Taro Masuoka

Taro () (''Colocasia esculenta)'' is a root vegetable. It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, and petioles. Taro corms are a food staple in African, Oceanic, and South Asian cultures (similar to yams). Taro is believed to be one of the earliest cultivated plants.

Names and etymology

The English term ''taro'' was borrowed from the Māori language when Captain Cook first observed ''Colocasia'' plantations there in 1769. The form ''taro'' or ''talo'' is widespread among Polynesian languages:*''talo'': taro (''Colocasia esculenta'')
– entry in the ''Polynesian Lexicon Project Online'' (Pollex). in Tahitian; in Samoan and Tongan; in Hawaiian; ''tao'' in Marquesan. All these forms originate from Proto-Polynesian ''* talo'', which itself descended from Proto-Oceanic ''*talos'' (cf. in Fijian) and Proto-Austronesian ''*tales'' (cf. in Javanese). However, irregularity in sound correspondences among the cognate forms in Austronesian suggests that the term may have been borrowed and spread from an Austroasiatic language perhaps in Borneo (cf. proto-Mon-Khmer ''*t₂rawʔ'', Khasi , Khmu ''sroʔ'').

In the Odia language, it is called Saru (ସାରୁ). In India, it is widely used in the Odisha region.

In Cyprus, Colocasia has been in use since the Roman Empire. Today it is known as kolokasi (Kολοκάσι). It is usually cooked with celery and pork or chicken, in a tomato sauce in casserole. "Baby" kolokasi is called "poulles": after being fried dry, red wine and coriander seed are added, and then it is served with freshly squeezed lemon. Lately, some restaurants have begun serving thin slices of kolokasi deep fried, calling them "kolokasi chips".

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Other names include or ''madumbi'' in the Zulu language, "boina" in Wolaita language of Ethiopia, in Kirundi and Kinyarwanda. In Madagascar, it is known as ''saonjo''. It is called ''eddo'' in Liberia. It is ''dasheen'' in Trinidad and Tobago, Saint Lucia and Jamaica. The leaves are know are known as ''dasheen bush bhaji'' by Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonians.
In Portuguese, it is known as , , , , , or and in Spanish it is called .
In the Sinhala language of Sri Lanka it is called "Kiri Ala" (කිරිඅල), but malanga is a different species.

The Ancient Greek word (, lit. 'lotus root') is the origin of the Modern Greek word (), the word in both Greek and Turkish, and ''qolqas'' () in Arabic. It was borrowed in Latin as ''colocasia'', hence the genus name ''Colocasia''.

Taro is among the most widely grown species in the group of tropical perennial plants that are referred to as "elephant ears" when grown as ornamental plants.

In the Philippines, the whole plant is usually referred to as ''gabi'', while the corm is called ''taro''. Taro is very popular flavor for milktea in the country, and just as popular ingredient in several Flipino savory dishes such as sinigang.

Taxonomy and ecology

Nomenclature and related plants

Linnaeus originally described two species, ''Colocasia esculenta'' and ''Colocasia antiquorum'', but many later botanists consider them both to be members of a single, very variable species, the correct name for which is ''Colocasia esculenta''. The specific epithet, ', means "edible" in Latin.

Taro is related to ''Xanthosoma'' and ''Caladium'', plants commonly grown ornamentally, and like them, it is sometimes loosely called elephant ear. Similar taro varieties include giant taro (''Alocasia macrorrhizos''), swamp taro (''Cyrtosperma merkusii''), and arrowleaf elephant's ear (''Xanthosoma sagittifolium'').

Description

''Colocasia esculenta'' is a perennial, tropical plant primarily grown as a root vegetable for its edible, starchy corm. The plant has rhizomes of different shapes and sizes. Leaves are up to and sprout from the rhizome. They are dark green above and light green beneath. They are triangular-ovate, sub-rounded and mucronate at the apex, with the tip of the basal lobes rounded or sub-rounded. The petiole is high. The path can be up to long. The spadix is about three fifths as long as the spathe, with flowering parts up to in diameter. The female portion is at the fertile ovaries intermixed with sterile white ones. Neuters grow above the females, and are rhomboid or irregular orium lobed, with six or eight cells. The appendage is shorter than the male portion.
File:Elephant Ear Flower One.jpg, Flower
File:2006-10-22Colocasia01.jpg, Leaves
File:Coloc escul 140521-0017 tdp.JPG, Corms
File:Taro root and crossection of taro root.jpg, Corm (cross section)

Distribution and habitat

''Colocasia esculenta'' is thought to be native to Southern India and Southeast Asia, but is widely naturalised. ''Colocasia'' is thought to have originated in the Indomalayan realm, perhaps in East India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. It spread by cultivation eastward into Southeast Asia, East Asia and the Pacific Islands; westward to Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean Basin; and then southward and westward from there into East Africa and West Africa, where it spread to the Caribbean and Americas.

Taro was probably first native to the lowland wetlands of Malaysia, where it is called ''taloes''.

In Australia, ''Colocasia esculenta'' var. ''aquatilis'' is thought to be native to the Kimberley region of Western Australia; the common variety ''esculenta'' is now naturalised and considered an invasive weed in Western Australia, the Northern Territory, Queensland and New South Wales.

In Europe, Colocasia esculenta is only cultivated in Cyprus and it's called Colocasi, Κολοκάσι in Greek and it is certified as a PDO product.

In Turkey, ''Colocasia esculenta'' is locally known as ''gölevez'' and mainly grown on the Mediterranean coast, such as the Alanya district of Antalya Province and the Anamur district of Mersin Province.

In Macaronesia this plant has become naturalized, probably as a result of the Portuguese discoveries and is frequently used in the macaronesian diet as an important carb source.

In the southeastern United States, this plant is recognized as an invasive species. Many populations can be commonly found growing near drain ditches and bayous in Houston, Texas.

History

Taro is one of the most ancient cultivated crops.new-agri.co Country profile: Samoa, New Agriculturist Online
, accessed June 12, 2006 Taro is found widely in tropical and subtropical regions of South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Papua New Guinea, and northern Australia and in Maldives. Taro is highly polymorphic, making taxonomy and distinction between wild and cultivated types difficult. It is believed that they were domesticated independently multiple times, with authors giving possible locations as New Guinea, Mainland Southeast Asia, and northeastern India, based largely on the assumed native range of the wild plants. However, more recent studies have pointed out that wild taro may have a much larger native distribution than previously believed, and wild breeding types may also likely be indigenous to other parts of Island Southeast Asia.

Archaeological traces of taro exploitation have been recovered from numerous sites, though whether these were cultivated or wild types can not be ascertained. They include the Niah Caves of Borneo around 10,000 years ago, Ille Cave of Palawan, dated to at least 11,000 year ago; Kuk Swamp of New Guinea, dated to between 8250 BC and 7960 BC; and Kilu Cave in the Solomon Islands dated to around 28,000 to 20,000 years ago. In the case of Kuk Swamp, there is evidence of formalized agriculture emerging by about 10,000 years ago, with evidence of cultivated plots, though which plant was cultivated remains unknown.

Taro were carried into the Pacific Islands by Austronesian peoples from around 1300 BC, where they became a staple crop of Polynesians, along with other types of "taros", like ''Alocasia macrorrhizos'', ''Amorphophallus paeoniifolius'', and ''Cyrtosperma merkusii''. They are the most important and the most preferred among the four, because they were less likely to contain the irritating raphides present in the other plants. Taro is also identified as one of the staples of Micronesia, from archaeological evidence dating back to the pre-colonial Latte Period (c. 900 - 1521 AD), indicating that it was also carried by Micronesians when they colonized the islands. Taro pollen and starch residue have also been identified in Lapita sites, dated to between 1100 BC and 550 BC. Taro was later spread to Madagascar as early as the 1st century AD.

Cultivation

At around 3.3 million metric tons per year, Nigeria is the largest producer of taro in the world. Taro can be grown in paddy fields where water is abundant or in upland situations where water is supplied by rainfall or supplemental irrigation. Taro is one of the few crops (along with rice and lotus) that can be grown under flooded conditions. This is due to air spaces in the petiole, which permit underwater gaseous exchange with the atmosphere. For a maximum dissolved oxygen supply, the water should be cool and flowing. Warm, stagnant water causes basal rotting. For maximum yields, the water level should be controlled so that the base of the plant is always under water.

Flooded cultivation has some advantages over dry-land cultivation: higher yields (about double), out-of-season production (which may result in higher prices), and weed control (which flooding facilitates). On the other hand, in flooded production systems taro requires a longer maturation period, investment in infrastructure, and higher operational costs, and monoculture is likely.

Like most root crops, taro and eddoes do well in deep, moist or even swampy soils where the annual rainfall exceeds . Eddoes are more resistant to drought and cold. The crop attains maturity within six to twelve months after planting in dry-land cultivation and after twelve to fifteen months in wetland cultivation. The crop is harvested when the plant height decreases and the leaves turn yellow. These signals are usually less distinct in flooded taro cultivation.

Harvesting is usually done by hand tools, even in mechanized production systems. First, the soil around the corm is loosened, and then, the corm is pulled up by grabbing the base of the petioles. The global average yield is but varies according to the region. In Asia, average yields reach .

Uses

Culinary

It is a food staple in African, Oceanic and South Asian cultures.
People usually consume its edible corm and leaves. The corms, which have a light purple color due to phenolic pigments, are roasted, baked or boiled. The natural sugars give a sweet, nutty flavor. The starch is easily digestible, and since the grains are fine and small it is often used for baby food. Young taro leaves and stems can be eaten after boiling twice to remove the acrid flavor. The leaves are a good source of vitamins A and C and contain more protein than the corms.

In its raw form, the plant is toxic due to the presence of calcium oxalate, and the presence of needle-shaped raphides in the plant cells. However, the toxin can be minimized and the tuber rendered palatable by cooking, or by steeping in cold water overnight.

Corms of the small, round variety are peeled and boiled, then sold either frozen, bagged in their own liquids, or canned.

Oceania

=Cook Islands

=
Taro is the pre-eminent crop of the Cook Islands and surpasses all other crops in terms of land area devoted to production. The prominence of the crop there has led it to be a staple of the population's diet. Taro is grown across the country, but the method of cultivation depends on the nature of the island it is grown on. Taro also plays an important role in the country's export trade. The root is eaten boiled, as is standard across Polynesia. Taro leaves are also eaten, cooked with coconut milk, onion, and meat or fish.

=Fiji

=

Taro (''dalo'' in Fijian) has been a staple of the Fijian diet for centuries, and its cultural importance is celebrated on Taro Day. Its growth as an export crop began in 1993 when taro leaf blightTaro leaf blight caused by ''Phytophthora colocasiae''
College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources (CTAHR), University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, Honolulu, Hawai'i, p. 2. decimated the taro industry in neighboring Samoa. Fiji filled the void and was soon supplying taro internationally. Almost 80% of Fiji's exported taro comes from the island of Taveuni where the taro beetle species ''Papuana uninodis'' is absent. The Fijian taro industry on the main islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu faces constant damage from the beetles. The Fiji Ministry of Agriculture and the Land Resources Division of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) are researching pest control and instigating quarantine restrictions to prevent the spread of the pest. Taveuni now exports pest-damage-free crops.

=Hawaii

=
''Kalo'' is taro's Hawaiian name. The local crop plays an important role in Hawaiian culture and mythology. Taro is a traditional staple of the native cuisine of Hawaii. Some of the uses for taro include poi, table taro (steamed and served like a potato), taro chips, and lūʻau leaf (to make laulau). In Hawaii, kalo is farmed under either dryland or wetland conditions. Taro farming there is challenging because of the difficulties of accessing fresh water. Kalo is usually grown in "pond fields" known as ''loʻi''. Typical dryland or "upland" varieties (varieties grown in watered but not flooded fields) are ''lehua maoli'' and ''bun long'', the latter widely known as "Chinese taro". ''Bun long'' is used for making taro chips. ''Dasheen'' (also called "eddo") is another dryland variety cultivated for its corms or as an ornamental plant. A contemporary Hawaiian diet consists of many tuberous plants, particularly sweet potato and kalo.

The Hawaii Agricultural Statistics Service determined the 10-year median production of kalo to be about 6.1 million pounds (2,800 t). However, 2003 taro production was only 5 million pounds (2,300 t), the lowest since record-keeping began in 1946. The previous low (1997) was 5.5 million pounds (2,500 t). Despite generally growing demand, production was even lower in 2005—only 4 million pounds, with ''kalo'' for processing into ''poi'' accounting for 97.5%. Urbanization is one cause driving down harvests from the 1948 high of 14.1 million pounds (6,400 t), but more recently, the decline has resulted from pests and diseases. A non-native apple snail (''Pomacea canaliculata'') is a major culprit along with a plant rot disease traced to a species of fungus in the genus '' Phytophthora'' that now damages kalo crops throughout Hawaii. Although pesticides could control both problems to some extent, pesticide use in the ''loʻi'' is banned because of the opportunity for chemicals to migrate quickly into streams, and then eventually the sea.

Social roles

Important aspects of Hawaiian culture revolve around ''kalo''. For example, the newer name for a traditional Hawaiian feast, the lūʻau, comes from ''kalo''. Young ''kalo'' tops baked with coconut milk and chicken meat or octopus arms are frequently served at ''luaus''.

By ancient Hawaiian custom, fighting is not allowed when a bowl of ''poi'' is "open". It is also disrespectful to fight in front of an elder and one should not raise their voice, speak angrily, or make rude comments or gestures.

''Loʻi''

A ''loʻi'' is a patch of wetland dedicated to growing ''kalo''. Hawaiians have traditionally used irrigation to produce kalo. Wetland fields produce ten to fifteen times more kalo per acre than dry fields. Wetland-grown kalo need a constant flow of water.

About 300 varieties of kalo were originally brought to Hawaiʻi (about 100 remain). The kalo plant takes seven months to grow until harvest, so ''lo`i'' fields are used in rotation and the soil can be replenished while the ''loʻi'' in use has sufficient water. Stems are typically replanted in the ''lo`i'' for future harvests.

History

One mythological version of Hawaiian ancestry cites the taro plant as an ancestor to Hawaiians. Legend joins two siblings of high and divine rank: Papahānaumoku ("Papa from whom lands are born", or Earth mother) and Wākea (Sky father). Together they create the islands of Hawaii and a beautiful woman, Hoʻohokukalani (The Heavenly one who made the stars).

The story of kalo begins when Wakea and Papa conceived their daughter, Hoʻohokukalani. Daughter and father then conceived a child together named Hāloanakalaukapalili (Long stalk trembling), but it was stillborn. After the father and daughter buried the child near their house, a kalo plant grew over the grave:

The second child born of Wākea and Hoʻohokukalani was named Hāloa after his older brother. The kalo of the earth was the sustenance for the young brother and became the principal food for successive generations. The Hawaiian word for family, ', is derived from ''ʻohā'', the shoot that grows from the kalo corm. As young shoots grow from the corm of the kalo plant, so people, too, grow from their family.

= Papua New Guinea

=
The taro corm is a traditional staple crop for large parts of Papua New Guinea, with a domestic trade extending its consumption to areas where it is not traditionally grown. Taro from some regions has developed particularly good reputations with (for instance) Lae taro being highly prized.

Among the Urapmin people of Papua New Guinea, taro (known in Urap as ''ima'') is the main source of sustenance along with the sweet potato (Urap: ''wan''). In fact, the word for "food" in Urap is a compound of these two words.

= Polynesia

=
Considered the staple starch of traditional Polynesian cuisine, taro is both a common and prestigious food item that was first introduced to the Polynesian islands by prehistoric seafarers of Southeast Asian derivation. The tuber itself is prepared in various ways, including baking, steaming in earth ovens (''umu'' or ''imu''), boiling, and frying. The famous Hawaiian staple poi is made by mashing steamed taro roots with water. Taro also features in traditional desserts such as Samoan ''fa'ausi'', which consists of grated, cooked taro mixed with coconut milk and brown sugar. The leaves of the taro plant also feature prominently in Polynesian cooking, especially as edible wrappings for dishes such as Hawaiian ''laulau'', Fijian and Samoan ''palusami'' (wrapped around onions and coconut milk), and Tongan ''lupulu'' (wrapped corned beef). Ceremonial presentations on occasion of chiefly rites or communal events (weddings, funerals, etc.) traditionally included the ritual presentation of raw and cooked taro roots/plants.

The Hawaiian ''laulau'' traditionally contains pork, fish, and ''lu'au'' (cooked taro leaf). The wrapping is inedible ''ti'' leaves (Hawaiian: ''lau ki''). Cooked taro leaf has the consistency of cooked spinach and is therefore unsuitable for use as a wrapping.

= Samoa

=

In Samoa, the baby talo leaves and coconut milk are wrapped into parcels and cooked, along with other food, in an earth oven . The parcels are called ''palusami'' or ''lu'au''. The resulting taste is smoky, sweet, savory and has a unique creamy texture. The root is also baked (''Talo tao'') in the ''umu'' or boiled with coconut cream (''Faálifu Talo''). It has a slightly bland and starchy flavor. It is sometimes called the Polynesian potato.

= Tonga

=
''Lū'' is the Tongan word for the edible leaves of the taro plant (called ''talo'' in Tonga), as well as the traditional dish made using them. This meal is still prepared for special occasions and especially on Sunday. The dish consists of chopped meat, onions, and coconut milk wrapped in a number of taro leaves (''lū talo''). This is then wrapped traditionally in a banana leaf (nowadays, aluminum foil is often used) and put in the ''ʻumu'' to cook. It has a number of named varieties, dependent on the filling:
* ''Lū pulu'' – ''lū'' with beef, commonly using imported corned beef (''kapapulu'')
* ''Lū sipi'' – ''lū'' with lamb
* ''Lū moa'' – ''lū'' with chicken
* ''Lū hoosi'' – ''lū'' with horse meat

Oceanian Atolls

The islands situated along the border of the three main parts of Oceania (Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia) are more prone to being atolls rather than volcanic islands (most prominently Tuvalu, Tokelau, and Kiribati). As a result of this, Taro was not a part of the traditional diet due to the infertile soil and have only become a staple today through importation from other islands (Taro and Cassava cultivars are usually imported from Fiji or Samoa). The traditional staple however is the Swamp Taro known as Pulaka or Babai, a distant relative of the Taro but with a very long growing phase (3–5 years), larger and denser corms and coarser leaves. It is grown in a patch of land dug out to give rise to the freshwater lense beneath the soil. The lengthy growing time of this crop usually confines it as a food during festivities much like Pork although it can be preserved by drying out in the sun and storing it somewhere cool and dry to be enjoyed out of harvesting season.

East Asia

=China

=
Taro () is commonly used as a main course as steamed taro with or without sugar, as a substitute for other cereals, in Chinese cuisine in a variety of styles and provinces steamed, boiled or stir-fried as a main dish and as a flavor-enhancing ingredient. In Northern China, it is often boiled or steamed then peeled and eaten with or without sugar much like a potato. It is commonly braised with pork or beef. It is used in the Cantonese dim sum to make a small plated dish called taro dumpling as well as a pan-fried dish called taro cake. It can also be shredded into long strips which are woven together to form a seafood birdsnest. In Fujian cuisine, it is steamed or boiled and mixed with starch to form a dough for dumpling.

Taro cake is a delicacy traditionally eaten during Chinese New Year celebrations. As a dessert, it can be mashed into a purée or used as a flavoring in '' tong sui'', ice cream, and other desserts such as Sweet Taro Pie. McDonald's sells taro-flavored pies in China.

Taro is mashed in the dessert known as taro purée.

Taro paste, a traditional Cantonese cuisine, which originated from the Chaoshan region in the eastern part of China's Guangdong Province is a dessert made primarily from taro. The taro is steamed and then mashed into a thick paste, which forms the base of the dessert. Lard or fried onion oil is then added for fragrance. The dessert is traditionally sweetened with water chestnut syrup, and served with ginkgo nuts. Modern versions of the dessert include the addition of coconut cream and sweet corn. The dessert is commonly served at traditional Teochew wedding banquet dinners as the last course, marking the end of the banquet.

=Japan

=

A similar plant in Japan is called . The "child" and "grandchild" corms (cormels, cormlets) which bud from the parent ''satoimo'', are called and , respectively, or more generally . ''Satoimo'' has been propagated in Southeast Asia since the late Jōmon period. It was a regional staple before rice became predominant. The tuber, ''satoimo'', is often prepared through simmering in fish stock ('' dashi'') and soy sauce. The stalk, , can also be prepared a number of ways, depending on the variety.

=Korea

=

In Korea, taro is called ''toran'' ( ko, 토란: "earth egg"), and the corm is stewed and the leaf stem is stir-fried. Taro roots can be used for medicinal purposes, particularly for treating insect bites. It is made into the Korean traditional soup ''toranguk'' (토란국). Taro stems are often used as an ingredient in yukgaejang (육개장).

=Taiwan

=

In Taiwan, taro— ''yùtóu'' () in Mandarin, and ''ō͘-á'' () in Taiwanese—is well-adapted to Taiwanese climate and can grow almost anywhere in the country with minimal maintenance. Before the Taiwan Miracle made rice affordable to everyone, taro was one of the main staples in Taiwan. Nowadays taro is used more often in desserts. Supermarket varieties range from about the size and shape of a brussels sprout to longer, larger varieties the size of a football. Taro chips are often used as a potato-chip-like snack. Compared to potato chips, taro chips are harder and have a nuttier flavor. Another popular traditional Taiwanese snack is taro ball, served on ice or deep-fried. It is common to see taro as a flavor in desserts and drinks, such as bubble tea.

Southeast Asia

=Indonesia

=
In Indonesia, taro is widely used for snacks, cakes, crackers, and even macarons, thus it can be easily found everywhere. Some varieties are specially cultivated in accordance with social or geographical traditions. Taro is usually known as "keladi", although other varieties are also known as "talas", among others. Chinese descendants in Indonesia often eat taro with stewed rice and dried shrimp. The taro is diced and cooked along with the rice, the shrimp, and sesame oil.

=Philippines

=

In the Philippines taro is usually called ''gabi'', ''abi'', or ''avi'' and is widely available throughout the archipelago. Its adaptability to marshland and swamps make it one of the most common vegetables in the Philippines. The leaves, stems, and corms are all consumed and form part of the local cuisine. A popular recipe for taro is '' laing'' from the Bicol Region; the dish's main ingredients are taro leaves (at times including stems) cooked in coconut milk, and salted with fermented shrimp or fish ''bagoong''. It is sometimes heavily spiced with red hot chilies called '' siling labuyo''. Another dish in which taro is commonly used is the Philippine national stew, '' sinigang'', although radish can be used if taro is not available. This stew is made with pork and beef, shrimp, or fish, a souring agent (tamarind fruit, ''kamias'', etc.) with the addition of peeled and diced corms as thickener. The corm is also prepared as a basic ingredient for ''ginataan'', a coconut milk and taro dessert.

=Thailand

=
In Thai cuisine, taro th, เผือก (''pheuak'') is used in a variety of ways depending on the region. Boiled taro is readily available in the market packaged in small cellophane bags, already peeled and diced, and eaten as a snack. Pieces of boiled taro with coconut milk are a traditional Thai dessert. Raw taro is also often sliced and deep fried and sold in bags as chips (เผือกทอด). As in other Asian countries, taro is a popular flavor for ice cream in Thailand.

=Vietnam

=

In Vietnam, there is a large variety of taro plants. One is called ''khoai môn,'' which is used as a filling in spring rolls, cakes, puddings and sweet soup desserts, smoothies and other desserts. Taro is used in the Tết dessert ''chè khoai môn'', which is sticky rice pudding with taro roots. The stems are also used in soups such as ''canh chua''. One is called ''khoai sọ'', which is smaller in size than ''khoai môn''. Another common taro plant grows roots in shallow waters and grows stems and leaves above the surface of the water. This taro plant has saponin-like substances that cause a hot, itchy feeling in the mouth and throat. Northern farmers used to plant them to cook the stems and leaves to feed their hogs. They re-grew quickly from their roots. After cooking, the saponin in the soup of taro stems and leaves is reduced to a level the hogs can eat. Today this practice is no longer popular in Vietnam agriculture. These taro plants are commonly called ''khoai ngứa'', which literally means "itchy potato".

South Asia

Taro roots are commonly known as Arbi or Arvi in Urdu