Swarm Intelligence
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Swarm intelligence (SI) is the collective behavior of
decentralized Decentralization or decentralisation is the process by which the activities of an organization, particularly those regarding planning and decision making, are distributed or delegated away from a central, authoritative location or group. Conce ...
,
self-organized Self-organization, also called spontaneous order in the social sciences, is a process where some form of overall order arises from local interactions between parts of an initially disordered system. The process can be spontaneous when suff ...
systems, natural or artificial. The concept is employed in work on
artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence—perceiving, synthesizing, and inferring information—demonstrated by machines, as opposed to intelligence displayed by animals and humans. Example tasks in which this is done include speech re ...
. The expression was introduced by
Gerardo Beni Gerardo Beni (born Florence, Italy 21 February 1946) is a professor of electrical engineering at University of California, Riverside who, with Jing Wang, is known as the originator of the term ''swarm intelligence'' in the context of cellular robot ...
and Jing Wang in 1989, in the context of cellular robotic systems. SI systems consist typically of a population of simple agents or
boids Boids is an artificial life program, developed by Craig Reynolds in 1986, which simulates the flocking behaviour of birds. His paper on this topic was published in 1987 in the proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH conference. The name "boid" corre ...
interacting locally with one another and with their environment.Hu, J.; Turgut, A.; Krajnik, T.; Lennox, B.; Arvin, F.,
Occlusion-Based Coordination Protocol Design for Autonomous Robotic Shepherding Tasks
IEEE Transactions on Cognitive and Developmental Systems, 2020.
The inspiration often comes from nature, especially biological systems. The agents follow very simple rules, and although there is no centralized control structure dictating how individual agents should behave, local, and to a certain degree random, interactions between such agents lead to the
emergence In philosophy, systems theory, science, and art, emergence occurs when an entity is observed to have properties its parts do not have on their own, properties or behaviors that emerge only when the parts interact in a wider whole. Emergence ...
of "intelligent" global behavior, unknown to the individual agents.Hu, J.; Bhowmick, P.; Jang, I.; Arvin, F.; Lanzon, A.,
A Decentralized Cluster Formation Containment Framework for Multirobot Systems
IEEE Transactions on Robotics, 2021.
Examples of swarm intelligence in natural systems include ant colonies, bee colonies, bird flocking, hawks
hunting Hunting is the human activity, human practice of seeking, pursuing, capturing, or killing wildlife or feral animals. The most common reasons for humans to hunt are to harvest food (i.e. meat) and useful animal products (fur/hide (skin), hide, ...
, animal
herding Herding is the act of bringing individual animals together into a group (herd), maintaining the group, and moving the group from place to place—or any combination of those. Herding can refer either to the process of animals forming herds in ...
,
bacterial growth 250px, Growth is shown as ''L'' = log(numbers) where numbers is the number of colony forming units per ml, versus ''T'' (time.) Bacterial growth is proliferation of bacterium into two daughter cells, in a process called binary fission. Providing ...
, fish
schooling A school is an educational institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is sometimes compuls ...
and microbial intelligence. The application of swarm principles to
robot A robot is a machine—especially one programmable by a computer—capable of carrying out a complex series of actions automatically. A robot can be guided by an external control device, or the control may be embedded within. Robots may be c ...
s is called ''
swarm robotics Swarm robotics is an approach to the coordination of multiple robots as a system which consist of large numbers of mostly simple physical robots. ″In a robot swarm, the collective behavior of the robots results from local interactions between ...
'' while ''swarm intelligence'' refers to the more general set of algorithms. ''Swarm prediction'' has been used in the context of forecasting problems. Similar approaches to those proposed for swarm robotics are considered for
genetically modified organisms A genetically modified organism (GMO) is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. The exact definition of a genetically modified organism and what constitutes genetic engineering varies, with ...
in synthetic collective intelligence.


Models of swarm behavior


Boids (Reynolds 1987)

Boids is an
artificial life Artificial life (often abbreviated ALife or A-Life) is a field of study wherein researchers examine systems related to natural life, its processes, and its evolution, through the use of simulations with computer models, robotics, and biochemistry ...
program, developed by Craig Reynolds in 1986, which simulates flocking was published in 1987 in the proceedings of the ACM
SIGGRAPH SIGGRAPH (Special Interest Group on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques) is an annual conference on computer graphics (CG) organized by the ACM SIGGRAPH, starting in 1974. The main conference is held in North America; SIGGRAPH Asia ...
conference. The name "boid" corresponds to a shortened version of "bird-oid object", which refers to a bird-like object. As with most artificial life simulations, Boids is an example of emergent behavior; that is, the complexity of Boids arises from the interaction of individual agents (the boids, in this case) adhering to a set of simple rules. The rules applied in the simplest Boids world are as follows: * separation:
steer Steer, Steers or Steering may refer to: Animals * Steer or bullock, castrated male cattle * Ox, a steer used as a draft animal People * Steer (surname) * Steers (surname) Places * Steer Creek (West Virginia), a tributary of the Little ...
to avoid crowding local flockmates * alignment: steer towards the average heading of local flockmates * cohesion: steer to move toward the average position (center of mass) of local flockmates More complex rules can be added, such as obstacle avoidance and goal seeking.


Self-propelled particles (Vicsek ''et al''. 1995)

Self-propelled particles (SPP), also referred to as the ''
Vicsek model The Vicsek model is a mathematical model used to describe active matter. One motivation of the study of active matter by physicists is the rich phenomenology associated to this field. Collective motion and swarming are among the most studied pheno ...
'', was introduced in 1995 by Vicsek ''et al.'' as a special case of the
boids Boids is an artificial life program, developed by Craig Reynolds in 1986, which simulates the flocking behaviour of birds. His paper on this topic was published in 1987 in the proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH conference. The name "boid" corre ...
model introduced in 1986 by
Reynolds Reynolds may refer to: Places Australia *Hundred of Reynolds, a cadastral unit in South Australia *Hundred of Reynolds (Northern Territory), a cadastral unit in the Northern Territory of Australia United States * Reynolds, Mendocino County, Calif ...
. A swarm is modelled in SPP by a collection of particles that move with a constant speed but respond to a random perturbation by adopting at each time increment the average direction of motion of the other particles in their local neighbourhood. SPP models predict that swarming animals share certain properties at the group level, regardless of the type of animals in the swarm. Swarming systems give rise to
emergent behaviour In philosophy, systems theory, science, and art, emergence occurs when an entity is observed to have properties its parts do not have on their own, properties or behaviors that emerge only when the parts interact in a wider whole. Emergence ...
s which occur at many different scales, some of which are turning out to be both universal and robust. It has become a challenge in theoretical physics to find minimal statistical models that capture these behaviours.


Metaheuristics

Evolutionary algorithm In computational intelligence (CI), an evolutionary algorithm (EA) is a subset of evolutionary computation, a generic population-based metaheuristic optimization algorithm. An EA uses mechanisms inspired by biological evolution, such as reproduct ...
s (EA), particle swarm optimization (PSO),
differential evolution In evolutionary computation, differential evolution (DE) is a method that optimizes a problem by iteratively trying to improve a candidate solution with regard to a given measure of quality. Such methods are commonly known as metaheuristics as ...
(DE),
ant colony optimization In computer science and operations research, the ant colony optimization algorithm (ACO) is a probabilistic technique for solving computational problems which can be reduced to finding good paths through graphs. Artificial ants stand for multi ...
(ACO) and their variants dominate the field of nature-inspired
metaheuristic In computer science and mathematical optimization, a metaheuristic is a higher-level procedure or heuristic designed to find, generate, or select a heuristic (partial search algorithm) that may provide a sufficiently good solution to an optimizati ...
s. This list includes algorithms published up to circa the year 2000. A large number of more recent metaphor-inspired metaheuristics have started to attract criticism in the research community for hiding their lack of novelty behind an elaborate metaphor. For algorithms published since that time, see
List of metaphor-based metaheuristics This is a chronologically ordered list of metaphor-based metaheuristics and swarm intelligence algorithms, sorted by decade of proposal. Algorithms 1980s-1990s Simulated annealing (Kirkpatrick et al., 1983) Simulated annealing is a pr ...
.
Metaheuristic In computer science and mathematical optimization, a metaheuristic is a higher-level procedure or heuristic designed to find, generate, or select a heuristic (partial search algorithm) that may provide a sufficiently good solution to an optimizati ...
s lack a confidence in a solution. When appropriate parameters are determined, and when sufficient convergence stage is achieved, they often find a solution that is optimal, or near close to optimum – nevertheless, if one does not know optimal solution in advance, a quality of a solution is not known. In spite of this obvious drawback it has been shown that these types of
algorithm In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm () is a finite sequence of rigorous instructions, typically used to solve a class of specific Computational problem, problems or to perform a computation. Algorithms are used as specificat ...
s work well in practice, and have been extensively researched, and developed. On the other hand, it is possible to avoid this drawback by calculating solution quality for a special case where such calculation is possible, and after such run it is known that every solution that is at least as good as the solution a special case had, has at least a solution confidence a special case had. One such instance is
Ant Ants are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from vespoid wasp ancestors in the Cretaceous period. More than 13,800 of an estimated total of ...
inspired
Monte Carlo algorithm In computing, a Monte Carlo algorithm is a randomized algorithm whose output may be incorrect with a certain (typically small) probability. Two examples of such algorithms are Karger–Stein algorithm and Monte Carlo algorithm for minimum Feedba ...
for
Minimum Feedback Arc Set In graph theory and graph algorithms, a feedback arc set or feedback edge set in a directed graph is a subset of the edges of the graph that contains at least one edge out of every cycle in the graph. Removing these edges from the graph breaks al ...
where this has been achieved probabilistically via hybridization of
Monte Carlo algorithm In computing, a Monte Carlo algorithm is a randomized algorithm whose output may be incorrect with a certain (typically small) probability. Two examples of such algorithms are Karger–Stein algorithm and Monte Carlo algorithm for minimum Feedba ...
with
Ant Colony Optimization In computer science and operations research, the ant colony optimization algorithm (ACO) is a probabilistic technique for solving computational problems which can be reduced to finding good paths through graphs. Artificial ants stand for multi ...
technique.


Stochastic diffusion search (Bishop 1989)

First published in 1989 Stochastic diffusion search (SDS) was the first Swarm Intelligence metaheuristic. SDS is an agent-based probabilistic global search and optimization technique best suited to problems where the objective function can be decomposed into multiple independent partial-functions. Each agent maintains a hypothesis that is iteratively tested by evaluating a randomly selected partial objective function parameterised by the agent's current hypothesis. In the standard version of SDS such partial function evaluations are binary, resulting in each agent becoming active or inactive. Information on hypotheses is diffused across the population via inter-agent communication. Unlike the stigmergic communication used in ACO, in SDS agents communicate hypotheses via a one-to-one communication strategy analogous to the
tandem running Tandem running is a pair movement coordination observed in ants and termites. In ants, tandem running is used for social learning, by which one ant leads another native ant from the nest to the food source it has found. Tandem running is also us ...
procedure observed in
Leptothorax acervorum ''Leptothorax acervorum'' is a small brown to yellow ant in the subfamily Myrmicinae. It was first described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1793. ''L. acervorum'' is vastly distributed across the globe, most commonly found in the coniferous fore ...
. A positive feedback mechanism ensures that, over time, a population of agents stabilise around the global-best solution. SDS is both an efficient and robust global search and optimisation algorithm, which has been extensively mathematically described. Recent work has involved merging the global search properties of SDS with other swarm intelligence algorithms.


Ant colony optimization (Dorigo 1992)

Ant colony optimization (ACO), introduced by Dorigo in his doctoral dissertation, is a class of
optimization Mathematical optimization (alternatively spelled ''optimisation'') or mathematical programming is the selection of a best element, with regard to some criterion, from some set of available alternatives. It is generally divided into two subfi ...
algorithm In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm () is a finite sequence of rigorous instructions, typically used to solve a class of specific Computational problem, problems or to perform a computation. Algorithms are used as specificat ...
s modeled on the actions of an
ant colony An ant colony is a population of a single ant species capable to maintain its complete lifecycle. Ant colonies are eusocial, communal, and efficiently organized and are very much like those found in other social Hymenoptera, though the vario ...
. ACO is a probabilistic technique useful in problems that deal with finding better paths through graphs. Artificial 'ants'—simulation agents—locate optimal solutions by moving through a
parameter space The parameter space is the space of possible parameter values that define a particular mathematical model, often a subset of finite-dimensional Euclidean space. Often the parameters are inputs of a function, in which case the technical term for th ...
representing all possible solutions. Natural ants lay down
pheromone A pheromone () is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to affect the behavio ...
s directing each other to resources while exploring their environment. The simulated 'ants' similarly record their positions and the quality of their solutions, so that in later simulation iterations more ants locate for better solutions.


Particle swarm optimization (Kennedy, Eberhart & Shi 1995)

Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is a
global optimization Global optimization is a branch of applied mathematics and numerical analysis that attempts to find the global minima or maxima of a function or a set of functions on a given set. It is usually described as a minimization problem because the max ...
algorithm for dealing with problems in which a best solution can be represented as a point or surface in an n-dimensional space. Hypotheses are plotted in this space and seeded with an initial
velocity Velocity is the directional speed of an object in motion as an indication of its rate of change in position as observed from a particular frame of reference and as measured by a particular standard of time (e.g. northbound). Velocity is a ...
, as well as a communication channel between the particles. Particles then move through the solution space, and are evaluated according to some fitness criterion after each timestep. Over time, particles are accelerated towards those particles within their communication grouping which have better fitness values. The main advantage of such an approach over other global minimization strategies such as
simulated annealing Simulated annealing (SA) is a probabilistic technique for approximating the global optimum of a given function. Specifically, it is a metaheuristic to approximate global optimization in a large search space for an optimization problem. ...
is that the large number of members that make up the particle swarm make the technique impressively resilient to the problem of
local minima In mathematical analysis, the maxima and minima (the respective plurals of maximum and minimum) of a function, known collectively as extrema (the plural of extremum), are the largest and smallest value of the function, either within a given ran ...
.


Artificial Swarm Intelligence (2015)

Artificial Swarm Intelligence (ASI) is method of amplifying the collective intelligence of networked human groups using control algorithms modeled after natural swarms. Sometimes referred to as Human Swarming or Swarm AI, the technology connects groups of human participants into real-time systems that deliberate and converge on solutions as dynamic swarms when simultaneously presented with a question ASI has been used for a wide range of applications, from enabling business teams to generate highly accurate financial forecasts to enabling sports fans to outperform Vegas betting markets. ASI has also been used to enable groups of doctors to generate diagnoses with significantly higher accuracy than traditional methods. ASI has been used by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and international security, security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be ...
to help forecast famines in hotspots around the world.


Applications

Swarm Intelligence-based techniques can be used in a number of applications. The U.S. military is investigating swarm techniques for controlling unmanned vehicles. The
European Space Agency , owners = , headquarters = Paris, Île-de-France, France , coordinates = , spaceport = Guiana Space Centre , seal = File:ESA emblem seal.png , seal_size = 130px , image = Views in the Main Control Room (1205 ...
is thinking about an orbital swarm for self-assembly and interferometry.
NASA The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agency of the US federal government responsible for the civil space program, aeronautics research, and space research. NASA was established in 1958, succeeding t ...
is investigating the use of swarm technology for planetary mapping. A 1992 paper by M. Anthony Lewis and George A. Bekey discusses the possibility of using swarm intelligence to control nanobots within the body for the purpose of killing cancer tumors. Conversely al-Rifaie and Aber have used stochastic diffusion search to help locate tumours. Swarm intelligence has also been applied for data mining and
cluster analysis Cluster analysis or clustering is the task of grouping a set of objects in such a way that objects in the same group (called a cluster) are more similar (in some sense) to each other than to those in other groups (clusters). It is a main task of ...
. Ant based models are further subject of modern management theory.


Ant-based routing

The use of swarm intelligence in telecommunication networks has also been researched, in the form of ant-based routing. This was pioneered separately by Dorigo et al. and Hewlett Packard in the mid-1990s, with a number of variants existing. Basically, this uses a probabilistic routing table rewarding/reinforcing the route successfully traversed by each "ant" (a small control packet) which flood the network. Reinforcement of the route in the forwards, reverse direction and both simultaneously have been researched: backwards reinforcement requires a symmetric network and couples the two directions together; forwards reinforcement rewards a route before the outcome is known (but then one would pay for the cinema before one knows how good the film is). As the system behaves stochastically and is therefore lacking repeatability, there are large hurdles to commercial deployment. Mobile media and new technologies have the potential to change the threshold for collective action due to swarm intelligence (Rheingold: 2002, P175). The location of transmission infrastructure for wireless communication networks is an important engineering problem involving competing objectives. A minimal selection of locations (or sites) are required subject to providing adequate area coverage for users. A very different-ant inspired swarm intelligence algorithm, stochastic diffusion search (SDS), has been successfully used to provide a general model for this problem, related to circle packing and set covering. It has been shown that the SDS can be applied to identify suitable solutions even for large problem instances. Airlines have also used ant-based routing in assigning aircraft arrivals to airport gates. At Southwest Airlines a software program uses swarm theory, or swarm intelligence—the idea that a colony of ants works better than one alone. Each pilot acts like an ant searching for the best airport gate. "The pilot learns from his experience what's the best for him, and it turns out that that's the best solution for the airline,"
Douglas A. Lawson Douglas A. Lawson (born 1947) is a geologist, paleontologist, and computer scientist. In 1971 Lawson discovered wing bone fossils from a giant pterosaur embedded in a sandstone outcropping at Big Bend National Park, Texas. At the time the fossil ...
explains. As a result, the "colony" of pilots always go to gates they can arrive at and depart from quickly. The program can even alert a pilot of plane back-ups before they happen. "We can anticipate that it's going to happen, so we'll have a gate available," Lawson says.


Crowd simulation

Artists are using swarm technology as a means of creating complex interactive systems or simulating crowds.


Instances

''The Lord of the Rings'' film trilogy made use of similar technology, known as Massive (software), during battle scenes. Swarm technology is particularly attractive because it is cheap, robust, and simple. '' Stanley and Stella in: Breaking the Ice'' was the first movie to make use of swarm technology for rendering, realistically depicting the movements of groups of fish and birds using the Boids system. Tim Burton's ''
Batman Returns ''Batman Returns'' is a 1992 American superhero film directed by Tim Burton and written by Daniel Waters. Based on the DC Comics character Batman, it is the sequel to ''Batman'' (1989) and the second installment in the 1989–1997 ''Batman ...
'' also made use of swarm technology for showing the movements of a group of bats. Airlines have used swarm theory to simulate passengers boarding a plane. Southwest Airlines researcher Douglas A. Lawson used an ant-based computer simulation employing only six interaction rules to evaluate boarding times using various boarding methods.(Miller, 2010, xii-xviii).


Human swarming

Networks of distributed users can be organized into "human swarms" through the implementation of real-time closed-loop control systems. Human swarming allows the collective intelligence of interconnected groups of people online to be harnessed. The collective intelligence of the group often exceeds the abilities of anyone member of the group. Stanford University School of Medicine published in 2018 a study showing that groups of human doctors, when connected together by real-time swarming algorithms, could diagnose medical conditions with substantially higher accuracy than individual doctors or groups of doctors working together using traditional crowd-sourcing methods. In one such study, swarms of human radiologists connected together were tasked with diagnosing chest x-rays and demonstrated a 33% reduction in diagnostic errors as compared to the traditional human methods, and a 22% improvement over traditional machine-learning. The University of California San Francisco (UCSF) School of Medicine released a
preprint In academic publishing, a preprint is a version of a scholarly or scientific paper that precedes formal peer review and publication in a peer-reviewed scholarly or scientific journal. The preprint may be available, often as a non-typeset versio ...
in 2021 about the diagnosis of MRI images by small groups of collaborating doctors. The study showed a 23% increase in diagnostic accuracy when using Artificial Swarm Intelligence (ASI) technology compared to majority voting.


Swarm grammars

Swarm grammars are swarms of
stochastic grammar Stochastic (, ) refers to the property of being well described by a random probability distribution. Although stochasticity and randomness are distinct in that the former refers to a modeling approach and the latter refers to phenomena themselv ...
s that can be evolved to describe complex properties such as found in art and architecture. These grammars interact as agents behaving according to rules of swarm intelligence. Such behavior can also suggest deep learning algorithms, in particular when mapping of such swarms to neural circuits is considered.


Swarmic art

In a series of works, al-Rifaie et al. have successfully used two swarm intelligence algorithms—one mimicking the behaviour of one species of ants (''Leptothorax acervorum'') foraging ( stochastic diffusion search, SDS) and the other algorithm mimicking the behaviour of birds flocking ( particle swarm optimization, PSO)—to describe a novel integration strategy exploiting the local search properties of the PSO with global SDS behaviour. The resulting
hybrid algorithm {{Unreferenced, date=May 2014 A hybrid algorithm is an algorithm that combines two or more other algorithms that solve the same problem, and is mostly used in programming languages like C++, either choosing one (depending on the data), or switching ...
is used to sketch novel drawings of an input image, exploiting an artistic tension between the local behaviour of the 'birds flocking'—as they seek to follow the input sketch—and the global behaviour of the "ants foraging"—as they seek to encourage the flock to explore novel regions of the canvas. The "creativity" of this hybrid swarm system has been analysed under the philosophical light of the "rhizome" in the context of
Deleuze Gilles Louis René Deleuze ( , ; 18 January 1925 – 4 November 1995) was a French philosopher who, from the early 1950s until his death in 1995, wrote on philosophy, literature, film, and fine art. His most popular works were the two volu ...
's "Orchid and Wasp" metaphor. A more recent work of al-Rifaie et al., "Swarmic Sketches and Attention Mechanism", introduces a novel approach deploying the mechanism of 'attention' by adapting SDS to selectively attend to detailed areas of a digital canvas. Once the attention of the swarm is drawn to a certain line within the canvas, the capability of PSO is used to produce a 'swarmic sketch' of the attended line. The swarms move throughout the digital canvas in an attempt to satisfy their dynamic roles—attention to areas with more details—associated with them via their fitness function. Having associated the rendering process with the concepts of attention, the performance of the participating swarms creates a unique, non-identical sketch each time the 'artist' swarms embark on interpreting the input line drawings. In other works, while PSO is responsible for the sketching process, SDS controls the attention of the swarm. In a similar work, "Swarmic Paintings and Colour Attention", non-photorealistic images are produced using SDS algorithm which, in the context of this work, is responsible for colour attention. The "
computational creativity Computational creativity (also known as artificial creativity, mechanical creativity, creative computing or creative computation) is a multidisciplinary endeavour that is located at the intersection of the fields of artificial intelligence, cogn ...
" of the above-mentioned systems are discussed in through the two prerequisites of creativity (i.e. freedom and constraints) within the swarm intelligence's two infamous phases of exploration and exploitation. Michael Theodore and Nikolaus Correll use swarm intelligent art installation to explore what it takes to have engineered systems to appear lifelike.N. Correll, N. Farrow, K. Sugawara, M. Theodore (2013): The Swarm Wall: Toward Life’s Uncanny Valley. In: K. Goldberg, H. Knight, P. Salvini (Ed.): IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Workshop on Art and Robotics: Freud's Unheimlich and the Uncanny Valley.
/ref>


Notable researchers

* Maurice Clerc (mathematician) * Nikolaus Correll *
Marco Dorigo Marco Dorigo (born 26 August 1961, in Milan, Italy) is a research director for the Belgian Funds for Scientific Research and a co-director of ''IRIDIA'', the artificial intelligence lab of the Université Libre de Bruxelles. He received a PhD in ...
*
Russell C. Eberhart Russell C. Eberhart, an American electrical engineer, best known as the co-developer of particle swarm optimization concept (with James Kennedy (social psychologist)). He is professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering, and adjunct professor ...
* Luca Maria Gambardella * James Kennedy * Alcherio Martinoli * Craig Reynolds * Magnus Egerstedt * P. N. Suganthan


See also

*
Artificial immune systems In artificial intelligence, artificial immune systems (AIS) are a class of computationally intelligent, rule-based machine learning systems inspired by the principles and processes of the vertebrate immune system. The algorithms are typically modele ...
*
Collaborative intelligence Collaborative intelligence characterizes multi-agent, distributed systems where each agent, human or machine, is autonomously contributing to a problem solving network. Collaborative autonomy of organisms in their ecosystems makes evolution poss ...
*
Collective effervescence Collective effervescence (CE) is a sociological concept coined by Émile Durkheim. According to Durkheim, a community or society may at times come together and simultaneously communicate the same thought and participate in the same action. Such an ...
*
Group mind (science fiction) A group mind, group ego, mind coalescence, or gestalt intelligence in science fiction is a plot device in which multiple minds, or consciousnesses, are linked into a single, collective consciousness or intelligence. The first alien hive society wa ...
*
Cellular automaton A cellular automaton (pl. cellular automata, abbrev. CA) is a discrete model of computation studied in automata theory. Cellular automata are also called cellular spaces, tessellation automata, homogeneous structures, cellular structures, tesse ...
*
Complex systems A complex system is a system composed of many components which may interact with each other. Examples of complex systems are Earth's global climate, organisms, the human brain, infrastructure such as power grid, transportation or communication s ...
*
Differential evolution In evolutionary computation, differential evolution (DE) is a method that optimizes a problem by iteratively trying to improve a candidate solution with regard to a given measure of quality. Such methods are commonly known as metaheuristics as ...
* Dispersive flies optimisation *
Distributed artificial intelligence Distributed Artificial Intelligence (DAI) also called Decentralized Artificial Intelligence is a subfield of artificial intelligence research dedicated to the development of distributed solutions for problems. DAI is closely related to and a pred ...
* Evolutionary computation *
Global brain The global brain is a neuroscience-inspired and futurological vision of the planetary information and communications technology network that interconnects all humans and their technological artifacts. As this network stores ever more information, t ...
*
Harmony search This is a chronologically ordered list of metaphor-based metaheuristics and swarm intelligence algorithms, sorted by decade of proposal. Algorithms 1980s-1990s Simulated annealing (Kirkpatrick et al., 1983) Simulated annealing is a pr ...
*
Multi-agent system A multi-agent system (MAS or "self-organized system") is a computerized system composed of multiple interacting intelligent agents.Hu, J.; Bhowmick, P.; Jang, I.; Arvin, F.; Lanzon, A.,A Decentralized Cluster Formation Containment Framework f ...
*
Myrmecology Myrmecology (; from Greek: μύρμηξ, ''myrmex'', "ant" and λόγος, ''logos'', "study") is a branch of entomology focusing on the scientific study of ants. Some early myrmecologists considered ant society as the ideal form of society and ...
*
Promise theory Promise Theory is a method of analysis suitable for studying any system of interacting components. In the context of information science, Promise Theory offers a methodology for organising and understanding complex systems by modelling voluntar ...
*
Quorum sensing In biology, quorum sensing or quorum signalling (QS) is the ability to detect and respond to cell population density by gene regulation. As one example, QS enables bacteria to restrict the expression of specific genes to the high cell densities at ...
*
Population protocol A population protocol is a distributed computing model formed by resource-limited mobile agents which meet in a random way according to an interaction graph. Functions are computed by updating the state of agents whenever they meet based on their ...
*
Reinforcement learning Reinforcement learning (RL) is an area of machine learning concerned with how intelligent agents ought to take actions in an environment in order to maximize the notion of cumulative reward. Reinforcement learning is one of three basic machine ...
*
Rule 110 The Rule 110 cellular automaton (often called simply Rule 110) is an elementary cellular automaton with interesting behavior on the boundary between stability and chaos. In this respect, it is similar to Conway's Game of Life. Like Life, Rule 1 ...
*
Self-organized criticality Self-organized criticality (SOC) is a property of dynamical systems that have a critical point as an attractor. Their macroscopic behavior thus displays the spatial or temporal scale-invariance characteristic of the critical point of a phase ...
* Spiral optimization algorithm * Stochastic optimization * Swarm Development Group * Swarm robotic platforms * Swarming *
SwisTrack SwisTrack is a tool for tracking robots, humans, animals and objects using a camera or a recorded video as input source. It uses Intel's OpenCV library for fast image processing and contains interfaces for USB, FireWire and GigE cameras, as wel ...
*
Symmetry breaking of escaping ants Symmetry breaking of escaping ants is a herd behaviour phenomenon observed when ants are constrained to a cell with two equidistant exits and then sprayed with an insect repellent. The ants tend to crowd one door more while trying to escape (i.e., ...
* ''
The Wisdom of Crowds ''The Wisdom of Crowds: Why the Many Are Smarter Than the Few and How Collective Wisdom Shapes Business, Economies, Societies and Nations'', published in 2004, is a book written by James Surowiecki about the aggregation of information in groups, ...
'' *
Wisdom of the crowd The wisdom of the crowd is the collective opinion of a diverse independent group of individuals rather than that of a single expert. This process, while not new to the Information Age, has been pushed into the mainstream spotlight by social infor ...


References


Further reading

* * *


External links

* Marco Dorigo and Mauro Birattari (2007)
"Swarm intelligence"
in ''
Scholarpedia ''Scholarpedia'' is an English-language wiki-based online encyclopedia with features commonly associated with open-access online academic journals, which aims to have quality content in science and medicine. ''Scholarpedia'' articles are written ...
'' * Antoinette Brown.
Swarm Intelligence
{{DEFAULTSORT:Swarm Intelligence Collective intelligence Intelligence by type Multi-agent systems