriarch of the Tiantai tradition of Buddhism in China. His standard title was Śramaṇa Zhiyi (沙門智顗), linking him to the broad tradition of Indian asceticism. Zhiyi i ...
, who developed an original and extensive Chinese Buddhist system of doctrine and practice through his many treatises and commentaries. The main center of the school was located in
Zhejiang
Zhejiang ( or , ; , also romanized as Chekiang) is an eastern, coastal province of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Hangzhou, and other notable cities include Ningbo and Wenzhou. Zhejiang is bordered by Jiang ...
province's
Tiantai Mountain
Tiantai Mountain (also Tí Taî in the local language) is a list of mountains in China, mountain in Tiantai County, Taizhou, Zhejiang, Taizhou, Zhejiang, Zhejiang Province, China. Its highest peak, Huading, reaches a height of . The mountain w ...
, which also gives the school its name.
Over time, the Tiantai school became doctrinally broad, able to absorb and give rise to other movements within Buddhism, though without any formal structure. The tradition emphasized both scriptural study and meditative practice, and taught the rapid attainment of Buddhahood through observing the mind.
The school is largely based on the teachings of Zhiyi,
Zhanran
Zhanran (; 711-782), sometimes called Miao-lo (or Miaole) was the sixth patriarch of the Tiantai school of Chinese Buddhism and helped to revive the school's proéminence after a period of decline. His lay surname was Qi 戚 and he was also known ...
, and
Zhili
Zhili, alternately romanized as Chihli, was a northern administrative region of China since the 14th-century that lasted through the Ming dynasty and Qing dynasty until 1911, when the region was dissolved, converted to a province, and renamed ...
, who lived between the 6th and 11th centuries in China. These teachers took an approach called "classification of teachings" (''panjiao'' 判教) in an attempt to harmonize the numerous and often contradictory Buddhist texts that had come into China. This was achieved through a particular interpretation of the ''
Lotus Sūtra
The ''Lotus Sūtra'' ( zh, 妙法蓮華經; sa, सद्धर्मपुण्डरीकसूत्रम्, translit=Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram, lit=Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma, italic=) is one of the most influ ...
''.
Early figures
The Indian Buddhist philosopher
Nāgārjuna
Nāgārjuna . 150 – c. 250 CE (disputed)was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist thinker, scholar-saint and philosopher. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosophers.Garfield, Jay L. (1995), ''The Fundamental Wisdom of ...
is traditionally taken to be the first patriarch of the Tiantai school.
Madhyamaka
Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhist ...
works associated with
Nāgārjuna
Nāgārjuna . 150 – c. 250 CE (disputed)was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist thinker, scholar-saint and philosopher. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosophers.Garfield, Jay L. (1995), ''The Fundamental Wisdom of ...
like the ''Chung lun'' ("''Madhyamakaśāstra''";
Taishō 1564) and the ''
Dà zhìdù lùn'' (T. no. 1509) are important sources for the Tiantai school.
The sixth century
dhyāna master Huiwen () is traditionally considered to be the second patriarch of the Tiantai school. Huiwen studied the works of Nāgārjuna, and is said to have awakened to the profound meaning of Nāgārjuna's words: "All conditioned phenomena I speak of as empty, and are but false names which also indicate the mean."
Huiwen later transmitted his teachings to
Chan master
Zen master is a somewhat vague English term that arose in the first half of the 20th century, sometimes used to refer to an individual who teaches Zen Buddhist meditation and practices, usually implying longtime study and subsequent authoriza ...
Nanyue Huisi
Nanyue Huisi (, 515-577), was an eminent Chinese Buddhist monk, traditionally regarded as the third patriarch of the Tiantai school.
According to Sasaki, Huisi "was the leading authority on the ''Lotus Sutra'' of his time."
Biography
The earli ...
(, 515-577), who is traditionally figured as the third patriarch. During meditation, he is said to have realized the "Lotus
Samādhi
''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditation, meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ash ...
", indicating enlightenment and
Buddhahood
In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out ...
. He authored the ''Ta Ch'eng Chih Kuan'' (''Mahāyāna-śamatha-vipaśyanā'').
Huisi then transmitted his teachings to
Zhiyi
Zhiyi (; 538–597 CE) also Chen De'an (陳德安), is the fourth patriarch of the Tiantai tradition of Buddhism in China. His standard title was Śramaṇa Zhiyi (沙門智顗), linking him to the broad tradition of Indian asceticism. Zhiyi i ...
(, 538-597), traditionally figured as the fourth patriarch of Tiantai, who is said to have practiced the Lotus Samādhi and to have become enlightened quickly. He authored many treatises such as explanations of the Buddhist texts, and especially systematic manuals of various lengths which explain and enumerate methods of Buddhist practice and meditation. The above lineage was proposed by Buddhists of later times and do not reflect the popularity of the monks at that time.
Zhiyi
![Sramana Zhiyi](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Sramana_Zhiyi.jpeg)
Scholars such as Paul Loren Swanson consider
Zhiyi
Zhiyi (; 538–597 CE) also Chen De'an (陳德安), is the fourth patriarch of the Tiantai tradition of Buddhism in China. His standard title was Śramaṇa Zhiyi (沙門智顗), linking him to the broad tradition of Indian asceticism. Zhiyi i ...
(
Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...
: 智顗, 538–597 CE) to have been the major founder of the Tiantai school as well as one of the greatest Chinese Buddhist philosophers. He was the first to systematize and popularize the complex synthesis of Tiantai doctrine as an original Chinese tradition.
[Swanson (1989), p. ix.]
Zhiyi analyzed and organized all the
Āgamas and Mahayana
sutra
''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aph ...
s into a system of five periods and eight types of teachings. For example, many elementary doctrines and bridging concepts had been taught early in the Buddha's advent when the vast majority of the people during his time were not yet ready to grasp the 'ultimate truth'. These Āgamas were an ''
upaya
Upaya (Sanskrit: उपाय, , ''expedient means'', ''pedagogy'') is a term used in Buddhism to refer to an aspect of guidance along the Buddhist paths to liberation where a conscious, voluntary action "is driven by an incomplete reasoning" a ...
'', or skillful means - an example of the Buddha employing his boundless wisdom to lead those people towards the truth. Subsequent teachings delivered to more advanced followers thus represent a more complete and accurate picture of the Buddha's teachings, and did away with some of the philosophical 'crutches' introduced earlier. Zhiyi's classification culminated with the
Lotus Sutra
The ''Lotus Sūtra'' ( zh, 妙法蓮華經; sa, सद्धर्मपुण्डरीकसूत्रम्, translit=Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram, lit=Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma, italic=) is one of the most influ ...
, which he held to be the supreme synthesis of Buddhist doctrine. The difference on Zhiyi's explanation to the ''
Golden Light Sutra
The Golden Light Sutra or ( sa, IAST: Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtrendrarājaḥ), also known by the Old Uygur title Altun Yaruq, is a Buddhist text of the Mahayana branch of Buddhism. In Sanskrit, the full title is ''The Sovereign King of Sutra ...
'' caused a debate during the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
.
Zhiyi's Tiantai school received much imperial support during the
Sui dynasty
The Sui dynasty (, ) was a short-lived imperial dynasty of China that lasted from 581 to 618. The Sui unified the Northern and Southern dynasties, thus ending the long period of division following the fall of the Western Jin dynasty, and layi ...
, because of this, it was the largest Buddhist school at the beginning of the Tang and thus suffered because of its close relationship with the house of Sui.
Zhanran
![Zhanran](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Zhanran.JPG)
After Zhiyi, Tiantai was eclipsed for a time by newer schools such as the
East Asian Yogācāra
East Asian Yogācāra (, "'Consciousness Only' school" or , "'Dharma Characteristics' school") refers to the traditions in East Asia which developed out of the Indian Buddhist Yogachara systems.
The 4th-century Gandharan brothers, Asaṅga an ...
(''Fǎxiàng-zōng''), and
Huayan school
The Huayan or Flower Garland school of Buddhism (, from sa, अवतंसक, Avataṃsaka) is a tradition of Mahayana Buddhist philosophy that first flourished in China during the Tang dynasty (618-907). The Huayan worldview is based primar ...
s, until the 6th patriarch Jingxi
Zhanran
Zhanran (; 711-782), sometimes called Miao-lo (or Miaole) was the sixth patriarch of the Tiantai school of Chinese Buddhism and helped to revive the school's proéminence after a period of decline. His lay surname was Qi 戚 and he was also known ...
(711-782) revived the school and defended its doctrine against rival schools such as the
Huayan
The Huayan or Flower Garland school of Buddhism (, from sa, अवतंसक, Avataṃsaka) is a tradition of Mahayana Buddhist philosophy that first flourished in China during the Tang dynasty, Tang dynasty (618-907). The Huayan worldview is ...
and Faxiang. The debates between the
Faxiang school and the Tiantai school concerning the notion of universal Buddhahood were particularly heated, with the Faxiang school asserting that different beings had different natures and therefore would reach different states of enlightenment, while the Tiantai school argued in favor of the Lotus Sutra teaching of Buddhahood for all beings. Zhanran's view of Buddha nature was expanded in his ''Jingangpi'' or "Diamond Scalpel," which is the 'locus classicus' of the doctrine of "the Buddha-nature of Insentient Beings." According to Shuman Chen, Zhanran:
provides his rationale primarily from the perspective of the all-pervasive quality of Buddha-nature, which he considers synonymous with suchness. This rationale indicates that external tangible objects like water, buildings, and flora, formless sounds and smells, and internal thoughts or ideas all possess Buddha-nature. This is because Sakyamuni Buddha and any other Buddha's meritorious qualities in their practice leading to enlightenment and in the resultant realization do not reject anything, instead embracing all. In the Tiantai terminology, the Buddha and all beings mutually include, inter-pervade, and are identical to each other.
Zhanran writes:
"Every blade of grass, tree, pebble, and particle of dust is perfectly endowed with buddha nature ...The practitioner of the perfect teaching, from beginning to end, knows that ultimate principle is nondual and that there are no objects apart from mind. Who then is sentient? What then is insentient? Within the assembly of the Lotus, there is no discrimination."
Post-Tang crisis and Song revival
After Zhanran, Tiantai declined once again. Brook Ziporyn writes that this period has been seen as the second dark age of Tiantai, a state of crisis "extending from the Tang into the Five Dynasties and Northern Song, an age marked internally by the deterioration of distinctive Tiantai ideas and marked externally by the loss of crucial texts and monastic institutions, especially after
the persecution of 845 (a period that saw the increased influence of Chan)."
During this period, Huayan and
Chan
Chan may refer to:
Places
*Chan (commune), Cambodia
*Chan Lake, by Chan Lake Territorial Park in Northwest Territories, Canada
People
*Chan (surname), romanization of various Chinese surnames (including 陳, 曾, 詹, 戰, and 田)
*Chan Caldwel ...
influences made strong inroads into Tiantai thought. Zhanran's disciple and seventh patriarch Daosui, and syncretic figures such as Zhi Yuan (768-844) and Daochang Ningfen all combined Tiantai with Chan ideas (particularly of the
Heze school
The Heze School (), also called the Ho-tse School, was a short-lived school of Chinese Chan Buddhism during the Tang dynasty that was founded by Heze Shenhui (670–762) and who last patriarch was Guifeng Zongmi. Zongmi's writings and interpreta ...
). Daosui (
Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...
: 道邃;
pinyin
Hanyu Pinyin (), often shortened to just pinyin, is the official romanization system for Standard Mandarin Chinese in China, and to some extent, in Singapore and Malaysia. It is often used to teach Mandarin, normally written in Chinese for ...
: ''Dàosuì''), is important because he was the primary teacher of
Saichō
was a Japanese Buddhist monk credited with founding the Tendai school of Buddhism based on the Chinese Tiantai school he was exposed to during his trip to Tang China beginning in 804. He founded the temple and headquarters of Tendai at Enryaku-j ...
, the founder of the Japanese Tiantai tradition (known in Japanese as
Tendai
, also known as the Tendai Lotus School (天台法華宗 ''Tendai hokke shū,'' sometimes just "''hokke shū''") is a Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition (with significant esoteric elements) officially established in Japan in 806 by the Japanese m ...
). Other Tiantai syncretists include Deshao (881-972) who was associated with the Fayen branch of Chan and his student Yongming Yenshou (954-974) who attempted to unify Tiantai, Huayen and Yogacara teachings under a kind of idealism influenced by Zongmi, emphasizing what he called the "one pure formless mind".
This situation led to the famous debate within the Tiantai school known as the "home mountain" (''shanjia'') vs. "off mountain" (''shanwai'') debate. "Off mountain" supporters, as they were later polemically termed, supported these new doctrines (such as the "one pure mind") claiming they were originally Tiantai doctrines, while "home mountain" supporters saw the original Tiantai view as different and superior to this new view influenced by Chan and Huayan doctrines (especially by
Zongmi
Guifeng Zongmi () (780–1 February 841) was a Tang dynasty Buddhist scholar and bhikkhu, installed as fifth patriarch of the Huayan school as well as a patriarch of the Heze school of Southern Chan Buddhism. He wrote a number of works on the ...
's works). The most eminent figure during this debate was Patriarch
Siming Zhili Siming may refer to:
* Siming District
Siming District is an urban district of the city of Xiamen, Fujian province, China. It includes the territory of the old town of Xiamen and the government offices of the modern sub-provincial city.
Geog ...
(960-1028), who wrote various commentaries on Zhiyi's works and defended the "Home mountain" view. Zhili's major criticisms included attacking Chan's failure to understand the necessity of the use of words and scriptural study as part of practice as well as criticizing Zongmi's view of a pure mind as the buddha-nature, arguing instead that the "three truths" as taught by Zhiyi are the ultimate reality. For Zhili, mind or consciousness has no special status relative to other types of dharmas, such as physical matter.
Over time, Zhili's "home mountain" view turned out to be victorious, and his works became part of the orthodox Tiantai canon during the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
. Ciyun Zunshi (964-1032) was another important figure in this second Tiantai revival. His work focused on the promotion of rituals for lay Buddhists and worked on converting the populace away from using blood, meat and alcohol for funerary and ancestral rites. Ciyi also promoted the practice of adopting local Chinese deities and spirits into the Buddhist religion as "vassals" or "retainers" and strongly promoted repentance rituals.
These two figures were also associated with the popularization of
Pure Land
A pure land is the celestial realm of a buddha or bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism. The term "pure land" is particular to East Asian Buddhism () and related traditions; in Sanskrit the equivalent concept is called a buddha-field (Sanskrit ). Th ...
practices through the foundation of lay societies (lotus societies, ''lianshe''). Tiantai monk Mao Ziyuan (1096?-1166) took this one step further by establishing what became known as the "White Lotus Society" which allowed both men and women to attend together and even to preach and be in charge of society repentance halls as married clergy.
Due to the efforts of these major Tiantai figures, the school became one of the dominant forms of Buddhism during the Song, alongside of Chan.
Yuan, Ming and Qing
![Guoqingsi001r](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Guoqingsi001r.jpg)
The defeat of the Song dynasty was a serious blow to Tiantai which suffered another setback during the
Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fifth ...
which supported Tibetan Buddhism, while Chan Buddhism continued to grow in popularity while attacking the legitimacy of other schools. This period saw the Tiantai figure Huxi Huaize (fl. 1310) write his polemical treatise ''Record of Tiantai's Transmission of the Buddha's Mind-seal'' as an effort to defend the Tiantai tradition against Chan critiques.
The
Ming Dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
saw further religious revivals among the major Chinese Buddhist schools, including Tiantai, particularly under the reign of the Buddhist friendly Wanli Emperor. One of the main figures of the Ming Tiantai Buddhist revival is Miaofeng Zhenjue (1537-1589), who lectured widely and whose students revived ancestral Tiantai monasteries such as Gaoming and Ayuwang.
Youxi Chuandeng (1554-1628), a student of Miaofeng, was also another important figure who wrote a work entitled "On Nature Including Good and Evil" which presents his ideas on doctrinal classification, the principle of nature-inclusion, and the practice of the Dharma-gate of inherent evil attempting to harmonize these with Confucianism and the thought of the Śūraṃgama Sūtra. Chuandeng was also instrumental in rebuilding Gaoming monastery which had been abandoned by this time.
Tianxi Shoudeng (1607-1675) was one of the most influential teachers and exegetes of Tiantai during the
Qing Dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
.
Modern era
![Model of Guoqing Temple 01 2017-01](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Model_of_Guoqing_Temple_01_2017-01.jpg)
The most influential figure in modern Tiantai, who carried the Tiantai lineage (specifically the Lingfeng lineage) from the late Qing into the 20th century was Dixian. His student, the monk
Tanxu
Tanxu (; July 3, 1875 – August 11, 1963) was a Chinese Buddhist monk and a 44th generation lineage holder of the Tiantai school, taught by Master Dixian. Tanxu is known as one of the most influential monks to have had lived during the late Qing ...
(1875 – 1963), is known for having rebuilt various temples during the Republican era (such as
Zhanshan temple
Zhanshan Temple (; german: link=no, Dschanschan Tempel) is a Buddhist temple in Shinan District of Qingdao, Shandong, China. It is located on the southern side of Zhanshan (literally 'clear' or 'deep mountain'), facing the sea.
The monaster ...
in
Qingdao
Qingdao (, also spelled Tsingtao; , Mandarin: ) is a major city in eastern Shandong Province. The city's name in Chinese characters literally means " azure island". Located on China's Yellow Sea coast, it is a major nodal city of the One Belt ...
) and for preserving the Tiantai lineage into the
PRC
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, most populous country, with a Population of China, population exceeding 1.4 billion, slig ...
era. During the Chinese Civil War, various dharma heirs of Dixian moved to
Hong Kong
Hong Kong ( (US) or (UK); , ), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China ( abbr. Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR), is a city and special administrative region of China on the eastern Pearl River Delt ...
, including Tanxu and Baojing. They helped establish the Tiantai tradition in Hong Kong, where it remains a strong living tradition today, being preserved by their dharma heirs.
Baojing's dharma heir, Jueguang, helped establish the Guanzong Temple in Hong Kong and transmitted the lineage to numerous monks from Korea, Indonesia, Singapore, Taiwan and mainland China. Tanxuan's heir, Yongxing, founded Xifang Temple in Hong Kong as well as various temples in Malaysia and the United States (as well as the Texas Buddhist association and its Jade Buddha Temple). Furthermore, other monks from this lineage have helped to reintroduce the Tiantai tradition from Hong Kong back to the rest of mainland China, aiding in the reconstruction of Chinese Buddhism after the
reform and opening up period.
The ancient
Guoqing Temple at mount Tiantai, which had suffered from neglect and destruction, was renovated at the behest of
Zhou Enlai
Zhou Enlai (; 5 March 1898 – 8 January 1976) was a Chinese statesman and military officer who served as the first Premier of the People's Republic of China, premier of the People's Republic of China from 1 October 1949 until his death on 8 J ...
. Guoqing Temple is now a major center of Chinese Tiantai Buddhism as well as remains a place of pilgrimage for Japanese
Tendai
, also known as the Tendai Lotus School (天台法華宗 ''Tendai hokke shū,'' sometimes just "''hokke shū''") is a Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition (with significant esoteric elements) officially established in Japan in 806 by the Japanese m ...
Buddhists.
Texts
![Hall of Ksitigarbha, Gaoming Temple](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Hall_of_Ksitigarbha%2C_Gaoming_Temple.jpg)
The Tiantai school takes the ''
Lotus Sūtra
The ''Lotus Sūtra'' ( zh, 妙法蓮華經; sa, सद्धर्मपुण्डरीकसूत्रम्, translit=Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram, lit=Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma, italic=) is one of the most influ ...
'' (') as the main basis, the ''
Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa
The ''Dà zhìdù lùn'' (abbreviated DZDL), ( Chinese: 大智度論, Wade-Giles: ''Ta-chih-tu lun''; Japanese: ''Daichido-ron'' (as in Taishō Tripiṭaka no. 1509); ''The Treatise on the Great Prajñāpāramitā'') is a massive Mahāyāna Buddh ...
'' of
Nāgārjuna
Nāgārjuna . 150 – c. 250 CE (disputed)was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist thinker, scholar-saint and philosopher. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosophers.Garfield, Jay L. (1995), ''The Fundamental Wisdom of ...
as the guide, the ''
Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra
The ''Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra'' (Sanskrit; , ; Vietnamese: ''Kinh Đại Bát Niết Bàn'') or ''Nirvana Sutra'' is Mahāyāna Buddhist sutra of the Buddha-nature genre. Its precise date of origin is uncertain, but its early form ...
'' as the support, and the ''Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra'' (The Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra in 25,000 Lines) for methods of contemplation. The “Book of the Original Acts that Adorn the Bodhisattva,” (''Pusa yingluo benye jing'' T. 24, No. 1485) is also a key text. Tiantai is often termed the ‘Four Sutras One Treatise School’ (四経一論) because of the strong influence of these texts on the tradition.
Apart from these, other classic Mahayana sutras are also important in Tiantai. The ''
Avataṃsaka Sūtra'' is also very highly regarded in Tiantai and it is seen as one of the subtlest and deepest sutras and to belong to the class of "complete" teachings. The ''
Vimalakīrti Sūtra
The ''Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa'' (Devanagari: विमलकीर्तिनिर्देश) (sometimes referred to as the ''Vimalakīrti Sūtra'' or ''Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra'') is a Buddhist text which centers on a lay Buddhist meditat ...
'' is also seen as an important sutra in Tiantai. Zhiyi wrote a commentary on this sutra, the ''Wuimo yiji (''維摩義記 T1776).
Indeed, the Tiantai school's study makes use of numerous sources. As noted by Donner and Stevenson:
When we examine the early iantaiexegetical and textual record, we find that hiyiand his successors compiled treatises…for any number of sūtras other than the Lotus, including such long-standing Chinese favorites as the Vimalakīrti, Nirvāṇa, Suvarṇaprabhāsa, and various Pure Land sūtras. Not only is there no evidence that one particular scripture was consistently promoted over others, but angperiod sources indicate that the spiritual descendants of hiyirealigned aintaidoctrine freely in order to accommodate whatever sūtra caught their fancy.
Tiantai Treatises
In addition to its doctrinal basis in Indian Buddhist texts, the Tiantai school also created its own meditation texts which emphasize the principles of śamatha and vipaśyanā. Of the Tiantai meditation treatises, Zhiyi's ''Concise Śamatha-vipaśyanā'' (小止観), ''Mahā-śamatha-vipaśyanā'' (摩訶止観), and ''Six Subtle Dharma Gates'' (六妙法門) are the most widely read in China. Rujun Wu identifies the work ''
Mohe Zhiguan
The Móhē zhǐguān ( Chinese: 摩訶止観; Pinyin: ''Móhē Zhǐguān''; Wades-Giles: ''Mo-ho Chih-kuan'', Romanji: ''Makashikan;'' Sanskrit: ''Mahaśamatha-vipaśyanā'') is a major Buddhist doctrinal treatise based on lectures given by the C ...
'' of Zhiyi as the seminal meditation text of the Tiantai school.
The Major Tiantai treatises studied in the tradition are the following works of Zhiyi:
The Three Great Tiantai Treatises:
*The ''
Mohe Zhiguan
The Móhē zhǐguān ( Chinese: 摩訶止観; Pinyin: ''Móhē Zhǐguān''; Wades-Giles: ''Mo-ho Chih-kuan'', Romanji: ''Makashikan;'' Sanskrit: ''Mahaśamatha-vipaśyanā'') is a major Buddhist doctrinal treatise based on lectures given by the C ...
'' (摩訶止觀・The Great Calming and Contemplation)
**Read with Zhanran's commentary: ''Zhiguan fuxing zhuan hongjue'' 止觀輔行傳弘決
*The ''Fahua Xuanyi'' (法華玄義・The Profound Meaning of The Lotus Sutra)
**Read with Zhanran's commentary: ''Fahua Xuanyi Shiqian'' 法華玄義釋籤
*The ''Fahua Wenju'' (法華文句・The Words and Phrases of The Lotus Sutra)
**Read with Zhanran's commentary: ''Fahua Wenju Ji'' 法華文句記
The Five Lesser Tiantai Treatises:
*The ''Guanyin Pusa Pumenpin Xuanyi'' (觀音菩薩普門品玄義・The Profound Meaning of the Universal Gate of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva Chapter)
**Read with the Zhili's commentary: Guanyin Xuanyi Ji 觀音玄義記
*The Guanyin Pusa Pumenpin Yishu (觀音菩薩普門品義疏・ The Commentary on the Universal Gate of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva Chapter)
**Read with Zhili's commentary: ''Guanyin Yishu Ji'' 觀音義疏記
*The ''Jinguangming Jing Xuanyi'' (金光明經玄義・The Profound Meaning of the Golden Light Sutra)
**Read with Zhili's Commentary: ''Jinguangming Jing Xuanyi Shiyi Ji'' 金光明經玄義拾遺記
*The ''Jinguangming Jing Wenju'' (金光明經文句・ The Words and Phrases of the Golden Light Sutra).
**Read with Zhili's commentary: ''Jinguangming Jing Wenju Ji'' 金光明經 文句記
*The ''Guan Wuliangshoufo Jingshu'' (観無量寿佛經疏・The Commentary on the Buddha of Immeasurable Life Sutra)
**Read with Zhili's commentary: ''Miaozongchao'' 妙宗鈔
Philosophy
David Chappell lists the most important Tiantai teachings as being The Threefold Truth and the corresponding Threefold Contemplation, The Fourfold Teachings, The Subtle Dharma, and The Non-conceivable Discernment (or the "Inconceivable Mind"). Brook Ziporyn writes that Tiantai's "rigorous theoretical edifice" uses "modes of argumentation and praxis that are derived squarely from
Indian Buddhism
Buddhism is an ancient Indian religion, which arose in and around the ancient Kingdom of Magadha (now in Bihar, India), and is based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha who was deemed a "Buddha" ("Awakened One"), although Buddhist doctri ...
" but applies these "in the service of ideals and metaphysical conclusions that are rooted deeply in the
indigenous philosophical traditions."
The Threefold Truth
The Tiantai school's main philosophical principle is The Threefold Truth (emptiness, existence, and the middle; 空假中 ''kong, jia, zhong''). According to Paul Swanson, this is the "central insight" around which the Tiantai system revolves. This view was developed by Zhiyi's reading of Nāgārjuna's
Madhyamaka
Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhist ...
philosophy, especially its
doctrine of two truths. The Threefold Truth comprises the following:
[Lusthaus, Dan]
''The Chinese Buddhist Schools: Tiantai. Buddhist philosophy''
Chinese, 1998, doi:10.4324/9780415249126-G002-1. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Taylor and Francis.
# All phenomena are
empty
Empty may refer to:
Music Albums
* ''Empty'' (God Lives Underwater album) or the title song, 1995
* ''Empty'' (Nils Frahm album), 2020
* ''Empty'' (Tait album) or the title song, 2001
Songs
* "Empty" (The Click Five song), 2007
* ...
(''śūnya,'' 空 ''kong'') of any independent self-nature or essence (''
svabhava
Svabhava ( sa, स्वभाव, svabhāva; pi, सभाव, sabhāva; ; ) literally means "own-being" or "own-becoming". It is the intrinsic nature, essential nature or essence of beings.
The concept and term ''svabhāva'' are frequently enco ...
''), this corresponds to the Mahayana concept of the "ultimate" or real (''paramārtha'') truth and emptiness (''
shunyata'') which Zhiyi defines as "the sign of the true nature of reality."
[Swanson (1989), p. 146]
# Phenomena exist (假, ''jia'') in a provisional manner, they can be said to conventionally arise through causes and conditions (i.e.
dependent origination
A dependant is a person who relies on another as a primary source of income. A common-law spouse who is financially supported by their partner may also be included in this definition. In some jurisdictions, supporting a dependant may enabl ...
). This corresponds to the conventional or mundane truth (
''saṁvṛti'') of the classic Mahayana two truths, which Zhiyi glosses as "the twelvefold conditioned co-arising of ignorance" and as "illusory existence".
# The
middle truth (中, ''zhong''): phenomena are ''both'' empty of existence and exist provisionally. According to
Dan Lusthaus
Dan Lusthaus is an American writer on Buddhism. He is a graduate of Temple University's Department of Religion, and is a specialist in '' Yogācāra''. The author of several articles and books on the topic, Lusthaus has taught at UCLA, Florida Sta ...
: "it is ‘middle’ because neither the provisional nor the empty truth about the table fully captures its reality. It is both provisional and empty, and simultaneously neither provisional nor empty. As Zhiyi put it, ‘wondrous being is identical to true emptiness’."
Swanson writes that this is "a simultaneous affirmation of both emptiness and conventional existence as aspects of a single integrated reality." The middle truth for Zhiyi transcends all dualities and avoid all extremes, such as existence and non-existence, being and emptiness, mundane truth and real truth, or defilement and purity.
While the threefold truth can be explained conceptually in this way, for Zhiyi, the highest and most subtle meaning of the threefold truth is ultimately indescribably and beyond words. It is also fully integrated and inclusive of all the
Buddhadharma and of all mundane and ultimate truths as well. According to Zhiyi, "the supreme truth of the middle path" is "the reality of
non-duality
Nondualism, also called nonduality and nondual awareness, is a fuzzy concept originating in Indian philosophy and religion for which many definitions can be found, including: nondual awareness, the nonduality of seer and seen or nondiffer ...
", as well as "the enlightened perception of all Buddhas and bodhisattvas." Zhiyi also states that it is also called "the truth of one reality", as well as "emptiness" (空 ''kong''), "
Buddha-nature
Buddha-nature refers to several related Mahayana Buddhist terms, including '' tathata'' ("suchness") but most notably ''tathāgatagarbha'' and ''buddhadhātu''. ''Tathāgatagarbha'' means "the womb" or "embryo" (''garbha'') of the "thus-gone ...
" (佛性 ''fóxìng''),
Thusness (Skt. ''tathātā,'' 如如), ''
tathāgatagarbha
Buddha-nature refers to several related Mahayana Buddhist terms, including '' tathata'' ("suchness") but most notably ''tathāgatagarbha'' and ''buddhadhātu''. ''Tathāgatagarbha'' means "the womb" or "embryo" (''garbha'') of the "thus-gone ...
'' (如来藏), and the ''
Dharmadhatu
Dharmadhatu (Sanskrit) is the 'dimension', 'realm' or 'sphere' (dhātu) of the Dharma or Absolute Reality.
Definition
In Mahayana Buddhism, dharmadhātu ( bo, chos kyi dbyings; ) means "realm of phenomena", "realm of truth", and of the noumen ...
'' (法界).
According to Paul Swanson, this doctrine arose from the need to make explicit the relationship between the first and second truths of classical Indian Mahayana (an issue which also may have led to the development of Yogacara's "three natures"). Zhiyi developed his theory of a threefold truth by drawing on Nāgārjuna's ''
Mūlamadhyamakakārikā
The ''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā'' ( sa, मूलमध्यमककारिका, ''Root Verses on the Middle Way''), abbreviated as ''MMK'', is the foundational text of the Madhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy. It was compose ...
,'' which explains the two truths as: "We state that whatever is dependent arising, that is emptiness. That is dependent upon convention. That itself is the middle path" (MMK, XXIV.18). Swanson states that this doctrine is a way of expressing three aspects of a single integrated reality.
[Swanson (1989), pp. 7-8.]
Swanson also notes that various scholars have criticized Zhiyi for adding a third "truth", when no Indian author explains Madhyamaka this way. However, according to Swanson, the major point of Zhiyi's analysis is that reality is a single integrated truth (which may be explained with two or three aspects). As such, it is not a deviation from classical Madhyamaka according to Swanson.
Swanson thinks that one of the main reasons for this development is that it was a useful device for undoing Chinese misunderstandings of the two truths (such as seeing them as referring to being and non-being, to two separate levels of reality or to an
essential reality and its functions).
The Threefold Contemplation
The Threefold Truth may be contemplated independently as the "three contemplations", an important theme in Zhiyi's ''
Mo ho chi kuan''. The threefold contemplation, also described as the threefold cessation and insight, consists of what Zhiyi calls a "graded contemplation":
# ''Cessation as insight into the true essence of reality -'' This consists in contemplating the emptiness of all phenomena and their lack of own being (''svabhava'').
# ''Cessation as insight into expedient conditions -'' This consists in contemplating the conventional existence of all things, i.e. dependent arising or as Zhiyi describes it "the non-emptiness of emptiness", which means that emptiness is not nothingness.
# ''Cessation as an end to both discriminatory extremes -'' A contemplation which is the simultaneous unity of both 1 and 2 and which is totally beyond conceptualization and thought.
There are different levels of subtlety of this threefold contemplation, the deepest of which is when all three aspects are contemplated as a simultaneously non-dual unity which according to Zhiyi is when all three aspects are "present in one thought" (一心) which is "beyond conceptual understanding". According to Chappell:
The first contemplation involves moving from the world of provisionality to seeing its emptiness, which is a different process from the second contemplation in which we move beyond emptiness and back into an acceptance of the role of provisional existence. Only in the third contemplation do we find the balance involving the previous two insights based on the Middle Path of the One Mind.
The One Vehicle
A central doctrine of Tiantai is the ''
Lotus Sutra
The ''Lotus Sūtra'' ( zh, 妙法蓮華經; sa, सद्धर्मपुण्डरीकसूत्रम्, translit=Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram, lit=Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma, italic=) is one of the most influ ...
s doctrine of the One Vehicle or ''
ekayāna
Ekayāna ( sa, एकयान, ) is a Sanskrit word that can mean "one path" or "one vehicle". It is used both in the Upanishads and the Mahāyāna sūtras.
Upanishads
In the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'', "ekayāna" took on special significance ...
'' (traditional Chinese: 一乘; pinyin: ''yīchéng''). This doctrine provided a unifying and inclusive framework which could be used to understand all Buddhist teachings. According to
Jacqueline Stone Jacqueline Ilyse Stone (born June 30, 1949) is an emeritus Professor of Japanese Religion in the Department of Religion at Princeton University's Department of Religion and a specialist in Japanese Buddhism, particularly Kamakura Buddhism, Nichi ...
, Zhiyi's view of the One Vehicle of the Lotus Sutra is that conventionally, it is "subtle" and "wonderful" in comparison with lesser teachings which are coarse. However this is only true in a relative sense.
[ Stone, Jacqueline (1999)]
''Inclusive and Exclusive Perspectives on the One Vehicle''
Ultimately, the Lotus Sutra's Subtle Dharma is "not established in comparison to anything else, for there is nothing outside it to which it might be compared." From this absolute perspective, the Lotus Sutra's One Vehicle is "open and integrated" according to Zhiyi, and includes all other Buddhist teachings and skillful means. From the ultimate point of view, all distinctions of "true" and "provisional" are dissolved since all teachings are expressions of the One Vehicle.
According to Stone, "this is an egalitarian, inclusive reading, in which all teachings in effect become "true". But from the relative standpoint, a clear distinction is preserved between the "true" and the "provisional"; this is a hierarchical, potentially even exclusive reading, which emphasizes the superiority of the Lotus Sutra over other teachings."
The Unity of the Dharmadhatu
Since the three truths are one, and this truth is a single unity, Tiantai thinkers see the whole of reality is as being a single interpenetrating whole, one integrated existence. This
holism
Holism () is the idea that various systems (e.g. physical, biological, social) should be viewed as wholes, not merely as a collection of parts. The term "holism" was coined by Jan Smuts in his 1926 book ''Holism and Evolution''."holism, n." OED Onl ...
is described in different ways, such as "the interinclusiveness of the ten realms" or "the interpenetrating unity of all aspects of reality".
[Swanson (1989), pp. 12, 154.] According to Swanson, in this view, "everything contains everything else, and the whole contains all things."
Zhiyi illustrates this idea with the simile of the drunk man from the ''
Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra,'' who perceives the sun as spinning around due to his condition, but in reality there is just one sun and this is confirmed by sober people.
[Swanson (1989), p. 154.] However, Zhiyi also points out that even this idea of "one truth" is just a concept, and as such it is ultimately inadequate, since "each and every truth is inexpressible" and "the one truth actually no truth".
According to Brook Ziporyn, the Tiantai school's holism is derived from an extremely important passage from the ''Lotus Sutra'' which states:
Only a Buddha together with a Buddha knows the ultimate reality of all things: how they appear, what their natures are, what they're made of, what they are capable of, what they are doing, what their causes are, what their conditions are, what their effects are, what their consequences are, and the way in which all these factors from beginning to end are equally ultimate and are ultimately one and the same.[Ziporyn (2016), p. 88.]
Ziporyn argues that this passage points at the idea "that each particular aspect of the world as we see it and feel it is ultimately real, that each one is in fact the Absolute itself, the Buddha-nature, the final fact about the universe" and that "each thing, each appearance, each action" is "the ultimate reality “of ” all other things."
Three Thousand Realms in One Thought Moment
One of the ways this doctrine is explained is the idea of "Three Thousand Realms in a Single Thought Moment" or "The Presence of All Three Thousand Aspects of Existence as Each Moment of Experience" (一念三千). According to this teaching, the various realms of existence of Buddhist cosmology are all interconnected and interpenetrating.
[Swanson (1989), p. 11.] Furthermore, each of these states of existence can be experienced in one's own mind, and can therefore be seen as a kind of experience and a way of seeing the world, as well as a realm of rebirth.
As Zhiyi writes:
One thought r mind
R, or r, is the eighteenth letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''ar'' (pronounced ), plural ''ars'', or in Irela ...
contains the ten dharma realms. Each dharma realm also contains the ten dharma realms o there areone hundred dharma realms. Each dharma realm contains thirty worlds; so one hundred dharma realms contain three thousand worlds. These three thousand worlds are contains in one thought.[Swanson (1989), p. 13.]
According to Swanson, the main idea here is that "all reality is interpenetrating and inclusive, so that one short thought contains all of reality."
Jacqueline Stone explains this as the idea that an any single ordinary thought and all phenomena in the universe "exist at each moment in a mutually inclusive relationship." Furthermore, the figure three thousand is "the product of multiplying specific numerical dharma categories: the ten realms of sentient beings, their mutual inclusion, the
ten suchnesses
The Ten suchnesses (; ja, 十如是, jūnyoze) are a Mahayana doctrine which is important, as well as unique, to that of the Tiantai (Tendai) and Nichiren Buddhist schools of thought. The doctrine is derived from a passage found within the s ...
and the three realms."
[Stone, Jacqueline. ''Finding Enlightenment in the Final Age'', In Lopez Jr. Donald S. (ed.) "Buddhist Scriptures", p. 513. Penguin Books. ] According to Stone, this concept also:
represents a totalistic view of interdependent reality: the Buddha and ordinary worldlings, body and mind, cause and effect, subject and object, sentient and non-sentient are mutually encompassed in every moment of thought.
Even though reality is a unified whole, the
Dharmadhatu
Dharmadhatu (Sanskrit) is the 'dimension', 'realm' or 'sphere' (dhātu) of the Dharma or Absolute Reality.
Definition
In Mahayana Buddhism, dharmadhātu ( bo, chos kyi dbyings; ) means "realm of phenomena", "realm of truth", and of the noumen ...
(法界), it can be explained in different ways according to Zhiyi (such as the two truths, and the threefold truth, and the ten realms). Two other schemas which Zhiyi employs are the Three Subtle Dharmas (sentient beings, Buddha and mind) and the
Ten Suchnesses
The Ten suchnesses (; ja, 十如是, jūnyoze) are a Mahayana doctrine which is important, as well as unique, to that of the Tiantai (Tendai) and Nichiren Buddhist schools of thought. The doctrine is derived from a passage found within the s ...
(which is drawn from the second chapter of the Lotus Sutra) to explain the various realms and how they have the same nature of the threefold truth.
Since reality is unified in these ways, by contemplating one's mind and thought, one can contemplate the whole of reality and thus Buddhahood itself.
[Swanson (1989), p. 135.] Zhiyi explains this by commenting on a passage from the ''Avatamsaka Sutra'' which states that "if one disports one's mind in the dharmadhatu as if in space, then one will know the objective realm of all Buddhas."
According to Zhiyi:
"The dharmadhatu is the middle. Space is emptiness. The mind and Buddhas are conventional existence. The three together are the objective realm of all Buddhas. This means that if one contemplates he thoughts ofone's mind, one can become endowed with all Buddha-dharmas."
Zhiyi also calls the single reality "the inconceivable mind" (不思議心 ''pu ssu i hsin''), which contains all three thousand dharmas and the threefold truth.
Buddhahood
![Prabhutaratna e Sakyamuni](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Prabhutaratna_e_Sakyamuni.JPG)
In his ''Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra'' (法華玄義 ''Chin Fa-hua-hsüan-i'') Zhiyi explains
Buddhahood
In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out ...
by means of three ways of understanding the causes for Buddhahood and three ways of understanding the result of Buddhahood. The three ways of understanding the causes (which are three ways of saying the same thing) are as follows:
* Each of the ten dharma realms contains the other nine realms.
* Therefore, the nine realms other than Buddhahood are integrated with Buddhahood. All possess the potential for Buddhahood.
* The ten realms are empty of inherent existence, and they are of the nature of the threefold truth.
The three ways of understanding the result, Buddhahood, are as follows:
* Buddhahood pervades the entire universe, as Swanson says "it is not a separate realm detached from our world of experience, but an integral and fundamental part of it."
* The Buddha attained Buddhahood incalculable aeons ago as it is said in the Lotus Sutra
* The Buddha manifests in many different forms for the benefit of all sentient beings.
Therefore, according to Zhiyi, the Buddha-realm is deeply integrated with all other aspects of reality. Zhiyi writes:
[Swanson (1989), pp. 134-135.] How can there be any dharma distinct from the Buddha? There cannot. All of the hundred realms and thousand suchnesses are the objective realm of the Buddha.
Thus, Buddhahood is not detached from the rest of reality, but integrated with it. The difference is that a Buddha knows reality as it really is. As such, the three subtle dharmas (sentient beings, Buddhas and mind) are part interfused with each other and are part of a single whole.
Zhiyi quotes the Avatamsaka sutra which states that "the mind, the Buddha, and sentient beings are not distinct."
Buddha-nature
Zhiyi's ''Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra'' also explains
Buddha-nature
Buddha-nature refers to several related Mahayana Buddhist terms, including '' tathata'' ("suchness") but most notably ''tathāgatagarbha'' and ''buddhadhātu''. ''Tathāgatagarbha'' means "the womb" or "embryo" (''garbha'') of the "thus-gone ...
through three parallel aspects:
* ''Buddha-nature as the conditional causes of Buddhahood -'' Swanson explains this ability to practice the Dharma as the "inherent potential and propensity for Buddhahood within all sentient beings which allows them to practice and build up the proper causes and conditions for attaining Buddhahood."
* ''Buddha-nature as the complete cause of Buddhahood -'' This is the inherent potential for wisdom in all sentient beings, this is the wisdom that can destroy delusion and reveal the true nature of reality. It is a presence of wisdom which just needs to be uncovered.
*''Buddha-nature as the direct cause of Buddhahood -'' This means that all beings are endowed with "the reality of true thusness", i.e. they all "participate in the true nature of reality."
The Six Degrees of Identity
Tiantai's explanation of the path of the bodhisattva was set forth in Zhiyi's doctrines of the Six Degrees of Identity and the Six Bodhisattva Stages.
The Six Degrees of Identity provide an important path schema for the Tiantai school. Ziporyn summarizes these six degrees of realization as follows:
# Identity in principle: "the objective fact that all things are Buddha; that whether they know it or not they are of the nature of enlightenment. Buddhahood at this level is still pure unrealized potentiality, inherent in all things."
# Identity in name: "certain beings hear the doctrine, "You are identical to Buddha," and if they believe it, they are identical in name; they have this cognitive knowledge of the principle that all are Buddhas."
# Identity in contemplation and practice: "after accepting this doctrine, these beings become Buddhists and practice the Buddhist path and make progress toward manifesting this inherent potential Buddhahood."
# Identity of semblance: "further progress into the ranks and levels of Buddhist mythology."
# Partial realization: "the highest ranks of bodhisattva practice."
# Ultimate identity: "becoming an actual Buddha in practice."
Non-dual Ethics
This non-dual Tiantai teaching of the interfusion of all phenomena and experiences also holds that there is a non-duality of good and evil, which also applies to happiness and suffering, Buddha and
Mara (the demon of Death). As noted by Ziporyn, the view that "each experience we have includes not only itself but also all other experiences of all other sentient beings at all times" is related to the idea that "Buddhahood inherently includes every form of evil, that these evils can never be destroyed, and that they do not need to be destroyed (“The evil inherent in the Buddha-nature,” “Buddhahood does not cut off evil”)." Ziporyn further explains this seemingly paradoxical doctrine as follows: "our joy also includes sorrow, our sorrow also includes joy; our evil includes good, our good includes evil; our delusion includes enlightenment, our enlightenment includes delusion."
The Subtle Dharma: One Reality, One Vehicle, many Skillful Means
The Tiantai school's
soteriology
Soteriology (; el, σωτηρία ' "salvation" from σωτήρ ' "savior, preserver" and λόγος ' "study" or "word") is the study of religious doctrines of salvation. Salvation theory occupies a place of special significance in many religio ...
is based on the doctrine of the "One Vehicle" (Skt. ''
ekayāna
Ekayāna ( sa, एकयान, ) is a Sanskrit word that can mean "one path" or "one vehicle". It is used both in the Upanishads and the Mahāyāna sūtras.
Upanishads
In the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'', "ekayāna" took on special significance ...
,''
traditional Chinese
A tradition is a belief or behavior (folk custom) passed down within a group or society with symbolic meaning or special significance with origins in the past. A component of cultural expressions and folklore, common examples include holidays or ...
: 一乘;
pinyin
Hanyu Pinyin (), often shortened to just pinyin, is the official romanization system for Standard Mandarin Chinese in China, and to some extent, in Singapore and Malaysia. It is often used to teach Mandarin, normally written in Chinese for ...
: ''Yīchéng'') found in the ''
Lotus Sutra
The ''Lotus Sūtra'' ( zh, 妙法蓮華經; sa, सद्धर्मपुण्डरीकसूत्रम्, translit=Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram, lit=Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma, italic=) is one of the most influ ...
.'' Tiantai sees all the various Buddhist teachings, scriptures and practices as being part of a single holistic vehicle (''yana'') leading to
Buddhahood
In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out ...
.
The discrepancies and seeming contradictions are only due to the fact that these various teachings are all "expedient means" (''
upāya
Upaya (Sanskrit: उपाय, , ''expedient means'', ''pedagogy'') is a term used in Buddhism to refer to an aspect of guidance along the Buddhist paths to liberation where a conscious, voluntary action "is driven by an incomplete reasoning" a ...
'') that are taught according to the different needs and capacities of sentient beings.
According to Zhiyi, even though there numerous sutras with many varied teachings, the intent of the Buddha is to lead all sentient beings to Buddhahood. Similarly, just as there are different practices, there are different ways to describe the same unified reality (i.e. emptiness and the threefold truth). Thus, Zhiyi states in the ''Fa hua hsuan i'' "various terms name one ultimate reality. Only one ultimate reality is given many names."
[Swanson (1989), p. 125.] This ultimate reality is "one yet many, many yet one". It is many because there are diverse phenomena that arise and perish dependent on causes and conditions and it is one because all of this is equally empty.
Indeed, Zhiyi outlines four types of oneness: the oneness of the teachings (all teachings of the Buddha are non-contradictory and have one intent), the oneness of the practices (all lead to Buddhahood), the oneness of persons (all will attain Buddhahood), and the oneness of reality. According to Zhiyi, any text which is consistent with these concept teaches "the Subtle Dharma" (''miao-fa'').
Tiantai thought also provides a classificatory schema (''panjiao'') to explain how the different texts and teachings relate to each other.
From the Tiantai point of view, the One Vehicle teaching of the Lotus is called a ‘Round Teaching’, which means that it encircles everything, and lacks any sharp edges or divisions. The Tiantai view is that the highest teaching is a holistic and all encompassing teaching which includes all Buddhist views and practices.
Classification of teachings
An extension of Tiantai's doctrine of the One Vehicle is its classification of the Buddha's teachings into the "Five Periods and Eight Teachings." This classification is usually attributed to Zhiyi, but is probably a later development. This classification of teachings was also done by other schools, such as the
Fivefold Classification of the
Huayan school
The Huayan or Flower Garland school of Buddhism (, from sa, अवतंसक, Avataṃsaka) is a tradition of Mahayana Buddhist philosophy that first flourished in China during the Tang dynasty (618-907). The Huayan worldview is based primar ...
.
Five Periods
The Five Periods are five periods in the life of the Buddha in which, according to Tiantai exegetes, he delivered different teachings, aimed at different audiences with a different level of understanding. The Five Periods are:
# The
Avatamsaka Period. For twenty-one days after his awakening, the buddha delivered the ''
Avatamsaka Sutra
The ' (IAST, sa, 𑀅𑀯𑀢𑀁𑀲𑀓 𑀲𑀽𑀢𑁆𑀭) or ''Buddhāvataṃsaka-nāma-mahāvaipulya-sūtra (The Mahāvaipulya Sūtra named “Buddhāvataṃsaka”)'' is one of the most influential Mahāyāna sutras of East Asian B ...
,'' one of the highest sutras, but this was not widely understood.
# The
Agama Period. For twelve years, the Buddha preached the Agamas, including the preparatory teachings of the
Four Noble Truths
In Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths (Sanskrit: ; pi, cattāri ariyasaccāni; "The four Arya satyas") are "the truths of the Noble Ones", the truths or realities for the "spiritually worthy ones".dependent_origination_
A_dependant_is_a_person_who_relies_on_another_as_a_primary_source_of_income._A__common-law_spouse_who_is_financially_supported_by_their_partner_may_also_be_included_in_this_definition._In_some_jurisdictions,_supporting_a_dependant_may_enabl_...
.
#_The_Vaipulya_Period._For_eight_years,_the_Buddha_delivered_the_Mahayana.html" "title="Four Noble Truths: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY Encycl ...
and
dependent origination
A dependant is a person who relies on another as a primary source of income. A common-law spouse who is financially supported by their partner may also be included in this definition. In some jurisdictions, supporting a dependant may enabl ...
.
# The Vaipulya Period. For eight years, the Buddha delivered the Mahayana">Mahāyāna
''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhism, Buddhist traditions, Buddhist texts#Mahāyāna texts, texts, Buddhist philosophy, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BC ...
or ''Vaipūlya'' (expanded) teachings, such as the ''Vimalakirti Sutra'', the ''Śrīmālādevī Sūtra'', the Golden Light Sutra, ''Suvarnaprabhasa Sutra'' and other Mahayana sutras, Mahāyāna sutras.
# The Prajña Period. For twenty-two years, the Buddha taught the Mahāyāna
Period. In the last eight years, the Buddha preached the doctrine of the
just before his death.
The Eight Teachings are a classification of different types of Buddhist teaching. They consist of the Fourfold Teaching, and the Fourfold Method:
''The Fourfold Teachings'' are called teachings because they are "that which discloses the principle and converts beings" according to Zhiyi. They are:
# ''
, in which the basic teachings are explained. According to David Chappell, the main elements of this teaching is "the thirty seven conditions for enlightenment, austerity, precepts, intellectual analysis of emptiness, the Six Perfections, and meditation" and the main view is the "arising-and-perishing among the ten realms of existence."
# ''Shared Teaching'': the teaching of
, which is shared by Mahayana and Theravāda. This corresponds to the first of the three contemplations and the practices of the ten stages of the bodhisattva that are shared with the Theravāda.
# ''Distinctive Teaching'': the teachings of the
path. This corresponds to the second of the three contemplations. It "involves practices summarized by Chih-i into Fifty two Stages of a Bodhisattva" according to Chappell.
# ''Complete Teaching'' - the complete and perfect teaching, which is beyond words and concepts. It can be found in the ''Lotus Sutra'' and the ''Avatamsaka Sutra.'' This corresponds to the third of the three contemplations. According to Chappell, "the Complete Teaching moves beyond stages to see the identity and interpenetration of all the various practices, ideas, and values based on Suchness, Buddha-nature, and the Inconceivable Perceptual Process. Nevertheless, it also has its own set of unique practices such as the Five Repentances."
''The Fourfold Method:''
# ''Gradual Teaching'', a method for those with medium or inferior abilities that advances towards Buddhahood step by step
# ''Sudden Teaching'', the Distinctive Teachings and the Complete Teaching for those with superior abilities
# ''Secret Teaching'', teachings which are transmitted without the recipient being aware of it
# ''Variable Teaching'', a method with no fixed teaching, but various teachings for various persons and circumstances
In the ''Ssu chiao i'', Zhiyi states that Four Teachings are based on the Three Truths and Three Contemplations:
Another way that Tiantai thinkers like Zhiyi classify the Buddhist teachings is through the four siddhantas, which are four principles that the Buddha used to teach the Dharma derived from the ''
''. According to David W. Chappell, the four siddhantas are:
According to Chappell, the main idea of the Tiantai understanding of the Buddha's method of teaching is the "receptivity-and-response appropriate to a person's capacities", or "communication based on receptivity-and response". According to Chappell this means that "not only the form of the teaching, but also the quest for enlightenment (bodhicitta) arises during an interaction involving a response to the capacities and needs of a person."
, in China it has been traditionally held that the meditation methods of the Tiantai are the most systematic and comprehensive of all. Tiantai emphasizes meditation as the union of
(觀 ''guān'', clear seeing or insight).
Regarding the functions of śamatha and vipaśyanā in meditation, Zhiyi writes in his work ''Concise Śamatha-vipaśyanā'':
William R. LaFleur summarizes Zhiyi's understanding of z''hǐ-guān'' (Japanese: ''shikan'') as follows:
''), outlines his meditation system as consisting of 25 preparatory practices, four kinds of samadhi and ten modes of contemplation. Zhiyi saw the four samadhis as the main pillar of Tiantai meditation practice. Zhiyi writes:
(Skt. ') in accordance with the principles of śamatha and vipaśyanā. Zhiyi classifies breathing into four main categories: Panting (喘), Unhurried breathing (風), Deep and quiet breathing (氣), and Stillness or rest (息). Zhiyi holds that the first three kinds of breathing are incorrect, while the fourth is correct, and that the breathing should reach stillness and rest.
writes that although the Tiantai school, "has the reputation of being...the most comprehensive and diversified school of Chinese Buddhism, it is almost unknown in the West" despite having a "religious framework that seemed suited to adapt to other cultures, to evolve new practices, and to universalize Buddhism". He attributes this failure of expansion to the school having "narrowed its practice to a small number of rituals" and because it has "neglected the intellectual breadth and subtlety of its founder".
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(accessed: Thursday April 22, 2010)
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* Katō Bunno, Tamura Yoshirō, Miyasaka Kōjirō (tr.), (1975 ). ''The Threefold Lotus Sutra: The Sutra of Innumerable Meanings; The Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the Wonderful Law; The Sutra of Meditation on the Bodhisattva Universal Virtue'', Weatherhill & Kōsei Publishing, New York & Tōkyō (Rissho Kosaikai)
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* Stevenson, Daniel B. (1986). The Four Kinds of Samādhi in Early T'ien-t'ai Buddhism. In: Peter N. Gregory: Traditions of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism Vol. 1, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, pp. 45–98. .
* Swanson, Paul L. (1989). ''Foundations of T'ien-T'ai Philosophy'', Asian Humanities Press, California. .
* Ziporyn, Brook. (2016) ''Emptiness and Omnipresence: An Essential Introduction to Tiantai Buddhism''. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.