''The Family of Darius before Alexander'' is an oil painting on canvas by

Paolo Veronese Paolo Caliari (152819 April 1588), known as Paolo Veronese ( , also , ), was an Italian Renaissance painter based in Venice, known for extremely large history paintings of religion and mythology, such as ''The Wedding at Cana'' (1563) and ''The ...

, created ca. 1565–1570. It depicts

Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, wikt:Ἀλέξανδρος, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Maced ...

with the family of

Darius III Darius III ( peo, 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 ; grc-gre, Δαρεῖος ; c. 380 – 330 BC) was the last Achaemenid King of Kings of Persia, reigning from 336 BC to his death in 330 BC. Contrary to his predecessor Artaxerxes IV Arses, Dar ...

, the

Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...

king he had defeated in battle. Although Veronese had previously painted a version of the subject, since destroyed, the theme had rarely been depicted by other artists before him.Salomon, 846 The painting has been in the collection of the

National Gallery The National Gallery is an art museum in Trafalgar Square in the City of Westminster, in Central London, England. Founded in 1824, it houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. The current Director o ...

in London since 1857.

Narrative

In 333 BC Alexander defeated Darius III, the last king of the Achaemenid Empire, at the

Battle of Issus The Battle of Issus (also Issos) occurred in southern Anatolia, on November 5, 333 BC between the Hellenic League led by Alexander the Great and the Achaemenid Empire, led by Darius III. It was the second great battle of Alexander's conquest of ...

. Darius escaped capture, but his wife

Stateira I Stateira ( gr, Στάτειρα; 370 BC - early 332 BC) was a queen of Persia as the wife of Darius III of Persia of the Achaemenid dynasty. She was possibly the sister of her husband. She accompanied her husband while he went to war. It was ...

, his mother,

Sisygambis Sisygambis (died 323 BCE) was the mother of Darius III of Persia, whose reign was ended during the wars of Alexander the Great. After she was captured by Alexander at the Battle of Issus, she became devoted to him, and Alexander referred to her a ...

, and his daughters

Stateira II Stateira ( el, Στάτειρα; died 323 BC), possibly also known as Barsine, was the daughter of Stateira and Darius III of Persia. After her father's defeat at the Battle of Issus, Stateira and her sisters became captives of Alexander ...

and

Drypetis Drypetis (died 323 BCE; sometimes Drypteis) was the daughter of Stateira I and Darius III of Persia. Drypetis was born between 350 and 345 BCE, and, along with her sister Stateira II, was a princess of the Achaemenid dynasty. Capture and marriage ...

were taken by Alexander. Alexander displayed forgiveness in victory. According to

Plutarch Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''P ...

: " egave them leave to bury whom they pleased of the Persians, and to make use for this purpose what garments and furniture they thought fit out of the booty. He diminished nothing of their equipage, or of the attentions and respect formerly paid them, and allowed larger pensions for their maintenance than they had before. But the noblest and most royal part of their usage was, that he treated these illustrious prisoners according to their virtue and character."Dimock, 94 Although Darius's wife was renowned for her beauty, "Alexander, esteeming it more kingly to govern himself than to conquer his enemies, sought no intimacy with any of them."Dimock, 95 The painting focuses on a misunderstanding involving Sisygambis, Darius's mother, which was not mentioned by Plutarch, but was recounted by several late Classical writers, among them

Arrian Arrian of Nicomedia (; Greek: ''Arrianos''; la, Lucius Flavius Arrianus; ) was a Greek historian, public servant, military commander and philosopher of the Roman period. ''The Anabasis of Alexander'' by Arrian is considered the best ...

Valerius Maximus Valerius Maximus () was a 1st-century Latin writer and author of a collection of historical anecdotes: ''Factorum ac dictorum memorabilium libri IX'' ("Nine books of memorable deeds and sayings", also known as ''De factis dictisque memorabilibus'' ...

and

Quintus Curtius Rufus Quintus Curtius Rufus () was a Roman historian, probably of the 1st century, author of his only known and only surviving work, ''Historiae Alexandri Magni'', "Histories of Alexander the Great", or more fully ''Historiarum Alexandri Magni Macedon ...

. According to Quintus Curtius's ''History of Alexander the Great'', Alexander went to the women's tent accompanied only by

Hephaestion Hephaestion ( grc, Ἡφαιστίων ''Hephaistíon''; c. 356 BC – October 324 BC), son of Amyntor, was an ancient Macedonian nobleman and a general in the army of Alexander the Great. He was "by far the dearest of all the ...

, counselor to the king and his intimate friend since the two had been children.Richter Sisygambis mistook the taller Hephaestion for Alexander, and knelt before him to plead for mercy. When her error was realized, Alexander magnanimously said that Hephaestion, too, was Alexander; this assuaged Sisygambis's embarrassment over her confusion, and served as a compliment to his friend.Dunkerton, et al, 109

Painting

The composition preserves this ambiguity, and reflects the confusion of Sisygambis.Salomon, 846 Generally the scholarship is in agreement that Alexander is the young man in red, who gestures as if in the act of speaking while referring to Hephaestion at his left, though some historians dispute that interpretation and reverse the two figures' identities.Salomon, 846 The continued uncertainty as to their correct identification is taken as evidence of Veronese's "pictorial intelligence".Salomon, 846 While honoring the spirit of the story, Veronese took liberties with his interpretation of the narrative, which in the painting occurs in a palatial hall, not a tent.Salomon, 846Richter The splendid wardrobe is that of the Venice in which Veronese lived, rather than ancient Greece or the Far East.RichterRuskin, 166 It has long been supposed that Veronese inserted portraits of his contemporaries into the painting, as was customary in Venetian history painting.RichterSalomon, 846 While it has been suggested that the figures were modeled after members of the

Pisani family The House of Pisani is a Venetian patrician family, originating from Pisa, which played an important role in the historic, political and economic events of the Venetian Republic during the period between the 12th and the beginning of the 18th centu ...

,Richter for whose estate the picture was made, it has alternatively been proposed that the kneeling girls are Veronese's daughters, and the courtier who presents them is the artist's self-portrait.Ruskin, 166 Another interpretation has Veronese appearing in the form of the man standing behind Alexander, while it has been suggested that it is the patron,

Francesco Pisani Francesco Pisani (1494 – 28 June 1570) was an Italian Cardinal, born in Venice, the son of Alvise Pisani the noted banker, who was Procurator of S. Mark's, a member of the Council of Ten, and a Councilor of the Doge of Venice; and Cecilia Giust ...

, who presents the family to Alexander.Salomon, 846 Recently art historian

Nicholas Penny Sir Nicholas Beaver Penny (born 21 December 1949) is a British art historian. From 2008 to 2015 he was director of the National Gallery in London. Early life Penny was educated at Shrewsbury School before he studied English at St Catharine ...

has written that the painting's characterizations of cultivated nobility were based on no particular models, and were products of the artist's imagination.Salomon, 846 The picture's theatrical design places the most prominent figures in a shallow foreground stage. Immediately behind them are a diverting company of pages,

halberd A halberd (also called halbard, halbert or Swiss voulge) is a two-handed pole weapon that came to prominent use during the 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. The word ''halberd'' is cognate with the German word ''Hellebarde'', deriving from ...

iers, dwarfs, dogs and monkeys, and in the further distance looms an architectural screen, an arched promenade parallel to the picture plane and supporting more spectators. These are pictorial preferences typical of Veronese, with the placement of figures and edifices reinforcing a processional character.Dunkerton, et al, 111 The curves of the distant arches echo the movement of the supplicated foreground figures, while the gesture of Sisygambis corresponds to and is reinforced by the verticals of the central fountain; the architectural geometry organizes the movement of the figures.Dunkerton, et al, 111 Analysis of the canvas has shown that it was a type favored by Veronese, with an arrangement of threads creating a diagonal twill pattern.Dunkerton, et al, 268 While he often preferred to paint on lightly colored grounds, for ''The Family of Darius before Alexander'', as with many of his larger paintings, Veronese prepared the canvas only with plain gesso.Dunkerton, et al, 271Dunkerton, et al, 286 Though he routinely made numerous preparatory sketches, Veronese made major revisions while working on ''The Family of Darius before Alexander'', including painting out a balcony with figures directly behind the main group, and adding lightly sketched horses and figures to the left background, perhaps as an afterthought.Dunkerton, et al, 286

Provenance and assessment

''The Family of Darius before Alexander'' was the only painting mentioned by

Goethe Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, and critic. His works include plays, poetry, literature, and aesthetic criticism, as well as treat ...

in the account of his 1786 visit to Venice.Salomon, 845 He admired the painting during his stay at the

Palazzo Pisani Moretta Palazzo Pisani Moretta is a palace situated along the Grand Canal in Venice, Italy (in the sestiere of San Polo) between Palazzo Tiepolo and Palazzo Barbarigo della Terrazza. History Built in the second half of the 15th Century by the Bembo fa ...

, and repeated the legend that the picture was painted by Veronese in gratitude for the Pisanis' hospitality.Salomon, 845 Supposedly the enormous canvas was painted at the villa in secret, and rolled up and left under a bed when the artist departed;Salomon, 845Ruskin, 166 the account has since been regarded as fanciful.Salomon, 845 According to recent scholarship, the painting was first owned by Francesco Pisani, and housed at the

Villa Pisani Villa Pisani at Stra refers to the monumental, late-Baroque rural palace located along the Brenta Canal (Riviera del Brenta) at Via Doge Pisani 7 near the town of Stra, on the mainland of the Veneto, northern Italy. This villa is one of the larg ...

in Montagnana, a building designed by

Palladio Andrea Palladio ( ; ; 30 November 1508 – 19 August 1580) was an Italian Renaissance architect active in the Venetian Republic. Palladio, influenced by Roman and Greek architecture, primarily Vitruvius, is widely considered to be one of th ...

.Salomon, 845 The canvas was probably moved to Venice after 1629, when the Pisani family purchased a palace on the Grand Canal.Salomon, 846 It was so esteemed that in 1664 agents of

Christina, Queen of Sweden Christina ( sv, Kristina, 18 December (New Style) 1626 – 19 April 1689), a member of the House of Vasa, was Queen of Sweden in her own right from 1632 until her abdication in 1654. She succeeded her father Gustavus Adolphus upon his death a ...

attempted to negotiate its purchase with the Venetian ambassador to Rome.Ilchman, et al, 69 The asking price of 5,000 ducats was considered excessive, and effectively discouraged all prospective buyers.Ilchman, et al, 69 As a result, copies of the painting were in demand, one of which was valued by its owner at 80 ducats.Ilchman, et al, 71

Charles Lock Eastlake Sir Charles Lock Eastlake (17 November 1793 – 24 December 1865) was a British painter, gallery director, collector and writer of the 19th century. After a period as keeper, he was the first director of the National Gallery. Life Eastlake ...

, the director of the National Gallery, examined the painting in Venice on October 14, 1856.Dimock, 96 At a time when the British Empire would have found the painting's idealizations reflective of its presumptions, and after four years of negotiations, the museum bought the painting for 13,650 pounds.Dimock, 96 The price was thought exorbitant, and in July 1857 the purchase was debated in the

House of Commons of the United Kingdom The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the upper house, the House of Lords, it meets in the Palace of Westminster in London, England. The House of Commons is an elected body consisting of 650 me ...

, when

Lord Elcho Earl of Wemyss ( ) is a title in the Peerage of Scotland created in 1633. The Scottish Wemyss family had possessed the lands of Wemyss in Fife since the 12th century. Since 1823 the earldom has been held with the Earldom of March, created in ...

attacked the painting as a "second- rate specimen".Dimock, 96Salomon, 845

John Ruskin John Ruskin (8 February 1819 20 January 1900) was an English writer, philosopher, art critic and polymath of the Victorian era. He wrote on subjects as varied as geology, architecture, myth, ornithology, literature, education, botany and politi ...

called it "the most precious Paul Veronese in the world".Ruskin, 165

Henry James Henry James ( – ) was an American-British author. He is regarded as a key transitional figure between literary realism and literary modernism, and is considered by many to be among the greatest novelists in the English language. He was the ...

wrote in 1882:

You may walk out of the noon-day dusk of Trafalgar Square in November, and in one of the chambers of the National Gallery see the family of Darius rustling and pleading and weeping at the feet of Alexander. Alexander is a beautiful young Venetian in crimson pantaloons, and the picture sends a glow into the cold London twilight.Dimock, 94

Notes

References

Dimock, Wai Chee. ''Through Other Continents: American Literature Across Deep Time'', 2008. Princeton University Press.
* Dunkerton, Jill, et al. ''Dürer to Veronese: Sixteenth-Century Painting in the National Gallery'', 1999. New Haven and London, Yale University Press. * Ilchman, Frederick, et al. ''Titian•Tintoretto•Veronese: Rivals in Renaissance Florence''. Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, 2009.
Richter, Jean Paul. The Family of Darius by Paolo Veronese, ''The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs'', Vol. 62, No. 361, April, 1933

Ruskin, John. ''A popular handbook to the National Gallery'', 1888.

Salomon, Xavier F. Review of Del piaceri della virtú. Paolo Veronese, Allesandro Magno e il patriziato veneziato by Claudia Terribile. ''The Burlington Magazine'', December 2009.

External links