''The Book of the Courtier'' ( it, Il Cortegiano ) by

Baldassare Castiglione Baldassare Castiglione, Count of Casatico (; 6 December 1478 – 2 February 1529),Dates of birth and death, and cause of the latter, fro, ''Italica'', Rai International online. was an Italian courtier, diplomat, soldier and a prominent Renaissanc ...

is a lengthy philosophical

dialogue Dialogue (sometimes spelled dialog in American English) is a written or spoken conversational exchange between two or more people, and a literary and theatrical form that depicts such an exchange. As a philosophical or didactic device, it is c ...

on the topic of what constitutes an ideal

courtier A courtier () is a person who attends the royal court of a monarch or other royalty. The earliest historical examples of courtiers were part of the retinues of rulers. Historically the court was the centre of government as well as the official r ...

or (in the third chapter) court lady, worthy to befriend and advise a Prince or political leader. Inspired by the Spanish court during his time as Ambassador of the Holy See (1524–1529), Castiglione set the narrative of the book in his years as a courtier in his native

Duchy of Urbino The Duchy of Urbino was an independent duchy in early modern central Italy, corresponding to the northern half of the modern region of Marche. It was directly annexed by the Papal States in 1625. It was bordered by the Adriatic Sea in the east ...

. The book quickly became enormously popular and was assimilated by its readers into the genre of prescriptive

courtesy book A courtesy book (also book of manners) was a didactic manual of knowledge for courtiers to handle matters of etiquette, socially acceptable behaviour, and personal morals, with an especial emphasis upon life in a royal court; the genre of courtesy l ...

s or books of manners, dealing with issues of

etiquette Etiquette () is the set of norms of personal behaviour in polite society, usually occurring in the form of an ethical code of the expected and accepted social behaviours that accord with the conventions and norms observed and practised by a ...

, self-presentation, and morals, particularly at princely, or royal courts, books such as

Giovanni Della Casa Giovanni della Casa (28 June 1503 – 14 November 1556), was a Florentine poet, writer on etiquette and society, diplomat, and inquisitor. He is celebrated for his famous treatise on polite behavior, '' Il Galateo overo de’ costumi'' (1558). Fr ...

's ''Galateo '' (1558) and

Stefano Guazzo Stefano Guazzo (; 1530–1593) was an Italian writer from Casale Monferrato. Biography Guazzo studied law, and thereafter worked for Lodovico Gonzaga and other members of the family, for which he was active as a diplomat in France and the Papa ...

's ''The civil conversation'' (1574). The ''Book of the Courtier'' was much more than that, however, having the character of a drama, an open-ended philosophical discussion, and an essay. It has also been seen as a veiled political

allegory As a literary device or artistic form, an allegory is a narrative or visual representation in which a character, place, or event can be interpreted to represent a hidden meaning with moral or political significance. Authors have used allegory th ...

. It offers a poignantly nostalgic evocation of an idealized milieu — that of the small courts of the

High Renaissance In art history, the High Renaissance was a short period of the most exceptional artistic production in the Italian states, particularly Rome, capital of the Papal States, and in Florence, during the Italian Renaissance. Most art historians stat ...

which were vanishing in the

Italian Wars The Italian Wars, also known as the Habsburg–Valois Wars, were a series of conflicts covering the period 1494 to 1559, fought mostly in the Italian peninsula, but later expanding into Flanders, the Rhineland and the Mediterranean Sea. The pr ...

— with a reverent tribute to the friends of Castiglione's youth, in particular the chastely married Duchess

Elisabetta Gonzaga Elisabetta Gonzaga (1471–1526) was a noblewoman of the Italian Renaissance, renowned for her cultured and virtuous life. A member of the House of Gonzaga, she was a sister of Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua and by marriage the Duchess o ...

of Urbino, to whom Castiglione had addressed a

sequence In mathematics, a sequence is an enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed and order matters. Like a set, it contains members (also called ''elements'', or ''terms''). The number of elements (possibly infinite) is calle ...

Platonic Plato's influence on Western culture was so profound that several different concepts are linked by being called Platonic or Platonist, for accepting some assumptions of Platonism, but which do not imply acceptance of that philosophy as a whole. It ...

sonnets and who died in 1526. The work was composed over the course of twenty years, beginning in 1508, and ultimately published in 1528 by the

Aldine Press The Aldine Press was the printing office started by Aldus Manutius in 1494 in Venice, from which were issued the celebrated Aldine editions of the classics (Latin and Greek masterpieces, plus a few more modern works). The first book that was dat ...

Venice Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 ...

just before the author's death. An influential English translation by

Thomas Hoby Sir Thomas Hoby (1530 – 13 July 1566) was an English diplomat and translator. Early life Hoby was born in 1530. He was the second son of William Hoby of Leominster, Herefordshire, by his second wife, Katherine, daughter of John Forden. He was ...

was published in 1561.

Principles

The book is organized as a series of conversations supposed to have taken place over four nights in 1507 between the

s of the

, at a time when Castiglione was himself a member of the Duke's Court (although he is not portrayed as one of the interlocutors.) The nature of an ideal courtier is debated between the many characters on the basis of various qualities, such as the need for noble rank, physical prowess, modesty, and pleasant physique, among other attributes. Different characters grant different levels of importance to these various qualities throughout the discussion. The ideal courtier is described as having a cool mind, a good voice (with beautiful, elegant and brave words) along with proper bearing and gestures. At the same time though, the courtier is expected to have a warrior spirit, to be athletic, and have good knowledge of the humanities,

Classics Classics or classical studies is the study of classical antiquity. In the Western world, classics traditionally refers to the study of Classical Greek and Roman literature and their related original languages, Ancient Greek and Latin. Classics ...

and

fine art In European academic traditions, fine art is developed primarily for aesthetics or creative expression, distinguishing it from decorative art or applied art, which also has to serve some practical function, such as pottery or most metalwork ...

s. Over the course of four evenings, members of the court try to describe the perfect gentleman of the court. In the process, they debate the nature of nobility, humor, women, and love.

Reception

''The Book of the Courtier'' was one of the most widely distributed books of the 16th century, with editions printed in six languages and in twenty European centers. The 1561 English translation by

had a great influence on the English upper class's conception of English gentlemen. The Courtier enjoyed influence for some generations, not least in Elizabethan England following its first translation by Sir Thomas Hoby in 1561, a time when Italian culture was very much in fashion.

Rhetoric

Of the many qualities Castiglione's characters attribute to their perfect courtier, oratory and the manner in which the courtier presents himself while speaking is amongst the most highly discussed. Wayne Rebhorn, a Castiglione scholar, states that the courtier's speech and behavior in general is “designed to make people marvel at him, to transform himself into a beautiful spectacle for others to contemplate." As explained by Count Ludovico, the success of the courtier depends greatly on his reception by the audience from the first impression. This partly explains why the group considers the courtier's dress so vital to his success. Castiglione's characters opine about how their courtier can impress his audience and win its approval. Similar to the Classical Roman rhetoricians

Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...

and

Quintilian Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (; 35 – 100 AD) was a Roman educator and rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and in Renaissance writing. In English translation, he is usually referred to as Quintilia ...

, Castiglione stresses the importance of delivery while speaking. In Book I, the Count states that when the courtier speaks he must have a “sonorous, clear, sweet and well sounding” voice that is neither too effeminate nor too rough and be “tempered by a calm face and with a play of the eyes that shall give an effect of grace.” (Castiglione 1.33) This grace, or ''grazia'', becomes an important element in the courtier's appearance to the audience. Edoardo Saccone states in his analysis of Castiglione, “''grazia'' consists of, or rather is obtained through, ''

sprezzatura ''Sprezzatura'' () is an Italian word that first appears in Baldassare Castiglione's 1528 ''The Book of the Courtier'', where it is defined by the author as "a certain nonchalance, so as to conceal all art and make whatever one does or says appear ...

''.” According to the Count, ''sprezzatura'' is the most important, rhetorical device the courtier needs. Peter Burke describes ''sprezzatura'' in ''The Book of the Courtier'' as “nonchalance”, “careful negligence”, and “effortless and ease.” The ideal courtier is someone who “conceals art, and presents what is done and said as if it was done without effort and virtually without thought.” (31). The Count advocates the courtier engage in ''sprezzatura'', or this “certain nonchalance”, in all the activities he participates in, especially speech. In Book I, he states, "Accordingly we may affirm that to be true art which does not appear to be art; nor to anything must we give greater care than to conceal art, for if it is discovered, it quite destroys our credit and brings us into small esteem." (Castiglione 1.26) The Count reasons that by obscuring his knowledge of letters, the courtier gives the appearance that his “orations were composed very simply” as if they sprang up from “nature and truth atherthan from study and art.” (1.26). This much more natural appearance, even though it is not natural by any means, is more advantageous to the courtier. The Count contends that if the courtier wants to attain ''grazia'' and be esteemed excellent, it would be in his best interest to have this appearance of nonchalance. By failing to employ ''sprezzatura'', he destroys his opportunity for grace. By applying ''sprezzatura'' to his speech and everything else he does, the courtier appears to have ''grazia'' and impresses his audience, thereby achieving excellence and perfection. (Saccone 16). Another feature of rhetoric which Castiglione discusses is the role of written language and style. Castiglione declined to imitate

Boccaccio Giovanni Boccaccio (, , ; 16 June 1313 – 21 December 1375) was an Italian people, Italian writer, poet, correspondent of Petrarch, and an important Renaissance humanism, Renaissance humanist. Born in the town of Certaldo, he became so we ...

and write in Tuscan Italian, as was customary at the time; instead he wrote in the Italian used in his native Lombardy (he was born near

Mantua Mantua ( ; it, Mantova ; Lombard language, Lombard and la, Mantua) is a city and ''comune'' in Lombardy, Italy, and capital of the Province of Mantua, province of the same name. In 2016, Mantua was designated as the Italian Capital of Culture ...

): as the Count says, “certainly it would require a great deal of effort on my part if in these discussions of ours I wished to use those old Tuscan words which the Tuscans of today have discarded; and what’s more I’m sure you would all laugh at me” (Courtier 70). Here, the use of the old and outdated Tuscan language is seen as a form of excess rather than a desirable trait. Castiglione states that had he followed Tuscan usage in his book, his description of sprezzatura would appear hypocritical, in that his effort would be seen as lacking in nonchalance (Courtier 71). Federico responds to the Count's assessment of the use of spoken language by posing the question as to what is the best language in which to write rhetoric. The Count's response basically states that the language does not matter, but rather the style, authority, and grace of the work matters most (Courtier 71). Robert J. Graham, a Renaissance literary scholar, notes that “questions of whose language is privileged at any given historical moment are deeply implicated in matters of personal, social and cultural significance”, which he states is the primary reason for Castiglione's usage of the native vernacular. This also illustrates the Count's response on the relativity of language in Latin. With the role of language set, Castiglione begins to describe the style and authority in which the courtier must write in order to become successful. The Count explains, "it is right that greater pains would be taken to make what is written more polished and correct…they should be chosen from the most beautiful of those employed in speech" (Courtier 71). This is where the style of which the courtier writes encourages the persuasiveness or successfulness of a speech. The success of a written speech, in contrast to the spoken speech, hinges on the notion that "we are willing to tolerate a great deal of improper and even careless usage"Graham, Robert J. ''Composing ourselves in Style: The Aesthetics of Literacty in The Courtier''. Journal of Aesthetic Education. University of Illinois Press. 1990. in oral rhetoric than written rhetoric. The Count explains that along with proper word usage, an ideal courtier must have a proper sense of style and flow to their words. These words must be factual yet entertaining as the Count states, “then, it is necessary to arrange what is to be said or written in its logical order, and after that to express it well in words that, if I am not mistaken, should be appropriate, carefully chosen, clear and well formed, but above all that are still in popular use" (Courtier 77). This form of emphasis on language is noted by Graham as; "Although the Count is aware that more traditional aspects of the orator (appearance, gestures, voice, etc.)…all this will be futile and of little consequence if the ideas conveyed by these words themselves are not witty or elegant to the requirements of the situation” (Graham 49).

References

* * ''The Book of the Courtier'' (1959), translated by Charles S. Singleton, generally considered the best translation. Available in a number of editions including: Doubleday (1959) and Norton Critical Edition (2002). *
''The Book of the Courtier''
(1561), English translation by

as edited by Walter Raleigh for David Nutt, Publisher, London, 1900. From the

University of Oregon The University of Oregon (UO, U of O or Oregon) is a public research university in Eugene, Oregon. Founded in 1876, the institution is well known for its strong ties to the sports apparel and marketing firm Nike, Inc, and its co-founder, billion ...

. * * Burke, Peter. ''The Fortunes of the Courtier: The European Reception of Castiglione's Cortegiano''. Penn State University Press, 1995. * Cavallo, Jo-Ann. "Joking Matters: Politics and Dissimulation in Castiglione's Book of the Courtier." ''Renaissance Quarterly'', Vol. 53, No. 2 (Summer, 2000), pp. 402–424 * Graham, Robert J. ''Composing Ourselves in Style: The Aesthetics of Literacy in The Courtier''. Journal of Aesthetic Education. University of Illinois Press. 1990. *Muchembled, Robert. "Manners, Courts, and Civility". In Ruggiero, Guido, editor, ''A Companion to the Worlds of the Renaissance'' (Wiley-Blackwell, 2006), pp. 156–173. *Richards, Jennifer Richards. "Assumed Simplicity and the Critique of Nobility: Or, How Castiglione Read Cicero" ''Renaissance Quarterly 54'': 2 (Summer 2001), 463. *Woodhouse, John Robert. ''Baldesar Castiglione: A reassessment of The Courtier'' (Writers of Italy series) University of Edinburgh Press: 1978

Notes

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