Surface finish, also known as surface texture or surface topography, is the nature of a
surface
A surface, as the term is most generally used, is the outermost or uppermost layer of a physical object or space. It is the portion or region of the object that can first be perceived by an observer using the senses of sight and touch, and is ...
as defined by the three characteristics of lay,
surface roughness, and
waviness
Waviness is the measurement of the more widely spaced component of surface texture. It is a broader view of roughness because it is more strictly defined as "the irregularities whose spacing is greater than the roughness sampling length". It can ...
.
[.] It comprises the small, local deviations of a surface from the perfectly
flat
Flat or flats may refer to:
Architecture
* Flat (housing), an apartment in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia and other Commonwealth countries
Arts and entertainment
* Flat (music), a symbol () which denotes a lower pitch
* Flat (soldier), ...
ideal (a true
plane
Plane(s) most often refers to:
* Aero- or airplane, a powered, fixed-wing aircraft
* Plane (geometry), a flat, 2-dimensional surface
Plane or planes may also refer to:
Biology
* Plane (tree) or ''Platanus'', wetland native plant
* ''Planes' ...
).
Surface texture is one of the important factors that control
friction
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other. There are several types of friction:
*Dry friction is a force that opposes the relative lateral motion of t ...
and transfer layer formation during sliding. Considerable efforts have been made to study the influence of surface texture on friction and wear during sliding conditions. Surface textures can be
isotropic
Isotropy is uniformity in all orientations; it is derived . Precise definitions depend on the subject area. Exceptions, or inequalities, are frequently indicated by the prefix ' or ', hence ''anisotropy''. ''Anisotropy'' is also used to describe ...
or
anisotropic
Anisotropy () is the property of a material which allows it to change or assume different properties in different directions, as opposed to isotropy. It can be defined as a difference, when measured along different axes, in a material's physic ...
. Sometimes, stick-slip friction phenomena can be observed during sliding, depending on surface texture.
Each
manufacturing process
Manufacturing is the creation or production of goods with the help of equipment, labor, machines, tools, and chemical or biological processing or formulation. It is the essence of secondary sector of the economy. The term may refer to a ran ...
(such as the many kinds of
machining
Machining is a process in which a material (often metal) is cut to a desired final shape and size by a controlled material-removal process. The processes that have this common theme are collectively called subtractive manufacturing, which utilizes ...
) produces a surface texture. The process is usually optimized to ensure that the resulting texture is usable. If necessary, an additional process will be added to modify the initial texture. The latter process may be
grinding (abrasive cutting)
Grinding is a type of abrasive machining process which uses a grinding wheel as Cutting tool (machining), cutting tool.
A wide variety of machines are used for grinding, best classified as portable or stationary:
* Portable power tools such as ...
,
polishing
Polishing is the process of creating a smooth and shiny surface by rubbing it or by applying a chemical treatment, leaving a clean surface with a significant specular reflection (still limited by the index of refraction of the material accordin ...
,
lapping
Lapping is a machining process in which two surfaces are rubbed together with an abrasive between them, by hand movement or using a machine.
Lapping often follows other subtractive processes with more aggressive material removal as a first step ...
,
abrasive blasting
Sandblasting, sometimes known as abrasive blasting, is the operation of forcibly propelling a stream of abrasive material against a surface under high pressure to smooth a rough surface, roughen a smooth surface, shape a surface or remove su ...
,
honing,
electrical discharge machining
Electrical discharge machining (EDM), also known as spark machining, spark eroding, die sinking, wire burning or wire erosion, is a metal
fabrication process whereby a desired shape is obtained by using electrical discharges (sparks). Material i ...
(EDM),
milling,
lithography
Lithography () is a planographic method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone (lithographic limestone) or a metal plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by the German a ...
,
industrial etching
Chemical milling or industrial etching is the subtractive manufacturing process of using baths of temperature-regulated etching chemicals to remove material to create an object with the desired shape. Other names for chemical etching incl ...
/
chemical milling
Chemical milling or industrial etching is the subtractive manufacturing process of using baths of temperature-regulated etching chemicals to remove material to create an object with the desired shape. Other names for chemical etching incl ...
, laser texturing, or other processes.
Lay
![Surface finish lay patterns](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Surface_finish_lay_patterns.png)
Lay is the direction of the predominant surface pattern, ordinarily determined by the production method used. The term is also used to denote the winding direction of fibers and strands of a
rope
A rope is a group of yarns, plies, fibres, or strands that are twisted or braided together into a larger and stronger form. Ropes have tensile strength and so can be used for dragging and lifting. Rope is thicker and stronger than similarly ...
.
Surface roughness
Surface roughness, commonly shortened to ''roughness,'' is a measure of the total spaced surface irregularities.
In engineering, this is what is usually meant by "surface finish." A Lower number constitutes finer irregularities, i.e., a smoother surface.
Waviness
Waviness is the measure of surface irregularities with a spacing greater than that of surface roughness. These irregularities usually occur due to
warping,
vibrations
Vibration is a mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an equilibrium point. The word comes from Latin ''vibrationem'' ("shaking, brandishing"). The oscillations may be periodic, such as the motion of a pendulum—or random, such ...
, or deflection during machining.
Measurement
![Mechanical filtering of surface finish trace](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Mechanical_filtering_of_surface_finish_trace.svg)
Surface finish may be measured in two ways: ''contact'' and ''non-contact'' methods. Contact methods involve dragging a measurement
stylus across the surface; these instruments are called
profilometers. Non-contact methods include:
interferometry
Interferometry is a technique which uses the ''interference'' of superimposed waves to extract information. Interferometry typically uses electromagnetic waves and is an important investigative technique in the fields of astronomy, fiber opt ...
,
confocal microscopy
Confocal microscopy, most frequently confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) or laser confocal scanning microscopy (LCSM), is an optical imaging technique for increasing optical resolution and contrast of a micrograph by means of using a s ...
,
focus variation,
structured light,
electrical capacitance
Capacitance is the capability of a material object or device to store electric charge. It is measured by the change in charge in response to a difference in electric potential, expressed as the ratio of those quantities. Commonly recognized are ...
,
electron microscopy,
atomic force microscopy and
photogrammetry.
Specification
In the United States, surface finish is usually specified using the ASME Y14.36M standard. The other common standard is
International Organization for Standardization
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO ) is an international standard development organization composed of representatives from the national standards organizations of member countries. Membership requirements are given in Ar ...
(ISO) 1302:2002, although the same has been withdrawn in favour of ISO 21920-1:2021.
Many factors contribute to the surface finish in manufacturing. In forming processes, such as
molding or
metal forming
Forming, metal forming, is the metalworking process of fashioning metal parts and objects through mechanical deformation; the workpiece is reshaped without adding or removing material, and its mass remains unchanged. Forming operates on the mater ...
, surface finish of the
die
Die, as a verb, refers to death, the cessation of life.
Die may also refer to:
Games
* Die, singular of dice, small throwable objects used for producing random numbers
Manufacturing
* Die (integrated circuit), a rectangular piece of a semicondu ...
determines the surface finish of the workpiece. In machining, the interaction of the cutting edges and the microstructure of the material being cut both contribute to the final surface finish.
In general, the cost of manufacturing a surface increases as the surface finish improves.
[.] Any given manufacturing process is usually optimized enough to ensure that the resulting texture is usable for the part's intended application. If necessary, an additional process will be added to modify the initial texture. The expense of this additional process must be justified by adding
value
Value or values may refer to:
Ethics and social
* Value (ethics) wherein said concept may be construed as treating actions themselves as abstract objects, associating value to them
** Values (Western philosophy) expands the notion of value beyo ...
in some way—principally better function or longer lifespan. Parts that have sliding contact with others may work better or last longer if the roughness is lower. Aesthetic improvement may add value if it improves the saleability of the product.
A practical example is as follows. An aircraft maker contracts with a
vendor
In a supply chain, a vendor, supplier, provider or a seller, is an enterprise that contributes goods or services. Generally, a supply chain vendor manufactures inventory/stock items and sells them to the next link in the chain. Today, these terms ...
to make parts. A certain
grade of steel is specified for the part because it is
strong enough and
hard
Hard may refer to:
* Hardness, resistance of physical materials to deformation or fracture
* Hard water, water with high mineral content
Arts and entertainment
* ''Hard'' (TV series), a French TV series
* Hard (band), a Hungarian hard rock supe ...
enough for the part's function. The steel is
machinable although not
free-machining. The vendor decides to
mill
Mill may refer to:
Science and technology
*
* Mill (grinding)
* Milling (machining)
* Millwork
* Textile mill
* Steel mill, a factory for the manufacture of steel
* List of types of mill
* Mill, the arithmetic unit of the Analytical Engine early ...
the parts. The milling can achieve the specified roughness (for example, ≤ 3.2 μm) as long as the machinist uses premium-quality
inserts in the
end mill
An end mill is a type of milling cutter, a cutting tool used in industrial milling applications. It is distinguished from the drill bit in its application, geometry, and manufacture. While a drill bit can only cut in the axial direction, most m ...
and replaces the inserts after every 20 parts (as opposed to cutting hundreds before changing the inserts). There is no need to add a second operation (such as grinding or polishing) after the milling as long as the milling is done well enough (correct inserts, frequent-enough insert changes, and clean
coolant
A coolant is a substance, typically liquid, that is used to reduce or regulate the temperature of a system. An ideal coolant has high thermal capacity, low viscosity, is low-cost, non-toxic, chemically inert and neither causes nor promotes corrosio ...
). The inserts and coolant cost money, but the costs that grinding or polishing would incur (more time and additional materials) would cost even more than that. Obviating the second operation results in a lower
unit cost
The unit cost is the price incurred by a company
A company, abbreviated as co., is a legal entity representing an association of people, whether natural, legal or a mixture of both, with a specific objective. Company members share a com ...
and thus a lower
price
A price is the (usually not negative) quantity of payment or compensation given by one party to another in return for goods or services. In some situations, the price of production has a different name. If the product is a "good" in the c ...
. The
competition
Competition is a rivalry where two or more parties strive for a common goal which cannot be shared: where one's gain is the other's loss (an example of which is a zero-sum game). Competition can arise between entities such as organisms, indivi ...
between vendors elevates such details from minor to crucial importance. It was certainly possible to make the parts in a slightly less efficient way (two operations) for a slightly higher price; but only one vendor can get the contract, so the slight difference in efficiency is magnified by competition into the great difference between the prospering and shuttering of firms.
Just as different manufacturing processes produce parts at various tolerances, they are also capable of different roughnesses. Generally, these two characteristics are linked: manufacturing processes that are dimensionally precise create surfaces with low roughness. In other words, if a process can manufacture parts to a narrow dimensional tolerance, the parts will not be very rough.
Due to the abstractness of surface finish parameters, engineers usually use a tool that has a variety of surface roughnesses created using different manufacturing methods.
See also
*
Gloss (optics)
References
Bibliography
*{{Citation , last = Degarmo , first = E. Paul , last2 = Black , first2 = J T. , last3 = Kohser , first3 = Ronald A. , title = Materials and Processes in Manufacturing , publisher = Wiley , year = 2003 , edition = 9th , isbn = 0-471-65653-4 , postscript =.
Metalworking terminology
Tribology