Theobald Theodor Friedrich Alfred von Bethmann Hollweg (29 November 1856 – 1 January 1921) was a German politician who was the
chancellor of the German Empire
The chancellor of Germany, officially the federal chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany,; often shortened to ''Bundeskanzler''/''Bundeskanzlerin'', / is the head of the federal government of Germany and the commander in chief of the G ...
from 1909 to 1917. He oversaw the
German entry into World War I
Germany entered into World War I on August 1, 1914, when it declared war on Russia. In accordance with its war plan, it ignored Russia and moved first against France–declaring war on August 3 and sending its main armies through Belgium to captu ...
. According to biographer Konrad H. Jarausch, a primary concern for Bethmann in July 1914 was the steady growth of Russian power, and the growing closeness of the British and French military collaboration. Under these circumstances he decided to run what he considered a calculated risk to back
Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary, often referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire,, the Dual Monarchy, or Austria, was a constitutional monarchy and great power in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. It was formed with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of ...
in a local war against
Serbia
Serbia (, ; Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Bas ...
, while risking a major war with Russia. He calculated that France would not support Russia. This calculation proved to be mistaken when Russia decided on general mobilization. The German army saw an opportunity to use the
Schlieffen Plan
The Schlieffen Plan (german: Schlieffen-Plan, ) is a name given after the First World War to German war plans, due to the influence of Field Marshal Alfred von Schlieffen and his thinking on an invasion of France and Belgium, which began on 4 ...
for a quick victory against a poorly prepared France. By rushing through Belgium, however, Germany expanded the war to include the United Kingdom. Bethmann Hollweg thus failed to keep France and Britain out of the conflict, which became the
First World War
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
. He remained in office throughout most of the war, until July 1917, when he relinquished the post in response to pressure from
Erich von Ludendorff
Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff (9 April 1865 – 20 December 1937) was a German general, politician and military theorist. He achieved fame during World War I for his central role in the German victories at Liège and Tannenberg in 1914. ...
and was succeeded by
Georg Michaelis
Georg Michaelis (8 September 1857 – 24 July 1936) was the chancellor of the German Empire for a few months in 1917. He was the first (and the only one of the German Empire) chancellor not of noble birth to hold the office. With an economic ba ...
.
Ancestry
Bethmann Hollweg was born in
Hohenfinow
Hohenfinow is a municipality in the Barnim district in Brandenburg, Germany. It is part of the ''Amt'' ("collective municipality") Amt Britz-Chorin-Oderberg.
Geography
Hohenfinow is located about east of Eberswalde. It is part of a rural area o ...
,
Brandenburg
Brandenburg (; nds, Brannenborg; dsb, Bramborska ) is a states of Germany, state in the northeast of Germany bordering the states of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Saxony, as well as the country of Poland. With an ar ...
, the son of
Prussia
Prussia, , Old Prussian: ''Prūsa'' or ''Prūsija'' was a German state on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It formed the German Empire under Prussian rule when it united the German states in 1871. It was ''de facto'' dissolved by an em ...
n official Felix von Bethmann Hollweg. His grandfather was
August von Bethmann-Hollweg
Moritz August von Bethmann-Hollweg (born 8 April 1795 in Frankfurt am Main, died 14 July 1877 on Rheineck castle near Niederbreisig on the Rhine) was a German jurist and Prussian politician.
Life
Bethmann-Hollweg was born in Frankfurt am Main ...
, who had been a prominent law scholar, president of
Frederick William University Friedrich Wilhelm University (German: ''Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität'') may refer to:
* Humboldt University of Berlin, called ''Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität'' from 1828 to 1949, and sometimes known in English as Frederick William University
* ...
in Berlin, and Prussian
Minister of Culture
A culture minister or a heritage minister is a common cabinet position in governments. The culture minister is typically responsible for cultural policy, which often includes arts policy (direct and indirect support to artists and arts organizati ...
. His great-grandfather was Johann Jakob Hollweg, who had married a daughter of the wealthy
Frankfurt am Main
Frankfurt, officially Frankfurt am Main (; Hessian: , "Frank ford on the Main"), is the most populous city in the German state of Hesse. Its 791,000 inhabitants as of 2022 make it the fifth-most populous city in Germany. Located on its na ...
banking
family of Bethmann, founded in 1748.
His mother, Isabella de Rougemont, was a
French Swiss. His grandmother was Auguste Wilhelmine Gebser of the
Prussian noble family of
Gebesee
Gebesee is a town in the district of Sömmerda, in Thuringia, Germany. It is situated near the confluence of the rivers Gera and Unstrut, 18 km northwest of Erfurt
Erfurt () is the capital and largest city in the Central German state o ...
. Cousin of philosopher
Jean Gebser
Jean Gebser (; August 20, 1905 as Hans Karl Hermann Rudolph Gebser – May 14, 1973) was a Swiss philosopher, linguist, and poet who described the structures of human consciousness.
Biography
Born Hans Karl Hermann Rudolph Gebser in Posen in Im ...
and film producer Paul Gebser Beahan.
Early life
He was educated at the boarding school of
Schulpforta
Pforta, or Schulpforta, is a school located in Pforta monastery, a former Cistercian monastery (1137–1540), near Naumburg on the Saale River in the German state of Saxony-Anhalt.
The site has been a school since the 16th century. Notable past ...
and at the Universities of
Strasbourg
Strasbourg (, , ; german: Straßburg ; gsw, label=Bas Rhin Alsatian, Strossburi , gsw, label=Haut Rhin Alsatian, Strossburig ) is the prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est region of eastern France and the official seat of the Eu ...
,
Leipzig
Leipzig ( , ; Upper Saxon: ) is the most populous city in the German state of Saxony. Leipzig's population of 605,407 inhabitants (1.1 million in the larger urban zone) as of 2021 places the city as Germany's eighth most populous, as wel ...
and Berlin. Entering the Prussian administrative service in 1882, Bethmann Hollweg rose to the position of the President of the
Province of Brandenburg
The Province of Brandenburg (german: Provinz Brandenburg) was a province of Prussia from 1815 to 1945. Brandenburg was established in 1815 from the Kingdom of Prussia's core territory, comprised the bulk of the historic Margraviate of Brandenburg ...
in 1899. He married Martha von
Pfuel
The German ancient noble family of Pfuel (also Pfuhl or Phull) arrived in Brandenburg in the year 926 and later widened their influence to Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Württemberg, Westphalia, Eastern Europe and Sweden.
Its ...
, the niece of
Ernst von Pfuel
Ernst Heinrich Adolf von Pfuel (3 November 1779 – 3 December 1866) was a Prussian general, as well as Prussian Minister of War and later Prime Minister of Prussia.
Pfuel was born in Jahnsfelde, Prussia (present-day Müncheberg, Germany ...
,
Prime Minister of Prussia
The office of Minister-President (german: Ministerpräsident), or Prime Minister, of Prussia existed from 1848, when it was formed by King Frederick William IV during the 1848–49 Revolution, until the abolition of Prussia in 1947 by the Alli ...
. From 1905 to 1907, Bethmann Hollweg served as Prussian Minister of the Interior and then as Imperial State Secretary for the Interior from 1907 to 1909. On the resignation of Chancellor
Bernhard von Bülow
Bernhard Heinrich Karl Martin, Prince of Bülow (german: Bernhard Heinrich Karl Martin Fürst von Bülow ; 3 May 1849 – 28 October 1929) was a German statesman who served as the foreign minister for three years and then as the chancellor of t ...
in 1909, Bethmann Hollweg was appointed to succeed him.
[''Scrap of Paper Chancellor of Germany Dies'', ''The Globe''. Toronto, 3 January 1921. accessed on 8 October 2006.]
Chancellor
Early term
In foreign policy he pursued a policy of
détente
Détente (, French: "relaxation") is the relaxation of strained relations, especially political ones, through verbal communication. The term, in diplomacy, originates from around 1912, when France and Germany tried unsuccessfully to reduce ...
with the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was a sovereign state in the British Isles that existed between 1801 and 1922, when it included all of Ireland. It was established by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the Kingdom of Great B ...
, hoping to come to some agreement that would put a halt to the two countries'
ruinous naval arms race and give Germany a free hand to deal with France. The policy failed, largely from the opposition of German Naval Minister
Alfred von Tirpitz
Alfred Peter Friedrich von Tirpitz (19 March 1849 – 6 March 1930) was a German grand admiral, Secretary of State of the German Imperial Naval Office, the powerful administrative branch of the German Imperial Navy from 1897 until 1916. Prussi ...
.
Despite the increase in tensions because of the
Second Moroccan Crisis
The Agadir Crisis, Agadir Incident, or Second Moroccan Crisis was a brief crisis sparked by the deployment of a substantial force of French troops in the interior of Morocco in April 1911 and the deployment of the German gunboat to Agadir, a ...
of 1911, Bethmann Hollweg improved relations with Britain to some extent, working with British Foreign Secretary Sir
Edward Grey to alleviate tensions during the
Balkan Wars
The Balkan Wars refers to a series of two conflicts that took place in the Balkan States in 1912 and 1913. In the First Balkan War, the four Balkan States of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria declared war upon the Ottoman Empire and defe ...
of 1912–1913. He did not learn of the
Schlieffen Plan
The Schlieffen Plan (german: Schlieffen-Plan, ) is a name given after the First World War to German war plans, due to the influence of Field Marshal Alfred von Schlieffen and his thinking on an invasion of France and Belgium, which began on 4 ...
until December 1912, after he had received the Second
Haldane Mission
The Haldane Mission of February 1912 was an unsuccessful effort to seek détente with Germany and reduce dangerous friction between Britain and Germany arising because of their escalating naval arms race.
The mission by British diplomat Richard H ...
. He negotiated treaties over an eventual partition of the Portuguese colonies and the projected Berlin-Baghdad railway, the latter aimed in part at securing Balkan countries' support for a German-Ottoman alliance.
The crisis came to a head on 5 July 1914 when the
Hoyos Mission arrived in Berlin in response to Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister
Leopold Berchtold
Leopold Anton Johann Sigismund Josef Korsinus Ferdinand Graf Berchtold von und zu Ungarschitz, Frättling und Püllütz ( hu, Gróf Berchtold Lipót, cs, Leopold hrabě Berchtold z Uherčic) (18 April 1863 – 21 November 1942) was an Austro-Hu ...
's plea for friendship. Bethmann Hollweg was assured that Britain would not intervene in the frantic diplomatic rounds across the European powers. However, reliance on that assumption encouraged Austria to demand Serbian concessions. His main concern was Russian border manoeuvres, conveyed by his ambassadors at a time when
Raymond Poincaré
Raymond Nicolas Landry Poincaré (, ; 20 August 1860 – 15 October 1934) was a French statesman who served as President of France from 1913 to 1920, and three times as Prime Minister of France.
Trained in law, Poincaré was elected deputy in 1 ...
himself was preparing a secret mission to
St Petersburg
Saint Petersburg ( rus, links=no, Санкт-Петербург, a=Ru-Sankt Peterburg Leningrad Petrograd Piter.ogg, r=Sankt-Peterburg, p=ˈsankt pʲɪtʲɪrˈburk), formerly known as Petrograd (1914–1924) and later Leningrad (1924–1991), i ...
. He wrote to Count
Sergey Sazonov, "Russian mobilisation measures would compel us to mobilise and that then European war could scarcely be prevented."
When War Minister
Erich von Falkenhayn
General Erich Georg Sebastian Anton von Falkenhayn (11 September 1861 – 8 April 1922) was the second Chief of the German General Staff of the First World War from September 1914 until 29 August 1916. He was removed on 29 August 1916 after t ...
wanted to mobilise for war on 29 July, Bethmann was still against it but used his veto to prevent the
Reichstag from debating it. Pourtales' telegram of 31 July was what
Helmuth von Moltke the Younger
Graf Helmuth Johannes Ludwig von Moltke (; 25 May 1848 – 18 June 1916), also known as Moltke the Younger, was a German general and Chief of the Great German General Staff. He was also the nephew of ''Generalfeldmarschall'' ''Graf'' Helmuth Ka ...
, who declared a ''
Zustand drohender Kriegsgefahr'' (state of imminent danger of war), wanted to hear; to Bethmann Hollweg's dismay, the other powers had failed to communicate Russia's provocation.
In domestic politics, Bethmann Hollweg's record was also mixed, and his compromising of socialists and liberals on the left and nationalists on the right alienated most of the German political establishment.
World War I
Following the
assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, were assassinated on 28 June 1914 by Bosnian Serb student Gavrilo Princip. They were shot at close range whil ...
in
Sarajevo
Sarajevo ( ; cyrl, Сарајево, ; ''see Names of European cities in different languages (Q–T)#S, names in other languages'') is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 275,524 in its a ...
on 28 June 1914, Bethmann Hollweg and Germany's foreign minister,
Gottlieb von Jagow
Gottlieb von Jagow (22 June 1863 – 11 January 1935) was a German diplomat. He served as the State Secretary of the German Foreign Office between January 1913 and 1916.
Early life
Born in Berlin, Jagow was educated at the University of Bonn. He ...
, were instrumental in assuring
Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary, often referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire,, the Dual Monarchy, or Austria, was a constitutional monarchy and great power in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. It was formed with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of ...
of Germany's unconditional support, regardless of its actions against the
Serbia
Serbia (, ; Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Bas ...
. While Grey was suggesting a mediation between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, Bethmann Hollweg wanted Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia, and so he tampered with the British message and deleted the last line of the letter:
When the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum was presented to Serbia, Kaiser
Wilhelm II
Wilhelm II (Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albert; 27 January 18594 June 1941) was the last German Emperor (german: Kaiser) and King of Prussia, reigning from 15 June 1888 until his abdication on 9 November 1918. Despite strengthening the German Empir ...
ended his cruise of the
North Sea
The North Sea lies between Great Britain, Norway, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium. An epeiric sea on the European continental shelf, it connects to the Atlantic Ocean through the English Channel in the south and the Norwegian S ...
and hurried back to Berlin.
Despite his belief that war was inevitable, Bethmann Hollwegg avoided openly mobilizing the
Imperial German Army
The Imperial German Army (1871–1919), officially referred to as the German Army (german: Deutsches Heer), was the unified ground and air force of the German Empire. It was established in 1871 with the political unification of Germany under the l ...
until after
Tsar Nicholas II
Nicholas II or Nikolai II Alexandrovich Romanov; spelled in pre-revolutionary script. ( 186817 July 1918), known in the Russian Orthodox Church as Saint Nicholas the Passion-Bearer,. was the last Emperor of Russia, King of Congress Polan ...
had mobilized the
Imperial Russian Army
The Imperial Russian Army (russian: Ру́сская импера́торская а́рмия, tr. ) was the armed land force of the Russian Empire, active from around 1721 to the Russian Revolution of 1917. In the early 1850s, the Russian Ar ...
. This allowed the German government to claim it was the victim of Russian aggression, and also won it the support of the anti-
Tsarist
Tsarist autocracy (russian: царское самодержавие, transcr. ''tsarskoye samoderzhaviye''), also called Tsarism, was a form of autocracy (later absolute monarchy) specific to the Grand Duchy of Moscow and its successor states ...
Social Democratic Party of Germany
The Social Democratic Party of Germany (german: Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands, ; SPD, ) is a centre-left social democratic political party in Germany. It is one of the major parties of contemporary Germany.
Saskia Esken has been the ...
for most of the war.
Bethmann Hollweg, much of whose foreign policy before the war had been guided by his desire to establish good relations with Britain, was particularly upset by the
British entry into the war following the
German violation of Belgium's neutrality during its invasion of
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
. He reportedly asked the departing British Ambassador
Edward Goschen how Britain could go to war over a "scrap of paper" ("''ein Fetzen Papier''), which was the 1839
Treaty of London guaranteeing Belgium's neutrality.
Bethmann Hollweg had made some plans in the event Britain came into the war and was involved closely in the plans to destabilise the
British Empire
The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts esta ...
's colonies, most notably the
Hindu–German Conspiracy
The Indo–German Conspiracy (Note on the name) was a series of attempts between 1914 and 1917 by Indian nationalist groups to create a Pan-Indian rebellion against the British Empire during World War I. This rebellion was formulated betwee ...
.
A tall, gaunt, sombre, well-trimmed aristocratic figure, Bethmann Hollweg sought approval from a declaration of war. His civilian colleagues pleaded for him to register some febrile protest, but he was frequently outflanked by the military leaders, who played an increasingly important role in the direction of all German policy. However, according to historian
Fritz Fischer
Fritz Fischer (5 March 1908 – 1 December 1999) was a German historian best known for his analysis of the causes of World War I. In the early 1960s Fischer advanced the controversial thesis at the time that responsibility for the outbreak of the ...
, writing in the 1960s, Bethmann Hollweg made more concessions to the nationalist right than had previously been thought. He supported the
ethnic cleansing
Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal of ethnic, racial, and religious groups from a given area, with the intent of making a region ethnically homogeneous. Along with direct removal, extermination, deportation or population transfer ...
of Poles from the
Polish Border Strip The term "Polish Border Strip" (german: Polnischer Grenzstreifen; pl, polski pas graniczny) or "Polish Frontier Strip" refers to those territories which the German Empire wanted to annex from Congress Poland after World War I. It appeared in plans ...
as well as
Germanisation of Polish territories by settlement of German colonists.
Bethmann was against
Erich von Falkenhayn
General Erich Georg Sebastian Anton von Falkenhayn (11 September 1861 – 8 April 1922) was the second Chief of the German General Staff of the First World War from September 1914 until 29 August 1916. He was removed on 29 August 1916 after t ...
and wanted
Erich Ludendorff
Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff (9 April 1865 – 20 December 1937) was a German general, politician and military theorist. He achieved fame during World War I for his central role in the German victories at Liège and Tannenberg in 1914. ...
as the chief of staff.
Bethmann presented the
Septemberprogramm
The ''Septemberprogramm'' (, literally "September Program") was a memorandum authorized by Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg of the German Empire at the beginning of World War I (1914–18). It was drafted on 9 September 1914 by the Chancel ...
, which was a survey of ideas from the elite should Germany win the war. Bethmann Hollweg, with all credibility and power now lost, conspired over Falkenhayn's head with
Paul von Hindenburg
Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg (; abbreviated ; 2 October 1847 – 2 August 1934) was a German field marshal and statesman who led the Imperial German Army during World War I and later became President of Germany fro ...
and
Erich Ludendorff
Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff (9 April 1865 – 20 December 1937) was a German general, politician and military theorist. He achieved fame during World War I for his central role in the German victories at Liège and Tannenberg in 1914. ...
(respectively commander-in-chief and chief of staff for the
Eastern Front in the
Oberste Heeresleitung
The ''Oberste Heeresleitung'' (, Supreme Army Command or OHL) was the highest echelon of command of the army (''Heer'') of the German Empire. In the latter part of World War I, the Third OHL assumed dictatorial powers and became the ''de facto'' ...
) for an Eastern Offensive. They then succeeded, in August 1916 in securing Falkenhayn's replacement by Hindenburg as Chief of the General Staff, with Ludendorff as First Quartermaster-General (Hindenburg's deputy). Thereafter, Bethmann Hollweg's hopes for US President
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856February 3, 1924) was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th president of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic Party, Wilson served as the president of ...
's mediation at the end of 1916 came to nothing. Over Bethmann Hollweg's objections, Hindenburg and Ludendorff forced the adoption of unrestricted submarine warfare in March 1917, adopted at the
9 January 1917 German Crown Council meeting
The 9 January 1917 Crown Council meeting, presided over by German Emperor Wilhelm II, German Emperor, Wilhelm II, decided on the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare by the Imperial German Navy during the First World War. The policy had b ...
as a result of
Henning von Holtzendorff
Henning Rudolf Adolf Karl von Holtzendorff (9 January 1853 – 7 June 1919) was a German admiral during World War I, who became famous for his December 1916 memo about unrestricted submarine warfare against the United Kingdom. He was a recipient ...
's
memorandum
A memorandum ( : memoranda; abbr: memo; from the Latin ''memorandum'', "(that) which is to be remembered") is a written message that is typically used in a professional setting. Commonly abbreviated "memo," these messages are usually brief and ...
. Bethmann Hollweg had been a reluctant participant and opposed it in cabinet. The US entered the war in April 1917, perhaps the inevitability that they had wished to avoid.
Downfall
Bethmann Hollweg remained in office until July 1917, but during the war lost political influence to the ''
Oberste Heeresleitung
The ''Oberste Heeresleitung'' (, Supreme Army Command or OHL) was the highest echelon of command of the army (''Heer'') of the German Empire. In the latter part of World War I, the Third OHL assumed dictatorial powers and became the ''de facto'' ...
'' under
Paul von Hindenburg
Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg (; abbreviated ; 2 October 1847 – 2 August 1934) was a German field marshal and statesman who led the Imperial German Army during World War I and later became President of Germany fro ...
and
Erich Ludendorff
Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff (9 April 1865 – 20 December 1937) was a German general, politician and military theorist. He achieved fame during World War I for his central role in the German victories at Liège and Tannenberg in 1914. ...
. Despite his involvement in the Septemberprogramm, he increasingly favored a negotiated peace to end the conflict. This position was unpopular in the Reichstag, which included many
pan-German nationalists who demanded annexations and formed the
German Fatherland Party
The German Fatherland Party (german: Deutsche Vaterlandspartei, abbreviated as DVLP) was a short-lived far-right political party active in the German Empire during the last phase of World War I. It rejected the '' Burgfriedenspolitik'' or "party ...
under
Alfred von Tirpitz
Alfred Peter Friedrich von Tirpitz (19 March 1849 – 6 March 1930) was a German grand admiral, Secretary of State of the German Imperial Naval Office, the powerful administrative branch of the German Imperial Navy from 1897 until 1916. Prussi ...
. However, Bethmann Hollweg believed that if the
Allied powers accepted a German peace offer could win the support of the Social Democrats and seek the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
as a mediator to end the war on fair terms.
In December 1916, shortly after
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856February 3, 1924) was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th president of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic Party, Wilson served as the president of ...
was reelected in the
1916 United States presidential election and
David Lloyd George
David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, (17 January 1863 – 26 March 1945) was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1916 to 1922. He was a Liberal Party politician from Wales, known for leading the United Kingdom during t ...
replaced
H. H. Asquith
Herbert Henry Asquith, 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith, (12 September 1852 – 15 February 1928), generally known as H. H. Asquith, was a British statesman and Liberal Party politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom f ...
as
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
The prime minister of the United Kingdom is the head of government of the United Kingdom. The prime minister advises the sovereign on the exercise of much of the royal prerogative, chairs the Cabinet and selects its ministers. As modern pr ...
, Bethmann Hollweg announced that the Central Powers would accept a negotiated peace. The Allied governments refused the offer, but the United States was interested in mediating the conflict and pressured the British government into accepting mediation. Then in January 1917 Ludendorff pressured Bethmann Hollweg into accepting a
Catholic Centre Party
The Centre Party (german: Zentrum), officially the German Centre Party (german: link=no, Deutsche Zentrumspartei) and also known in English as the Catholic Centre Party, is a Catholic political party in Germany, influential in the German Empire ...
resolution allowing the
Imperial German Navy
The Imperial German Navy or the Imperial Navy () was the navy of the German Empire, which existed between 1871 and 1919. It grew out of the small Prussian Navy (from 1867 the North German Federal Navy), which was mainly for coast defence. Wilhel ...
to resume
unrestricted submarine warfare
Unrestricted submarine warfare is a type of naval warfare in which submarines sink merchant ships such as freighters and tankers without warning, as opposed to attacks per prize rules (also known as "cruiser rules") that call for warships to sea ...
, ruining relations with the United States. The resumption of
U-boat attacks on American shipping and the leak of the
Zimmermann Telegram led to the
American entry into World War I
American(s) may refer to:
* American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America"
** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America
** American ancestry
...
in March 1917.
After the
February Revolution
The February Revolution ( rus, Февра́льская револю́ция, r=Fevral'skaya revolyutsiya, p=fʲɪvˈralʲskəjə rʲɪvɐˈlʲutsɨjə), known in Soviet historiography as the February Bourgeois Democratic Revolution and somet ...
forced the
abdication of Tsar Nicholas II in Russia, Bethmann Hollweg began to worry about a similar anti-monarchist revolution in Germany. He convinced Kaiser Wilhelm II to include vague promises of political reform in his Easter address. This attracted great interest from the Social Democratic, Catholic Centre, and Progressive Parties. The
Reichstag passed
Matthias Erzberger
Matthias Erzberger (20 September 1875 – 26 August 1921) was a German writer and politician (Centre Party), the minister of Finance from 1919 to 1920.
Prominent in the Catholic Centre Party, he spoke out against World War I from 1917 and as a ...
's
Reichstag Peace Resolution The Reichstag Peace Resolution was passed by the '' Reichstag'' of the German Empire on 19 July 1917 by 212 votes to 126. It was supported by the Social Democrats, the Catholic Centre Party and the Progressive People's Party, and was opposed by th ...
demanding an end to the war and political reforms. Ludendorff convinced the Kaiser that Bethmann Hollweg was endangering the German monarchy and forced him to resign. He was replaced by a relatively unknown figure,
Georg Michaelis
Georg Michaelis (8 September 1857 – 24 July 1936) was the chancellor of the German Empire for a few months in 1917. He was the first (and the only one of the German Empire) chancellor not of noble birth to hold the office. With an economic ba ...
, who watered down the final Peace Resolution.
According to
Wolfgang J. Mommsen
Wolfgang Justin Mommsen (; 5 November 1930 – 11 August 2004) was a German historian. He was the twin brother of historian Hans Mommsen.
Biography
Wolfgang Mommsen was born in Marburg, the son of the historian Wilhelm Mommsen and great-grands ...
, Bethmann Hollweg weakened his own position by failing to establish good control over public relations. To avoid highly intensive negative publicity, he conducted much of his diplomacy in secret, thereby failed to build strong support for it. In 1914 he was willing to risk a world war to win public support.
Cabinet
German Revolution
During 1918, German support for the war was increasingly challenged by strikes and political agitation. In October sailors in the
German Imperial Navy
The Imperial German Navy or the Imperial Navy () was the navy of the German Empire, which existed between 1871 and 1919. It grew out of the small Prussian Navy (from 1867 the North German Federal Navy), which was mainly for coast defence. Kaiser ...
mutinied when ordered to set sail for a final confrontation with the
British Navy
The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by Kingdom of England, English and Kingdom of Scotland, Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were foug ...
. The
Kiel Mutiny
The Kiel mutiny () was a major revolt by sailors of the German High Seas Fleet on 3 November 1918. The revolt triggered the German revolution which was to sweep aside the monarchy within a few days. It ultimately led to the end of the German ...
sparked off the
November Revolution which brought the war to an end. Bethmann Hollweg tried to persuade the Reichstag to opt to negotiate for peace.
Later life
![Bethmann Hollweg Grab](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Bethmann_Hollweg_Grab.jpg)
Intellectual supporters of the policy in Berlin,
Arnold Wahnschaffe (1865–1941), undersecretary in the chancellery, and
Arthur Zimmermann
Arthur Zimmermann (5 October 1864 – 6 June 1940) was State Secretary for Foreign Affairs of the German Empire from 22 November 1916 until his resignation on 6 August 1917. His name is associated with the Zimmermann Telegram during World War ...
, were his closest and ablest colleagues. Bethmann Hollweg was directly responsible for devising the ''
Flamenpolitik
''Flamenpolitik'' (German; "Flemish policy") is the name for certain policies pursued by German authorities occupying Belgium during World War I and World War II. The ultimate goal of these policies was the dissolution of Belgium into separate W ...
'' on the Western Front carried out in the Schlieffen Plan, yet this strategy's ultimate failure as a mode of occupation brought economic collapse and military defeat, as was clearly identified by the
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. The Chancellor's justification lay in the refrain that Germany was fighting a war of national survival.
Bethmann Hollweg received prominent attention throughout the world in June 1919, when he formally asked the
Allied and Associated Powers
The Allies of World War I, Entente Powers, or Allied Powers were a coalition of countries led by France, the United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, Japan, and the United States against the Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman E ...
to place him on trial instead of the Kaiser. The
Supreme War Council
The Supreme War Council was a central command based in Versailles that coordinated the military strategy of the principal Allies of World War I: Britain, France, Italy, the US and Japan. It was founded in 1917 after the Russian revolution and w ...
decided to ignore his request. He was often mentioned as among those who might be tried by Allies for political offences in connection with the origin of the war.
In 1919, reports from Geneva said he was rumored in diplomatic circles there as leading the
monarchists
Monarchism is the advocacy of the system of monarchy or monarchical rule. A monarchist is an individual who supports this form of government independently of any specific monarch, whereas one who supports a particular monarch is a royalist. ...
for both the
Hohenzollerns
The House of Hohenzollern (, also , german: Haus Hohenzollern, , ro, Casa de Hohenzollern) is a German royal (and from 1871 to 1918, imperial) dynasty whose members were variously princes, electors, kings and emperors of Hohenzollern, Brandenb ...
and the
Habsburgs
The House of Habsburg (), alternatively spelled Hapsburg in Englishgerman: Haus Habsburg, ; es, Casa de Habsburgo; hu, Habsburg család, it, Casa di Asburgo, nl, Huis van Habsburg, pl, dom Habsburgów, pt, Casa de Habsburgo, la, Domus Hab ...
, the nucleus of which was said to be located in Switzerland.
[
The ex-Chancellor spent the short remainder of his life in retirement, writing his memoirs. A little after Christmas 1920, he caught a cold, which developed into acute pneumonia from which he died on 1 January 1921. His wife had died in 1914, and he had lost his eldest son in the war.
He was survived by a daughter, Countess Zech Burkescroda, the wife of the Secretary of the Russian Legation at ]Munich
Munich ( ; german: München ; bar, Minga ) is the capital and most populous city of the States of Germany, German state of Bavaria. With a population of 1,558,395 inhabitants as of 31 July 2020, it is the List of cities in Germany by popu ...
.
Bethmann Hollweg is buried in Hohenfinow.
Honours and awards
Orders and decorations
Military appointments
* Major general
Major general (abbreviated MG, maj. gen. and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. The disappearance of the "sergeant" in the title explains the apparent confusion of a ...
à la suite
À la suite (, ''in the entourage f') was a military title given to those who were allotted to the army or a particular unit for honour's sake, and entitled to wear a regimental uniform but otherwise had no official position.
In Prussia, these w ...
of the Prussian Army
The Royal Prussian Army (1701–1919, german: Königlich Preußische Armee) served as the army of the Kingdom of Prussia. It became vital to the development of Brandenburg-Prussia as a European power.
The Prussian Army had its roots in the co ...
See also
* Causes of World War I
The identification of the causes of World War I remains controversial. World War I began in the Balkans on July 28, 1914, and hostilities ended on November 11, 1918, leaving 17 million dead and 25 million wounded. Moreover, the Russian Civil ...
* German entry into World War I
Germany entered into World War I on August 1, 1914, when it declared war on Russia. In accordance with its war plan, it ignored Russia and moved first against France–declaring war on August 3 and sending its main armies through Belgium to captu ...
* History of Germany during World War I
During World War I, the German Empire was one of the Central Powers. It began participation in the conflict after the declaration of war against Serbia by its ally, Austria-Hungary. German forces fought the Allies on both the eastern and western f ...
References
Further reading
*
* Clark, Christopher. ''Kaiser Wilhelm II: A Life in Power'' (Penguin UK, 2009).
* Fay, Sidney Bradshaw. ''The origins of the world war'' (2 vol 1930), passim
online
*
* Gooch, G.P. ''Before the war: studies in diplomacy'' (2 vol 1936, 1938
online
vol 2 pp 201–285.
*
* Jarausch, Konrad Hugo. "Revising German History: Bethmann-Hollweg Revisited." ''Central European History'' 21#3 (1988): 224–243, historiograph
in JSTOR
* Jarausch, Konrad H. "The Illusion of Limited War: Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg's Calculated Risk, July 1914." Central European History 2.1 (1969): 48-76
online
* Kapp, Richard W. "Bethmann-Hollweg, Austria-Hungary and Mitteleuropa, 1914–1915." ''Austrian History Yearbook'' 19.1 (1983): 215-236.
* Langdon, John W. "Emerging from Fischer's shadow: recent examinations of the crisis of July 1914." ''History Teacher'' 20.1 (1986): 63–86, historiograph
in JSTOR
* Sweet, Paul Robinson. "Leaders and Policies: Germany in the Winter 1914-1915" ''Journal of Central European Affairs'' (1956) 16#3 pp 229–252.
* Tobias, John L. "The Chancellorship of Bethmann Hollweg and the Question of Leadership of the National Liberal Party." ''Canadian Journal of History'' 8.2 (1973): 145-165.
* Watson, Alexander. ''Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I'' ( Basic Books, 2014).
Primary sources
*
*, esp pp 10–24
* Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. ''Official German Documents Relating to the World War'', (2 vol Oxford University Press, 1923), II: 1320–1321
online in English translation
In German
*
* Janßen, Karl-Heinz: ''Der Kanzler und der General. Die Führungskrise um Bethmann Hollweg und Falkenhayn. (1914–1916).'' Musterschmidt, Göttingen u. a. 1967.
* Wollstein, Günter: ''Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg. Letzter Erbe Bismarcks, erstes Opfer der Dolchstoßlegende'' (= ''Persönlichkeit und Geschichte.'' Bd. 146/147). Muster-Schmidt, Göttingen u. a. 1995, .
* Zmarzlik, Hans G.: ''Bethmann Hollweg als Reichskanzler, 1909–1914. Studien zu Möglichkeiten und Grenzen seiner innerpolitischen Machtstellung'' (= ''Beiträge zur Geschichte des Parlamentarismus und der politischen Parteien.'' Bd. 11, ). Droste, Düsseldorf 1957.
Essays
* Deuerlein, Ernst: ''Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg.'' In: Ernst Deuerlein: ''Deutsche Kanzler. Von Bismarck bis Hitler.'' List, München 1968, S. 141–173.
* Erdmann, Karl Dietrich: ''Zur Beurteilung Bethmann Hollwegs'' (mit Tagebuchauszügen Kurt Riezlers). In: ''Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht.'' Jg. 15, 1964, , S. 525–540.
*
* Gutsche, Willibald: ''Bethmann Hollweg und die Politik der Neuorientierung. Zur innenpolitischen Strategie und Taktik der deutschen Reichsregierung während des ersten Weltkrieges.'' In: ''Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft.'' Jg. 13, H. 2, 1965, , S. 209–254.
* Mommsen, Wolfgang J.: ''Die deutsche öffentliche Meinung und der Zusammenbruch des Regierungssystems Bethmann Hollwegs im Juli 1917.'' In: ''Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht.'' Jg. 19, 1968, S. 422–440.
* Riezler, Kurt: ''Nachruf auf Bethmann Hollweg.'' In: ''Die deutsche Nation.'' Jahrgang 3, 1921, .
External links
* Katharine Anne Lerman
"Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von"
in
* ttps://archive.org/details/reflectionsonpt100bethuoft ''Reflections on the World War''at the Internet Archive
The Internet Archive is an American digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge". It provides free public access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, software applications/games, music, ...
*
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von
1856 births
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