![Shakespeare](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Shakespeare.jpg)
The word ''thou'' is a
second-person singular
Singular may refer to:
* Singular, the grammatical number that denotes a unit quantity, as opposed to the plural and other forms
* Singular homology
* SINGULAR, an open source Computer Algebra System (CAS)
* Singular or sounder, a group of boar, ...
pronoun
In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun (abbreviated ) is a word or a group of words that one may substitute for a noun or noun phrase.
Pronouns have traditionally been regarded as one of the parts of speech, but some modern theorists would not co ...
in
English
English usually refers to:
* English language
* English people
English may also refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England
** English national ide ...
. It is now largely
archaic, having been replaced in most contexts by the word ''
you
In Modern English, ''you'' is the second-person pronoun. It is grammatically plural, and was historically used only for the dative case, but in most modern dialects is used for all cases and numbers.
History
''You'' comes from the Proto- ...
'', although it remains in use in parts of
Northern England
Northern England, also known as the North of England, the North Country, or simply the North, is the northern area of England. It broadly corresponds to the former borders of Angle Northumbria, the Anglo-Scandinavian Kingdom of Jorvik, and the ...
and in
Scots (). ''Thou'' is the
nominative
In grammar, the nominative case (abbreviated ), subjective case, straight case or upright case is one of the grammatical cases of a noun or other part of speech, which generally marks the subject of a verb or (in Latin and formal variants of Engl ...
form; the
oblique
Oblique may refer to:
* an alternative name for the character usually called a slash (punctuation) ( / )
*Oblique angle, in geometry
*Oblique triangle, in geometry
* Oblique lattice, in geometry
* Oblique leaf base, a characteristic shape of the b ...
/
objective
Objective may refer to:
* Objective (optics), an element in a camera or microscope
* ''The Objective'', a 2008 science fiction horror film
* Objective pronoun, a personal pronoun that is used as a grammatical object
* Objective Productions, a Brit ...
form is ''thee'' (functioning as both
accusative
The accusative case (abbreviated ) of a noun is the grammatical case used to mark the direct object of a transitive verb.
In the English language, the only words that occur in the accusative case are pronouns: 'me,' 'him,' 'her,' 'us,' and ‘the ...
and
dative
In grammar, the dative case (abbreviated , or sometimes when it is a core argument) is a grammatical case used in some languages to indicate the recipient or beneficiary of an action, as in "Maria Jacobo potum dedit", Latin for "Maria gave Jacob a ...
); the
possessive
A possessive or ktetic form (abbreviated or ; from la, possessivus; grc, κτητικός, translit=ktētikós) is a word or grammatical construction used to indicate a relationship of possession in a broad sense. This can include strict owne ...
is ''thy'' (adjective) or ''thine'' (as an adjective before a vowel or as a possessive pronoun); and the
reflexive is ''thyself''. When ''thou'' is the
grammatical subject
The subject in a simple English sentence such as ''John runs'', ''John is a teacher'', or ''John drives a car'', is the person or thing about whom the statement is made, in this case ''John''. Traditionally the subject is the word or phrase whi ...
of a
finite verb
Traditionally, a finite verb (from la, fīnītus, past participle of to put an end to, bound, limit) is the form "to which number and person appertain", in other words, those inflected for number and person. Verbs were originally said to be ''fin ...
in the
indicative mood
A realis mood (abbreviated ) is a grammatical mood which is used principally to indicate that something is a statement of fact; in other words, to express what the speaker considers to be a known state of affairs, as in declarative sentences. Most ...
, the verb form typically ends in ''-(e)st'' (e.g. "thou goest", "thou do(e)st"), but in some cases just ''-t'' (e.g., "thou art"; "thou shalt").
Originally, ''thou'' was simply the singular counterpart to the plural pronoun ''
ye'', derived from an
ancient Indo-European root. In
Middle English
Middle English (abbreviated to ME) is a form of the English language that was spoken after the Norman conquest of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the Old English p ...
, ''thou'' was sometimes abbreviated by putting a small "u" over the letter
thorn
Thorn(s) or The Thorn(s) may refer to:
Botany
* Thorns, spines, and prickles, sharp structures on plants
* ''Crataegus monogyna'', or common hawthorn, a plant species
Comics and literature
* Rose and Thorn, the two personalities of two DC Com ...
: þͧ. Starting in the 1300s, ''thou'' and ''thee'' were used to express familiarity, formality, or contempt, for addressing strangers, superiors, or inferiors, or in situations when indicating singularity to avoid confusion was needed; concurrently, the plural forms, ''ye'' and ''you'' began to also be used for singular: typically for addressing rulers, superiors, equals, inferiors, parents, younger persons, and significant others.
In the 17th century, ''thou'' fell into disuse in the standard language, often regarded as impolite, but persisted, sometimes in an altered form, in
regional dialects of
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe b ...
and
Scotland
Scotland (, ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a border with England to the southeast and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the ...
,
[Shorrocks, 433–438.] as well as in the language of such religious groups as the
Society of Friends. The use of the pronoun is also still present in Christian prayer and in poetry.
Early English translations of the Bible used the familiar singular form of the second person, which mirrors common usage trends in other languages. The familiar and singular form is used when speaking to
God
In monotheism, monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator deity, creator, and principal object of Faith#Religious views, faith.Richard Swinburne, Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Ted Honderich, Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Ox ...
in
French (in
Protestantism
Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century against what its followers perceived to b ...
both in past and present, in
Catholicism
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
since the post-
Vatican II
The Second Ecumenical Council of the Vatican, commonly known as the , or , was the 21st ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church. The council met in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome for four periods (or sessions), each lasting between 8 and ...
reforms),
German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
** Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ge ...
,
Spanish
Spanish might refer to:
* Items from or related to Spain:
**Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain
**Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries
**Spanish cuisine
Other places
* Spanish, Ontario, Can ...
,
Italian
Italian(s) may refer to:
* Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries
** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom
** Italian language, a Romance language
*** Regional Ita ...
,
Portuguese
Portuguese may refer to:
* anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal
** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods
** Portuguese language, a Romance language
*** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language
** Portu ...
,
Scottish Gaelic
Scottish Gaelic ( gd, Gàidhlig ), also known as Scots Gaelic and Gaelic, is a Goidelic language (in the Celtic branch of the Indo-European language family) native to the Gaels of Scotland. As a Goidelic language, Scottish Gaelic, as well as ...
and many others (all of which maintain the use of an "informal" singular form of the second person in modern speech). In addition, the translators of the
King James Version
The King James Version (KJV), also the King James Bible (KJB) and the Authorized Version, is an Bible translations into English, English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England, which was commissioned in 1604 and publis ...
of the Bible attempted to maintain the distinction found in
Biblical Hebrew
Biblical Hebrew (, or , ), also called Classical Hebrew, is an archaic form of the Hebrew language, a language in the Canaanite branch of Semitic languages spoken by the Israelites in the area known as the Land of Israel, roughly west of ...
,
Aramaic
The Aramaic languages, short Aramaic ( syc, ܐܪܡܝܐ, Arāmāyā; oar, 𐤀𐤓𐤌𐤉𐤀; arc, 𐡀𐡓𐡌𐡉𐡀; tmr, אֲרָמִית), are a language family containing many varieties (languages and dialects) that originated in ...
and
Koine Greek
Koine Greek (; Koine el, ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος, hē koinè diálektos, the common dialect; ), also known as Hellenistic Greek, common Attic, the Alexandrian dialect, Biblical Greek or New Testament Greek, was the common supra-reg ...
between singular and plural second-person pronouns and verb forms, so they used ''thou'', ''thee'', ''thy'', and ''thine'' for singular, and ''ye'', ''you'', ''your'', and ''yours'' for plural.
In standard
modern English, ''thou'' continues to be used in formal religious contexts, in wedding ceremonies, in literature that seeks to reproduce archaic language, and in certain fixed phrases such as "
fare thee well Fare Thee Well may refer to:
* "Fare Thee Well" (poem), an 1816 poem by Lord Byron
* "Fare Thee Well" (song), an English folk ballad
* "Dink's Song
"Dink's Song" (sometimes known as "Fare Thee Well") is an American folk song played by many folk ...
". For this reason, many associate the pronoun with solemnity or formality. Many dialects have compensated for the lack of a singular/plural distinction caused by the disappearance of ''thou'' and ''ye'' through the creation of new plural pronouns or pronominals, such as ''
yinz
''Yinz'' (see below for other spellings) is a second-person plural pronoun used mainly in Western Pennsylvania English, most prominently in Pittsburgh, but it is also found throughout the cultural region known as Appalachia, located within the g ...
'', ''yous'' and ''
y'all
''Y'all'' (pronounced ) is a contraction of '' you'' and ''all'', sometimes combined as ''you-all''. ''Y'all'' is the main second-person plural pronoun in Southern American English, with which it is most frequently associated, though it also ...
'' or the colloquial ''you guys''. ''Ye'' remains common in some parts of Ireland, but the examples just given vary regionally and are usually restricted to colloquial speech.
Grammar
Because ''thou'' has passed out of common use, its traditional forms are often confused by those imitating archaic speech.
Declension
The English
personal pronoun
Personal pronouns are pronouns that are associated primarily with a particular grammatical person – first person (as ''I''), second person (as ''you''), or third person (as ''he'', ''she'', ''it'', ''they''). Personal pronouns may also take dif ...
s have standardized
declension
In linguistics, declension (verb: ''to decline'') is the changing of the form of a word, generally to express its syntactic function in the sentence, by way of some inflection. Declensions may apply to nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and ar ...
according to the following table:
Conjugation
Verb forms used after ''thou'' generally end in ''-est'' (pronounced ) or ''-st'' in the
indicative mood
A realis mood (abbreviated ) is a grammatical mood which is used principally to indicate that something is a statement of fact; in other words, to express what the speaker considers to be a known state of affairs, as in declarative sentences. Most ...
in both the
present
The present (or here'' and ''now) is the time that is associated with the events perception, perceived directly and in the first time, not as a recollection (perceived more than once) or a speculation (predicted, hypothesis, uncertain). It is ...
and the
past
The past is the set of all events that occurred before a given point in time. The past is contrasted with and defined by the present and the future. The concept of the past is derived from the linear fashion in which human observers experience ...
tenses
In grammar, tense is a category that expresses time reference. Tenses are usually manifested by the use of specific forms of verbs, particularly in their conjugation patterns.
The main tenses found in many languages include the past, present, ...
. These forms are used for both
strong and
weak verbs.
Typical examples of the standard present and past tense forms follow. The ''e'' in the ending is optional; early English spelling had not yet been standardized. In verse, the choice about whether to use the ''e'' often depended upon considerations of
meter
The metre (British spelling) or meter (American spelling; see spelling differences) (from the French unit , from the Greek noun , "measure"), symbol m, is the primary unit of length in the International System of Units (SI), though its pref ...
.
*to know: ''thou knowest'', thou knewest
*to drive: ''thou drivest'', thou drovest
*to make: ''thou makest'', thou madest
*to love: ''thou lovest'', thou lovedst
*to want: ''thou wantest'', thou wantedst
Modal verbs also have ''-(e)st'' added to their forms:
*can: ''thou canst''
*could: ''thou couldst''
*may: ''thou mayest''
*might: ''thou mightst''
*should: ''thou shouldst''
*would: ''thou wouldst''
*ought to: ''thou oughtest to''
A few verbs have irregular ''thou'' forms:
*to be: ''thou art'' (or ''thou beest''), ''thou wast'' (or ''thou wert''; originally ''thou were'')
*to have: ''thou hast'', ''thou hadst''
*to do: ''thou dost'' (or ''thou doest'' in non-
auxiliary
Auxiliary may refer to:
* A backup site or system
In language
* Auxiliary language (disambiguation)
* Auxiliary verb
In military and law enforcement
* Auxiliary police
* Auxiliaries, civilians or quasi-military personnel who provide support of ...
use) and ''thou didst''
*shall: ''thou shalt''
*will: ''thou wilt''
A few others are not inflected:
*must: ''thou must''
In Proto-English, the second-person singular verb inflection was ''-es''. This came down unchanged from
Indo-European
The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family, English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Dutc ...
and can be seen in quite distantly related Indo-European languages:
Russian
Russian(s) refers to anything related to Russia, including:
*Russians (, ''russkiye''), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries
*Rossiyane (), Russian language term for all citizens and peo ...
знаешь, ''znayesh'', thou knowest;
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
''amas'', thou lovest. (This is parallel to the history of the third-person form, in Old English -eþ, Russian, знает, ''znayet'', he knoweth, Latin ''amat'' he loveth.) The from -es to modern English -est, which took place separately at around the same time in the closely related
German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
** Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ge ...
and
West Frisian languages, is understood to be caused by an assimilation of the
consonant
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are and pronounced with the lips; and pronounced with the front of the tongue; and pronounced wit ...
of the pronoun, which often followed the verb. This is most readily observed in German: liebes du → liebstu → liebst du (lovest thou).
Comparison
In
Dutch
Dutch commonly refers to:
* Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands
* Dutch people ()
* Dutch language ()
Dutch may also refer to:
Places
* Dutch, West Virginia, a community in the United States
* Pennsylvania Dutch Country
People E ...
, the equivalent of "thou", ''du'', also became archaic and fell out of use and was replaced by the Dutch equivalent of "you", ''gij'' (later ''jij'' or ''u''), just as it has in English, with the place of the informal plural taken by ''jullie'' (''
compare
Comparison or comparing is the act of evaluating two or more things by determining the relevant, comparable characteristics of each thing, and then determining which characteristics of each are similar to the other, which are different, and t ...
'' English ''y’all'').
In the
subjunctive
The subjunctive (also known as conjunctive in some languages) is a grammatical mood, a feature of the utterance that indicates the speaker's attitude towards it. Subjunctive forms of verbs are typically used to express various states of unreality ...
and
imperative moods, the ending in ''-(e)st'' is dropped (although it is generally retained in ''thou wert'', the second-person singular past subjunctive of the verb ''to be''). The subjunctive forms are used when a statement is doubtful or contrary to fact; as such, they frequently occur after ''if'' and the poetic ''and''.
:If thou be Johan, I tell it thee, right with a good advice ...;
:Be Thou my vision, O Lord of my heart ...
:I do wish thou wert a dog, that I might love thee something ...
:And thou bring Alexander and his paramour before the Emperor, I'll be Actaeon ...
:O WERT thou in the cauld blast, ... I'd shelter thee ...
In modern regional English dialects that use ''thou'' or some variant, such as in
Yorkshire
Yorkshire ( ; abbreviated Yorks), formally known as the County of York, is a Historic counties of England, historic county in northern England and by far the largest in the United Kingdom. Because of its large area in comparison with other Eng ...
and
Lancashire
Lancashire ( , ; abbreviated Lancs) is the name of a historic county, ceremonial county, and non-metropolitan county in North West England. The boundaries of these three areas differ significantly.
The non-metropolitan county of Lancashi ...
, it often takes the third person form of the verb ''-s''. This comes from a merging of
Early Modern English
Early Modern English or Early New English (sometimes abbreviated EModE, EMnE, or ENE) is the stage of the English language from the beginning of the Tudor period to the English Interregnum and Restoration, or from the transition from Middle E ...
second person singular ending ''-st'' and third person singular ending ''-s'' into ''-s'' (the latter a northern
variation of ''
-þ'' (''-th'')).
The present
indicative
A realis mood ( abbreviated ) is a grammatical mood which is used principally to indicate that something is a statement of fact; in other words, to express what the speaker considers to be a known state of affairs, as in declarative sentences. Mos ...
form ''art'' ("''þu eart''") goes back to
West Saxon Old English (see
OED
The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (''OED'') is the first and foundational historical dictionary of the English language, published by Oxford University Press (OUP). It traces the historical development of the English language, providing a co ...
''s.v. be'' IV.18) and eventually became standard, even in the south (''e.g.'' in Shakespeare and the Bible). For its influence also from
the North, ''cf.''
Icelandic ''þú ert''. The preterite indicative of ''be'' is generally ''thou wast''.
Etymology
''Thou'' originates from
Old English
Old English (, ), or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, Anglo ...
, and ultimately via
Grimm's law
Grimm's law (also known as the First Germanic Sound Shift) is a set of sound laws describing the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) stop consonants as they developed in Proto-Germanic in the 1st millennium BC. First systematically put forward by Jacob Gr ...
from the
Proto-Indo-European
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. Its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages. No direct record of Proto-Indo-E ...
*''tu'', with the expected
Germanic vowel
A vowel is a syllabic speech sound pronounced without any stricture in the vocal tract. Vowels are one of the two principal classes of speech sounds, the other being the consonant. Vowels vary in quality, in loudness and also in quantity (leng ...
lengthening in accented monosyllabic words with an
open syllable
A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds typically made up of a syllable nucleus (most often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (typically, consonants). Syllables are often considered the phonological "b ...
. ''Thou'' is therefore
cognate
In historical linguistics, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words in different languages that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymology, etymological ancestor in a proto-language, common parent language. Because language c ...
with
Icelandic and
Old Norse
Old Norse, Old Nordic, or Old Scandinavian, is a stage of development of North Germanic languages, North Germanic dialects before their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and t ...
,
German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
** Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ge ...
and
Continental Scandinavian ,
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
and all major
Romance languages
The Romance languages, sometimes referred to as Latin languages or Neo-Latin languages, are the various modern languages that evolved from Vulgar Latin. They are the only extant subgroup of the Italic languages in the Indo-European language fam ...
,
Irish
Irish may refer to:
Common meanings
* Someone or something of, from, or related to:
** Ireland, an island situated off the north-western coast of continental Europe
***Éire, Irish language name for the isle
** Northern Ireland, a constituent unit ...
,
Kurdish
Kurdish may refer to:
*Kurds or Kurdish people
*Kurdish languages
*Kurdish alphabets
*Kurdistan, the land of the Kurdish people which includes:
**Southern Kurdistan
**Eastern Kurdistan
**Northern Kurdistan
**Western Kurdistan
See also
* Kurd (dis ...
,
Lithuanian and
Latvian or ,
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
(),
Slavic ты / ''ty'' or ти / ''ti'',
Armenian
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian Diaspora, Armenian communities across the ...
(/),
Hindi
Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been de ...
तू (),
Bengali
Bengali or Bengalee, or Bengalese may refer to:
*something of, from, or related to Bengal, a large region in South Asia
* Bengalis, an ethnic and linguistic group of the region
* Bengali language, the language they speak
** Bengali alphabet, the w ...
: তুই (''tui''),
Persian
Persian may refer to:
* People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language
** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples
** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
() and
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
त्वम् (). A cognate form of this pronoun exists in almost every other Indo-European language.
History
Old and Middle English
![Adam and Eve, thou abbrev](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Adam_and_Eve%2C_thou_abbrev.jpg)
In
Old English
Old English (, ), or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, Anglo ...
, ''thou'' was governed by a simple rule: ''thou'' addressed one person, and ''
ye'' more than one. Beginning in the 1300s ''thou'' was gradually replaced by the plural ''ye'' as the form of address for a superior person and later for an equal. For a long time, however, ''thou'' remained the most common form for addressing an inferior person.
The practice of matching singular and plural forms with informal and formal connotations is called the
T–V distinction
The T–V distinction is the contextual use of different pronouns that exists in some languages and serves to convey formality or familiarity. Its name comes from the Latin pronouns '' tu'' and '' vos''. The distinction takes a number of forms ...
and in English is largely due to the influence of French. This began with the practice of addressing
kings and other
aristocrats
Aristocracy (, ) is a form of government that places strength in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class, the aristocrats. The term derives from the el, αριστοκρατία (), meaning 'rule of the best'.
At the time of the word' ...
in the
plural
The plural (sometimes abbreviated pl., pl, or ), in many languages, is one of the values of the grammatical category of number. The plural of a noun typically denotes a quantity greater than the default quantity represented by that noun. This de ...
. Eventually, this was generalized, as in French, to address any social superior or stranger with a plural pronoun, which was felt to be more polite. In French, ''tu'' was eventually considered either intimate or condescending (and to a stranger, potentially insulting), while the plural form ''vous'' was reserved and formal.
General decline in Early Modern English
Fairly suddenly in the 17th century, ''thou'' began to decline in the standard language (that is, particularly in and around London), often regarded as impolite or ambiguous in terms of politeness. It persisted, sometimes in an altered form, particularly in
regional dialects of
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe b ...
and
Scotland
Scotland (, ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a border with England to the southeast and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the ...
farther from London,
as well as in the language of such religious groups as the
Society of Friends. Reasons commonly maintained by modern linguists as to the decline of ''thou'' in the 17th century include the increasing identification of ''you'' with "polite society" and the uncertainty of using ''thou'' for inferiors versus ''you'' for superiors (with ''you'' being the safer default) amidst the rise of a new middle class.
In the 18th century,
Samuel Johnson
Samuel Johnson (18 September 1709 – 13 December 1784), often called Dr Johnson, was an English writer who made lasting contributions as a poet, playwright, essayist, moralist, critic, biographer, editor and lexicographer. The ''Oxford ...
, in ''A Grammar of the English Tongue'', wrote: "in the language of ceremony ... the second person plural is used for the second person singular", implying that ''thou'' was still in everyday familiar use for the second-person singular, while ''you'' could be used for the same grammatical person, but only for formal contexts. However, Samuel Johnson himself was born and raised not in the south of England, but in the
West Midlands
West or Occident is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth.
Etymology
The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some ...
(specifically,
Lichfield
Lichfield () is a cathedral city and civil parish in Staffordshire, England. Lichfield is situated roughly south-east of the county town of Stafford, south-east of Rugeley, north-east of Walsall, north-west of Tamworth and south-west o ...
, Staffordshire), where the usage of ''thou'' persists until the present day (see below), so it is not surprising that he would consider it entirely ordinary and describe it as such. By contrast, for most speakers of
southern British English, ''thou'' had already fallen out of everyday use, even in familiar speech, by sometime around 1650. ''Thou'' persisted in a number of religious, literary and regional contexts, and those pockets of continued use of the pronoun tended to undermine the obsolescence of the T–V distinction.
One notable consequence of the decline in use of the second person singular pronouns ''thou'', ''thy'', and ''thee'' is the obfuscation of certain sociocultural elements of
Early Modern English
Early Modern English or Early New English (sometimes abbreviated EModE, EMnE, or ENE) is the stage of the English language from the beginning of the Tudor period to the English Interregnum and Restoration, or from the transition from Middle E ...
texts, such as many character interactions in
Shakespeare
William Shakespeare ( 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...
's plays, which were mostly written from 1589 to 1613. Although Shakespeare is far from consistent in his writings, his characters primarily tend to use ''thou'' (rather than ''you'') when addressing another who is a social subordinate, a close friend or family member, or a hated wrongdoer.
Usage
Use as a verb
Many European languages contain verbs meaning "to address with the informal pronoun", such as German ''duzen'', the Norwegian noun ''dus'' refers to the practice of using this familiar form of address instead of the De/Dem/Deres formal forms in common use, French ''tutoyer'', Spanish ''tutear'', Swedish ''dua'', Dutch ''jijen en jouen'', Ukrainian ''тикати (tykaty)'', Russian ''тыкать (tykat')'', Polish ''tykać'', Romanian ''tutui'', Hungarian ''tegezni'', Finnish ''sinutella'', etc. Although uncommon in English, the usage did appear, such as at the trial of Sir
Walter Raleigh
Sir Walter Raleigh (; – 29 October 1618) was an English statesman, soldier, writer and explorer. One of the most notable figures of the Elizabethan era, he played a leading part in English colonisation of North America, suppressed rebelli ...
in 1603, when Sir
Edward Coke
Edward is an English given name. It is derived from the Anglo-Saxon name ''Ēadweard'', composed of the elements '' ēad'' "wealth, fortune; prosperous" and '' weard'' "guardian, protector”.
History
The name Edward was very popular in Anglo-Sa ...
, prosecuting for the Crown, reportedly sought to
insult
An insult is an expression or statement (or sometimes behavior) which is disrespectful or scornful. Insults may be intentional or accidental. An insult may be factual, but at the same time pejorative, such as the word "inbred".
Jocular exc ...
Raleigh by saying,
:''I thou thee, thou traitor!''
::In modern English: ''I "thou" you, you traitor!''
here using ''thou'' as a verb meaning ''to call (someone) "thou" or "thee"''. Although the practice never took root in Standard English, it occurs in dialectal speech in the north of England. A formerly common refrain in
Yorkshire dialect
The Yorkshire dialect (also known as Broad Yorkshire, Tyke, Yorkie or Yorkshire English) is a dialect of English, or continuum of dialects, spoken in the Yorkshire region of Northern England. The dialect has roots in Old English and is influen ...
for admonishing children who misused the familiar form was:
:''Don't thee tha them as thas thee!''
::In modern English: ''Don't you "tha" those who "tha" you!''
::In other words: ''Don't use the familiar form "tha" towards those who refer to you as "tha".'' ("tha" being the local dialectal variant of "thou")
And similar in
Lancashire dialect
The Lancashire dialect or (colloquially, Lanky) refers to the Northern English vernacular speech of the English county of Lancashire. The region is notable for its tradition of poetry written in the dialect.
Scope of Lancashire dialect
La ...
:
:''Don't thee me, thee; I's you to thee!''
::In standard English: ''Don't "thee" me, you! I'm "you" to you!''
See further the
Wiktionary page on ''thou'' as a verb.
Religious uses
Christianity
Many conservative Christians use "Thee, Thou, Thy and Thine when addressing God" in
prayer
Prayer is an invocation or act that seeks to activate a rapport with an object of worship through deliberate communication. In the narrow sense, the term refers to an act of supplication or intercession directed towards a deity or a deified a ...
; in the
Plymouth Brethren catechism ''Gathering Unto His Name'', Norman Crawford explains the practice:
When referring to God, "thou" (as with other pronouns) is often capitalized, e.g. "For Thou hast delivered my soul from death" ().
As
William Tyndale
William Tyndale (; sometimes spelled ''Tynsdale'', ''Tindall'', ''Tindill'', ''Tyndall''; – ) was an English biblical scholar and linguist who became a leading figure in the Protestant Reformation in the years leading up to his execu ...
translated the Bible into English in the early 16th century, he preserved the singular and plural distinctions that he found in his
Hebrew
Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
and
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
originals. He used ''thou'' for the singular and ''ye'' for the plural regardless of the relative status of the speaker and the
addressee
Addressee may refer to:
* Someone to whom mail or similar things are addressed or sent
* Interlocutor (linguistics), a person to whom a conversation or dialogue is addressed
See also
* Address (disambiguation)
* Addressee honorific, linguistic ...
. Tyndale's usage was standard for the period and mirrored that found in the earlier
Wycliffe's Bible and the later
King James Bible. But as the use of ''thou'' in non-dialect English began to decline in the 18th century, its meaning nonetheless remained familiar from the widespread use of the latter translation. The
Revised Standard Version of the Bible, which first appeared in 1946, retained the pronoun ''thou'' exclusively to address
God
In monotheism, monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator deity, creator, and principal object of Faith#Religious views, faith.Richard Swinburne, Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Ted Honderich, Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Ox ...
, using ''you'' in other places. This was done to preserve the tone, at once intimate and reverent, that would be familiar to those who knew the King James Version and read the
Psalms
The Book of Psalms ( or ; he, תְּהִלִּים, , lit. "praises"), also known as the Psalms, or the Psalter, is the first book of the ("Writings"), the third section of the Tanakh, and a book of the Old Testament. The title is derived ...
and similar text in devotional use. The
New American Standard Bible
The New American Standard Bible (NASB) is an English translation of the Bible. Published by the Lockman Foundation, the complete NASB was released in 1971. The NASB relies on recently published critical editions of the original Hebrew and Gre ...
(1971) made the same decision, but the revision of 1995 (New American Standard Bible, Updated edition) reversed it. Similarly, the 1989
Revised English Bible
The Revised English Bible (REB) is a 1989 English-language translation of the Bible that updates the New English Bible (NEB) of 1970. As with its predecessor, it is published by the publishing houses of both the universities of Oxford and Cambri ...
dropped all forms of ''thou'' that had appeared in the earlier
New English Bible
The New English Bible (NEB) is an English translation of the Bible. The New Testament was published in 1961 and the Old Testament (with the Apocrypha) was published on 16 March 1970. In 1989, it was significantly revised and republished as the R ...
(1970). The
New Revised Standard Version
The New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) is an English translation of the Bible published in 1989 by the National Council of Churches.[Bible translation
The Bible has been translated into many languages from the biblical languages of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. all of the Bible has been translated into 724 languages, the New Testament has been translated into an additional 1,617 languages, and ...](_blank)
to adopt a distinctive pronoun to address the Deity.
The
1662 ''Book of Common Prayer'', which is still an authorized form of worship in the
Church of England
The Church of England (C of E) is the established Christian church in England and the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It traces its history to the Christian church recorded as existing in the Roman province of Britain ...
and much of the
Anglican Communion
The Anglican Communion is the third largest Christian communion after the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. Founded in 1867 in London, the communion has more than 85 million members within the Church of England and other ...
, also uses the word ''thou'' to refer to the singular second person.
Quakers
Quakers are people who belong to a historically Protestant Christian set of denominations known formally as the Religious Society of Friends. Members of these movements ("theFriends") are generally united by a belief in each human's abil ...
traditionally used ''thee'' as an ordinary pronoun as part of their
testimony of simplicity—a practice continued by certain
Conservative Friends
Conservative Friends are members of a certain branch of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers). In the United States of America, Conservative Friends belong to three Yearly Meetings, Ohio, North Carolina, and Iowa. English Friends affiliated wi ...
;
the stereotype has them saying ''thee'' for both nominative and accusative cases. This was started at the beginning of the Quaker movement by
George Fox
George Fox (July 1624 – 13 January 1691) was an English Dissenter, who was a founder of the Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as the Quakers or Friends. The son of a Leicestershire weaver, he lived in times of social upheaval and ...
, who called it "plain speaking", as an attempt to preserve the
egalitarian
Egalitarianism (), or equalitarianism, is a school of thought within political philosophy that builds from the concept of social equality, prioritizing it for all people. Egalitarian doctrines are generally characterized by the idea that all hum ...
familiarity associated with the pronoun. Most Quakers have abandoned this usage. At its beginning, the Quaker movement was particularly strong in the northwestern areas of England and particularly in the
north Midlands
The North Midlands is a loosely defined area covering the northern parts of the Midlands in England. It is not one of the ITL regions like the East Midlands or the West Midlands.
A statistical definition in 1881 included the counties of Derbys ...
area. The preservation of ''thee'' in Quaker speech may relate to this history. Modern Quakers who choose to use this manner of "plain speaking" often use the "thee" form without any corresponding change in verb form, for example, ''is thee'' or ''was thee''.
In
Latter-day Saint
Mormons are a religious and cultural group related to Mormonism, the principal branch of the Latter Day Saint movement started by Joseph Smith in upstate New York during the 1820s. After Smith's death in 1844, the movement split into several ...
prayer tradition, the terms "thee" and "thou" are always and exclusively used to address
God
In monotheism, monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator deity, creator, and principal object of Faith#Religious views, faith.Richard Swinburne, Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Ted Honderich, Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Ox ...
, as a mark of respect.
Islam and Baháʼí Faith
In many of the Quranic translations, particularly those compiled by the
Ahmadiyya
Ahmadiyya (, ), officially the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community or the Ahmadiyya Muslim Jama'at (AMJ, ar, الجماعة الإسلامية الأحمدية, al-Jamāʿah al-Islāmīyah al-Aḥmadīyah; ur, , translit=Jamā'at Aḥmadiyyah Musl ...
, the terms ''thou'' and ''thee'' are used. One particular example is
The Holy Quran - Arabic Text and English translation, translated by
Maulvi Sher Ali
Maulvi Sher Ali Ranjha (24 November 1875 – 13 November 1947) was a prominent Ahmadi scholar and a companion of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, who claimed to be the Promised Messiah and the awaited mahdi.
Early life
Sher Ali was born to a well off and ed ...
.
In the English translations of the
scripture
Religious texts, including scripture, are texts which various religions consider to be of central importance to their religious tradition. They differ from literature by being a compilation or discussion of beliefs, mythologies, ritual prac ...
of the
Baháʼí Faith
The Baháʼí Faith is a religion founded in the 19th century that teaches the Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion, essential worth of all religions and Baháʼí Faith and the unity of humanity, the unity of all people. Established by ...
, the terms ''thou'' and ''thee'' are also used.
Shoghi Effendi
Shoghí Effendi (; 1 March 1897 – 4 November 1957) was the grandson and successor of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, appointed to the role of Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith from 1921 until his death in 1957. He created a series of teaching plans that over ...
, the head of the religion in the first half of the 20th century, adopted a style that was somewhat removed from everyday discourse when translating the texts from their original
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
or
Persian
Persian may refer to:
* People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language
** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples
** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
to capture some of the poetic and metaphorical nature of the text in the original languages and to convey the idea that the text was to be considered holy.
Literary uses
Shakespeare
Like his contemporaries
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare ( 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...
uses ''thou'' both in the intimate, French-style sense, and also to emphasize differences of rank, but he is by no means consistent in using the word, and friends and lovers sometimes call each other ''ye'' or ''you'' as often as they call each other ''thou'', sometimes in ways that can be analysed for meaning, but often apparently at random.
For example, in the following passage from ''
Henry IV'', Shakespeare has
Falstaff
Sir John Falstaff is a fictional character who appears in three plays by William Shakespeare and is eulogised in a fourth. His significance as a fully developed character is primarily formed in the plays '' Henry IV, Part 1'' and '' Part 2'', w ...
use both forms with Henry. Initially using "you" in confusion on waking he then switches to a comfortable and intimate "thou".
:Prince: Thou art so fat-witted with drinking of old sack, and unbuttoning thee after supper, and sleeping upon benches after noon, that thou hast forgotten to demand that truly which thou wouldest truly know. What a devil hast thou to do with the time of the day? ...
:Falstaff: Indeed, you come near me now, Hal ... And, I
prithee
''Prithee'' is an archaic English interjection formed from a corruption of the phrase ''pray thee'' ( ask you o, which was initially an exclamation of contempt used to indicate a subject's triviality. The earliest recorded appearance of the word ...
, sweet wag, when thou art a king, as God save thy GraceMajesty, I should say; for grace thou wilt have none –
While in ''
Hamlet
''The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark'', often shortened to ''Hamlet'' (), is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare sometime between 1599 and 1601. It is Shakespeare's longest play, with 29,551 words. Set in Denmark, the play depicts ...
'', Shakespeare uses discordant second person pronouns to express Hamlet's antagonism towards his mother.
:Queen Gertrude: Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended..
:Hamlet: Mother, you have my father much offended.
More recent uses
Except where everyday use survives in some regions of England, the air of informal familiarity once suggested by the use of ''thou'' has disappeared; it is used often for the opposite effect with solemn
ritual
A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, performed according to a set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized, b ...
occasions, in readings from the ''King James Bible'', in Shakespeare and in formal literary compositions that intentionally seek to echo these older styles. Since becoming obsolete in most dialects of spoken English, it has nevertheless been used by more recent writers to address exalted beings such as God, a
skylark
''Alauda'' is a genus of larks found across much of Europe, Asia and in the mountains of north Africa, and one of the species (the Raso lark) endemic to the islet of Raso in the Cape Verde Islands. Further, at least two additional species are ...
,
Achilles
In Greek mythology, Achilles ( ) or Achilleus ( grc-gre, Ἀχιλλεύς) was a hero of the Trojan War, the greatest of all the Greek warriors, and the central character of Homer's ''Iliad''. He was the son of the Nereid Thetis and Peleus, k ...
, and even ''
The Mighty Thor
Thor Odinson is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is based on the Norse mythological god of the same name, the Asgardian god of thunder whose enchanted hammer Mjolnir enables him ...
''. In ''
The Empire Strikes Back
''The Empire Strikes Back'' (also known as ''Star Wars: Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back'') is a 1980 American epic film, epic space opera film directed by Irvin Kershner from a screenplay by Leigh Brackett and Lawrence Kasdan, based o ...
'',
Darth Vader
Darth Vader is a fictional character in the ''Star Wars'' franchise. The character is the central antagonist of the original trilogy and, as Anakin Skywalker, is one of the main protagonists in the prequel trilogy. ''Star Wars'' creator George ...
addresses the
Emperor
An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereignty, sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), ...
with the words: "What is thy bidding, my master?" In Leonard Cohen's song "
Bird on the Wire
"Bird on the Wire" is one of Leonard Cohen's signature songs. It was recorded 26 September 1968 in Nashville and included on his 1969 album ''Songs from a Room''. A May 1968 recording produced by David Crosby, titled "Like a Bird", was added to ...
", he promises his beloved that he will reform, saying "I will make it all up to thee." In Diana Ross's song, "
Upside Down", (written by
Chic
Chic (; ), meaning "stylish" or "smart", is an element of fashion. It was originally a French word. Pronounced Chick.
Etymology
'' Chic'' is a French word, established in English since at least the 1870s. Early references in English diction ...
's
Nile Rodgers
Nile Gregory Rodgers Jr. (born September 19, 1952) is an American musician, record producer and composer. The co-founder of Chic, Rodgers has written, produced, and performed on records that have sold more than 500 million albums and 75 million ...
and
Bernard Edwards
Bernard Edwards (October 31, 1952 – April 18, 1996) was an American bass player and record producer, known primarily for his work in disco music with guitarist Nile Rodgers, with whom he co-founded Chic. In 2017, Edwards was selected as the ...
) there is the lyric "Respectfully I say to thee I'm aware that you're cheatin'." .
The converse—the use of the second person singular ending ''-est'' for the third person—also occurs ("So sayest Thor!"―spoken by Thor). This usage often shows up in modern
parody
A parody, also known as a spoof, a satire, a send-up, a take-off, a lampoon, a play on (something), or a caricature, is a creative work designed to imitate, comment on, and/or mock its subject by means of satiric or ironic imitation. Often its subj ...
and
pastiche in an attempt to make speech appear either archaic or formal. The forms ''thou'' and ''thee'' are often transposed.
Current usage
''You'' is now the standard English second-person pronoun and encompasses both the singular and plural senses. In some dialects, however, ''thou'' has persisted,
and in others thou is retained for poetic and/or literary use. Further, in others the vacuum created by the loss of a distinction has led to the creation of new forms of the second-person plural, such as ''
y'all
''Y'all'' (pronounced ) is a contraction of '' you'' and ''all'', sometimes combined as ''you-all''. ''Y'all'' is the main second-person plural pronoun in Southern American English, with which it is most frequently associated, though it also ...
'' in the
Southern United States
The Southern United States (sometimes Dixie, also referred to as the Southern States, the American South, the Southland, or simply the South) is a geographic and cultural region of the United States of America. It is between the Atlantic Ocean ...
or ''
yous'' by some Australians and heard in what are generally considered working class dialects in and near cities in the northeastern United States. The forms vary across the English-speaking world and between literature and the spoken language. It also survives as a
fossil word
A fossil word is a word that is broadly wikt:obsolete#Adjective, obsolete but remains in current use due to its presence within an idiom, word sense, or phrase. An example for a word sense is 'navy' in 'merchant navy', which means 'commercial flee ...
in the commonly-used phrase "holier-than-thou".
Persistence of second-person singular
In traditional dialects, ''thou'' is used in the counties of
Cumberland
Cumberland ( ) is a historic county in the far North West England. It covers part of the Lake District as well as the north Pennines and Solway Firth coast. Cumberland had an administrative function from the 12th century until 1974. From 19 ...
,
Westmorland
Westmorland (, formerly also spelt ''Westmoreland'';R. Wilkinson The British Isles, Sheet The British IslesVision of Britain/ref> is a historic county in North West England spanning the southern Lake District and the northern Dales. It had an ...
,
Durham Durham most commonly refers to:
*Durham, England, a cathedral city and the county town of County Durham
*County Durham, an English county
* Durham County, North Carolina, a county in North Carolina, United States
*Durham, North Carolina, a city in N ...
,
Lancashire
Lancashire ( , ; abbreviated Lancs) is the name of a historic county, ceremonial county, and non-metropolitan county in North West England. The boundaries of these three areas differ significantly.
The non-metropolitan county of Lancashi ...
,
Yorkshire
Yorkshire ( ; abbreviated Yorks), formally known as the County of York, is a Historic counties of England, historic county in northern England and by far the largest in the United Kingdom. Because of its large area in comparison with other Eng ...
,
Staffordshire
Staffordshire (; postal abbreviation Staffs.) is a landlocked county in the West Midlands region of England. It borders Cheshire to the northwest, Derbyshire and Leicestershire to the east, Warwickshire to the southeast, the West Midlands Cou ...
,
Derbyshire
Derbyshire ( ) is a ceremonial county in the East Midlands, England. It includes much of the Peak District National Park, the southern end of the Pennine range of hills and part of the National Forest. It borders Greater Manchester to the nor ...
and some western parts of
Nottinghamshire
Nottinghamshire (; abbreviated Notts.) is a landlocked county in the East Midlands region of England, bordering South Yorkshire to the north-west, Lincolnshire to the east, Leicestershire to the south, and Derbyshire to the west. The traditi ...
. Such dialects normally also preserve distinct verb forms for the singular second person, for example ''thee coost'' (standard English: ''you could'', archaic: ''thou couldst'') in northern Staffordshire. The word ''thee'' is used in the East Shropshire dialect which is now largely confined to the
Dawley
Dawley ( ) is a constituent town and civil parish in Telford and Wrekin in Shropshire, England. It was originally, in 1963, going to be the main centre of the 'Dawley New Town' plan before it was decided in 1968 to name the new town as 'Telford ...
area of
Telford
Telford () is a town in the borough of Telford and Wrekin and ceremonial county of Shropshire, England, about east of Shrewsbury, south west of Stafford, north west of Wolverhampton and from Birmingham in the same direction. With an est ...
and referred to as the Dawley dialect. Throughout rural Yorkshire, the old distinction between nominative and objective is preserved. The possessive is often written as ''thy'' in local dialect writings, but is pronounced as an unstressed ''tha'', and the possessive form of ''tha'' has in modern usage almost exclusively followed other English dialects in becoming ''yours'' or the local word ''your'n'' (from ''your one''):
The apparent incongruity between the archaic nominative, objective and
genitive
In grammar, the genitive case (abbreviated ) is the grammatical case that marks a word, usually a noun, as modifying another word, also usually a noun—thus indicating an attributive relationship of one noun to the other noun. A genitive can al ...
forms of this pronoun on the one hand and the modern possessive form on the other may be a signal that the linguistic drift of Yorkshire dialect is causing ''tha'' to fall into disuse; however, a measure of local pride in the dialect may be counteracting this.
Some other variants are specific to certain areas. In
Sheffield
Sheffield is a city status in the United Kingdom, city in South Yorkshire, England, whose name derives from the River Sheaf which runs through it. The city serves as the administrative centre of the City of Sheffield. It is Historic counties o ...
, the pronunciation of the word was somewhere in between a /d/ and a /th/ sound, with the tongue at the bottom of the mouth; this led to the nickname of the "dee-dahs" for people from Sheffield. In Lancashire and West Yorkshire, ''ta'' was used as an unstressed shortening of ''thou'', which can be found in the song "
On Ilkla Moor Baht 'at
"On Ilkla Moor Baht 'at" (Standard English: ''On Ilkley Moor without a hat'') is a folk song from Yorkshire, England. It is sung in the Yorkshire dialect, and is considered the unofficial anthem of Yorkshire. According to Andrew Gant, the words ...
". These variants are no longer in use.
In rural North
Lancashire
Lancashire ( , ; abbreviated Lancs) is the name of a historic county, ceremonial county, and non-metropolitan county in North West England. The boundaries of these three areas differ significantly.
The non-metropolitan county of Lancashi ...
between Lancaster and the
North Yorkshire
North Yorkshire is the largest ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county (lieutenancy area) in England, covering an area of . Around 40% of the county is covered by National parks of the United Kingdom, national parks, including most of ...
border ''tha'' is preserved in colloquial phrases such as "What would ''tha'' like for ''thi'' tea?" (What would you like for your dinner), and appen ''tha'' waint" ("perhaps you won't"''happen'' being the
dialect
The term dialect (from Latin , , from the Ancient Greek word , 'discourse', from , 'through' and , 'I speak') can refer to either of two distinctly different types of Linguistics, linguistic phenomena:
One usage refers to a variety (linguisti ...
word for ''perhaps'') and "''tha'' knows" (you know). This usage in Lancashire is becoming rare, except for elderly and rural speakers.
A well-known routine by comedian
Peter Kay
Peter John Kay (born 2 July 1973) is an English actor, comedy writer and stand-up comedian. He has written, produced and acted in several television and film projects, and has written three books.
Born and brought up in Bolton, Kay studied ...
, from
Bolton, Greater Manchester
Bolton (, locally ) is a large town in Greater Manchester in North West England, formerly a part of Lancashire. A former mill town, Bolton has been a production centre for textiles since Flemish weavers settled in the area in the 14th centu ...
(historically in Lancashire), features the phrase "Has tha nowt moist?”
(Have you got nothing moist?).
The use of the word "thee" in the song "
I Predict a Riot
"I Predict a Riot" is a song by English indie rock band Kaiser Chiefs, appearing on their debut album, ''Employment'' (2005). It was originally released as their second single on 1 November 2004 and was the band's first release on the B-Unique ...
" by
Leeds
Leeds () is a city and the administrative centre of the City of Leeds district in West Yorkshire, England. It is built around the River Aire and is in the eastern foothills of the Pennines. It is also the third-largest settlement (by populati ...
band
Kaiser Chiefs
Kaiser Chiefs are an English indie rock band from Leeds who formed in 2000 as Parva, releasing one studio album, ''22'', in 2003, before renaming and establishing themselves in their current name that same year. Since their formation the band h ...
("Watching the people get lairy / is not very pretty, I tell thee") caused some comment by people who were unaware that the word is still in use in the
Yorkshire dialect
The Yorkshire dialect (also known as Broad Yorkshire, Tyke, Yorkie or Yorkshire English) is a dialect of English, or continuum of dialects, spoken in the Yorkshire region of Northern England. The dialect has roots in Old English and is influen ...
.
The word "thee" is also used in the song
Upside Down "Respectfully, I say to thee / I'm aware that you're cheating".
The use of the phrase "tha knows" has been widely used in various songs by
Arctic Monkeys
Arctic Monkeys are an English rock band formed in Sheffield in 2002. The group consists of Alex Turner (lead vocals, guitar, keyboards), Jamie Cook (guitar, keyboards), Nick O'Malley (bass guitar, backing vocals), and Matt Helders (drums, back ...
, a popular band from High Green, a suburb of Sheffield.
Alex Turner
Alexander David Turner (born 6 January 1986) is an English musician, singer, songwriter, and record producer. He is well known as the frontman and principal songwriter of the rock band Arctic Monkeys, with whom he has released seven albums. He ...
, the band's lead singer, has also often replaced words with "tha knows" during live versions of the songs.
The use persists somewhat in the
West Country dialects
West Country English is a group of English language varieties and accents used by much of the native population of South West England, the area sometimes popularly known as the West Country.
The West Country is often defined as encompassin ...
, albeit somewhat affected. Some of
the Wurzels
The Wurzels are an English Scrumpy and Western band from Somerset, England, best known for their number one hit " The Combine Harvester" and number three hit "I Am a Cider Drinker" in 1976. They are known for using British West Country phrases ...
songs include "Drink Up Thy
Zider" and "Sniff Up Thy Snuff".
''Thoo'' has also been used in the
Orcadian Scots dialect in place of the singular informal ''thou''. In
Shetland dialect
Shetland dialect (also variously known as Shetlandic; broad or auld Shetland or Shaetlan; and referred to as Modern Shetlandic Scots (MSS) by some linguists) is a dialect of Insular Scots spoken in Shetland, an archipelago to the north of mai ...
, the other form of
Insular Scots
Insular Scots comprises varieties of Lowland Scots generally subdivided into:
*Shetland dialect
* Orcadian dialect
Both dialects share much Norn
Norn may refer to:
*Norn language, an extinct North Germanic language that was spoken in North ...
, ''du'' and ''dee'' are used. The word "thou" has been reported in the
North Northern Scots
North Northern Scots refers to the dialects of Scots spoken in Caithness, the Black Isle and Easter Ross.
Caithness
The dialect of Caithness is generally spoken in the lowlying land to the east of a line drawn from Clyth Ness to some 4 miles ...
Cromarty dialect
The Cromarty dialect of North Northern Scots was spoken in Cromarty, Scotland. The dialect originated from people who moved north from the Firth of Forth in the 15th and 16th centuries. The last native speaker of the dialect, Bobby Hogg, died i ...
as being in common use in the first half of the 20th century and by the time of its extinction only in occasional use.
The Cromarty Fisherfolk Dialect
Am Baile, page 5
Use in cinema
The word ''thou'' can occasionally be heard in films recorded in certain English dialect. In Ken Loach
Kenneth Charles Loach (born 17 June 1936) is a British film director and screenwriter. His socially critical directing style and socialist ideals are evident in his film treatment of social issues such as poverty ('' Poor Cow'', 1967), homelessn ...
's films '' Kes'', ''The Price of Coal
''The Price of Coal'' is a two-part television drama written by Barry Hines and directed by Ken Loach first broadcast as part of the ''Play for Today'' series in 1977. Set at the fictional Milton Colliery, near Barnsley in South Yorkshire, the e ...
'' and ''Looks and Smiles
''Looks and Smiles'' is a 1981 British drama film directed by Ken Loach. It is based on the novel of the same name, written by Barry Hines. The film was entered into the 1981 Cannes Film Festival, where Loach won the Young Cinema Award.
The film ...
'', the word is used frequently in the dialogue. It is used occasionally, but much less frequently, in the 1963 film ''This Sporting Life
''This Sporting Life'' is a 1963 British kitchen sink drama film directed by Lindsay Anderson. Based on the 1960 novel of the same name by David Storey, which won the 1960 Macmillan Fiction Award, it recounts the story of a rugby league footb ...
''.
In the 2018 film ''Peterloo
The Peterloo Massacre took place at St Peter's Field, Manchester, Lancashire, England, on Monday 16 August 1819. Fifteen people died when cavalry charged into a crowd of around 60,000 people who had gathered to demand the reform of parliamen ...
'', the word is used by many of the working-class characters in Lancashire, including Samuel Bamford
Samuel Bamford (28 February 1788 – 13 April 1872) was an English radical reformer and writer born in Middleton, Lancashire. He wrote on the subject of northern English dialect and wrote some of his better known verse in it.
Biography
Bamford ...
.
Use in video games
Video games featuring medieval time periods or fantasy settings often feature the use of ''thou''.
See also
*T–V distinction
The T–V distinction is the contextual use of different pronouns that exists in some languages and serves to convey formality or familiarity. Its name comes from the Latin pronouns '' tu'' and '' vos''. The distinction takes a number of forms ...
Notes
References
*Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. ''A History of the English Language'', 5th ed.
*Burrow, J. A., Turville-Petre, Thorlac. ''A Book of Middle English''.
*Daniel, David. ''The Bible in English: Its History and Influence''. .
*
*Smith, Jeremy. ''A Historical Study of English: Form, Function, and Change''.
*"Thou, ''pers. pron., 2nd sing.''" Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. (1989)
''Oxford English Dictionary''
*Trudgill, Peter. (1999) Blackwell Publishing. ''Dialects of England''.
Further reading
*Brown, Roger and Gilman, Albert
''The Pronouns of Power and Solidarity''
1960, reprinted in: ''Sociolinguistics: the Essential Readings'', Wiley-Blackwell, 2003,
*Byrne, St. Geraldine. ''Shakespeare's use of the pronoun of address: its significance in characterization and motivation'', Catholic University of America, 1936 (reprinted Haskell House, 1970) .
*Quirk, Raymond. ''Shakespeare and the English Language'', in Kenneth Muir and Sam Schoenbaum, eds, A New Companion to Shakespeare Studies*, 1971, Cambridge UP
*Wales, Katie. ''Personal Pronouns in Present-Day English''.
*Walker, Terry. ''Thou and you in early modern English dialogues: trials, depositions, and drama comedy'', John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2007,
External links
by Samuel Johnson
Samuel Johnson (18 September 1709 – 13 December 1784), often called Dr Johnson, was an English writer who made lasting contributions as a poet, playwright, essayist, moralist, critic, biographer, editor and lexicographer. The ''Oxford ...
– includes description of 18th century use
Contemporary use of ''thou'' in Yorkshire
''Thou''
The Maven's Word of the Day
(archived forum discussion)
by Seamus Cooney
The Language of Formal Prayer by Don E. Norton, Jr.
- LDS
{{Middle English personal pronouns
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