''Sukha'' (

Pali Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist '' Pāli Canon'' or '' Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of '' Theravāda'' Bud ...

and ) means

happiness Happiness, in the context of mental or emotional states, is positive or pleasant emotions ranging from contentment to intense joy. Other forms include life satisfaction, well-being, subjective well-being, flourishing and eudaimonia. ...

pleasure Pleasure refers to experience that feels good, that involves the enjoyment of something. It contrasts with pain or suffering, which are forms of feeling bad. It is closely related to value, desire and action: humans and other conscious anima ...

, ease, joy or bliss. Among the early scriptures, 'sukha' is set up as a contrast to 'preya' (प्रेय) meaning a transient pleasure, whereas the pleasure of 'sukha' has an authentic state happiness within a being that is lasting. In the

Pāli Canon The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from the Tamrashatiya school. During ...

, the term is used in the context of describing laic pursuits and

meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique – such as mindfulness, or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity – to train attention and awareness, and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally calm ...

Etymology

According to Monier-Williams (1964), the etymology of ''sukha'' is "said to be ''su'' good'+ ''kha'' aperture'and to mean originally 'having a good axle-hole'"; thus, for instance, in the

Rig Veda The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts ('' śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only one ...

''sukha'' denotes "running swiftly or easily" (applied, e.g., to chariots). Monier-Williams also notes that the term might derive alternatively as "possibly a Prākrit form of ''su-stha'', q.v.; c.f. ''duh̩kha''", literally meaning ''su'' good'+ ''stha'' standing' ''Sukha'' is juxtaposed with ''dukha'' (Sanskrit; Pali: '' dukkha''; often translated as "suffering"), which was established as the major motivating life principles in early Vedic religion. This theme of the centrality of dukkha was developed in later years in both Vedic and the offshoot Buddhist traditions. The elimination of dukkha is the ''raison d'être'' of early Buddhism.

Pali literature

In the Pali Canon and related

literature Literature is any collection of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to inclu ...

, the term is used in a general sense to refer to "well-being and happiness" (''hitasukha'') in either this present life or future lives. In addition, it is a technical term associated with describing a factor of meditative absorption (

jhāna In the oldest texts of Buddhism, ''dhyāna'' () or ''jhāna'' () is a component of the training of the mind (''bhavana''), commonly translated as meditation, to withdraw the mind from the automatic responses to sense-impressions, "burn up" the ...

) and a sensory-derived feeling (

vedanā Vedanā (Pāli and Sanskrit: वेदना) is an ancient term traditionally translated as either "feeling" or "sensation." In general, ''vedanā'' refers to the pleasant, unpleasant and neutral sensations that occur when our internal sense or ...

General life pursuit

In the

, the

Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in ...

discusses with different lay persons "well-being and happiness" (''hitasukha'') "visible in this present life" (''diha-dhamma'') and "pertaining to the future life" (''samparāyika''), as exemplified by the following suttas.

Anana Sutta

In the ''Anaa Sutta'' ( AN 4.62), the Buddha describes four types of happiness for a "

householder Householder may refer to: *Householder, a person who is the head of a household *Householder (Buddhism), a Buddhist term most broadly referring to any layperson * Householder (surname), notable people with the surname *''The Householder'', a 1963 I ...

partaking of sensuality" (''gihinā kāma-bhoginā''): * the happiness of earning (''atthi-sukha'') wealth by just and righteous means * the happiness of using (''bhoga-sukha'') wealth liberally on family, friends, & on meritorious deeds * the happiness of debtlessness (''anaa-sukha'') be free from debts * the happiness of blamelessness (''anavajja-sukha''), to live a faultless and pure life without committing evil in thought, word, and deed Of these, the wise (''sumedhaso'') know that the happiness of blamelessness is by far the greatest householder happiness. Economic and material happiness is not worth one sixteenth part of the spiritual happiness arising out of a faultless and good life.

Kalama Sutta The Kesamutti Sutta, popularly known in the West as the Kālāma Sutta, is a discourse of the Buddha contained in the Aṅguttara Nikaya (3.65) of the Tipiṭaka. It is often cited by those of the Theravada and Mahayana traditions alike as the B ...

In the ''Kālāmā Sutta'' ( AN 3.65), townspeople ask the Buddha how they are to ascertain which spiritual teaching is true. The Buddha counsels that one should "enter and dwell" (''upasampajja vihareyyātha'') in "things" or "qualities" (''

dhammā Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for ''d ...

'') that are: * skillful (''kusalā''), * blameless (''anavajjā''), * praised by the wise (''viññuppasatthā''), and * when put into practice, are conducive to well-being and happiness (''samattā samādinnā hitāya sukhāya' savattantī'') Using the latter criterion, the Buddha then asks the townspeople to assess greed (''lobha''), hate (''dosa'') and delusion (''moha'') whereby it is agreed that entering and dwelling in non-greed, non-hate and non-delusion lead to well-being and happiness. The Buddha states that, given this understanding, a noble disciple (''ariyasāvako'') pervades all directions with

lovingkindness ( he, חֶסֶד, also Romanized: ) is a Hebrew word that means 'kindness or love between people', specifically of the devotional piety of people towards God as well as of love or mercy of God towards humanity. It is frequently used in Psalms i ...

compassion Compassion motivates people to go out of their way to relieve the physical, mental or emotional pains of others and themselves. Compassion is often regarded as being sensitive to the emotional aspects of the suffering of others. When based on n ...

, sympathetic joy and

equanimity Equanimity (Latin: ''æquanimitas'', having an even mind; ''aequus'' even; ''animus'' mind/soul) is a state of psychological stability and composure which is undisturbed by experience of or exposure to emotions, pain, or other phenomena that may ...

(see the four ''

brahmavihara The ''brahmavihārās'' (sublime attitudes, lit. "abodes of brahma") are a series of four Buddhist virtues and the meditation practices made to cultivate them. They are also known as the four immeasurables (Sanskrit: अप्रमाण, ''apr ...

s''); and, by doing so, one purifies oneself, avoids evil-induced consequences, lives a happy present life and, if there is a future karmic rebirth, one will be born in a heavenly world.

Dighajanu Sutta

In the '' Dighajānu Sutta'' ( AN 8.54), Dighajānu approaches the Buddha and states: :"We are lay people enjoying sensuality; living crowded with spouses & children; using Kasi fabrics & sandalwood; wearing garlands, scents, & creams; handling gold & silver. May the Blessed One teach the

Dhamma Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for ' ...

for those like us, for our happiness & well-being in this life, for our happiness & well-being in lives to come." In a manner somewhat similar to his exposition in the aforementioned ''Anaa Sutta'', the Buddha identifies four sources that lead to well-being and happiness in the current life: * productive efforts (''uhāna-sampadā'') in one's livelihood, * protective efforts (''ārakkha-sampadā'') regarding ones wealth in terms of possible theft or disaster, * virtuous friendship ( ''kalyāa-mittatā''), and * even-headed living (''sama-jīvikatā''), abstaining from womanizing, drunkenness, gambling and evil friendships. In terms of well-being and happiness in the next life, the Buddha identifies the following sources: * faith ('' saddhā'') in the fully enlightened Buddha; * virtue ('' sīla''), as exemplified by the

Five Precepts The Five precepts ( sa, pañcaśīla, italic=yes; pi, pañcasīla, italic=yes) or five rules of training ( sa, pañcaśikṣapada, italic=yes; pi, pañcasikkhapada, italic=yes) is the most important system of morality for Buddhist lay peo ...

; * generosity (''cāga''), giving charity and alms; and, * wisdom ('' paññā''), having insight into the arising and passing of things.

Mettā practice

As indicated above, in the ''Kālāmā Sutta'', the Buddha identifies the practice of the four divine abodes (''

'') as being conducive to ''one's own'' well-being and happiness. The first of these abodes is mettā (benevolence, kindness) which is, for instance, classically expressed in the Pali canon's '' Karaniya Mettā Sutta'' ("Scripture of Compassionate Benevolence") ( Sn 1.8) by the sincere wish (in English and Pali): Similarly, the Pali commentaries ( SN- A 128) explicitly define ''mettā'' as "the desire to bring about the well-being and happiness

f others F, or f, is the sixth letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''ef'' (pronounced ), and the plural is ''efs''. Hist ...

(''hita-sukha-upanaya-kāmatā'') Thus, in Buddhism, to dwell wishing for others' general happiness is conducive to the development of one's own happiness.

Feeling attribute

In the Buddhist frameworks of the five aggregates (Sanskrit: ''

skandha (Sanskrit) or ( Pāḷi) means "heaps, aggregates, collections, groupings". In Buddhism, it refers to the five aggregates of clinging (), the five material and mental factors that take part in the rise of craving and clinging. They are als ...

''; Pali: ''khandha'') and dependent origination (Sanskrit: ''pratītyasamutpāda''; Pali: paticcasamuppāda), "feelings" or "sensations" (''

'') arise from the contact of an external object (such as a visual object or sound) with a sensory organ (such as the eye or ear) and consciousness. In the

Pali Canon The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from the Tamrashatiya school. During ...

, such feelings are generally described to be of one of three types: pleasant (''sukha''), unpleasant (''dukkha''), or neither-unpleasant-nor-pleasant (''adukkha-asukha'').

Mental factor in meditation

In the commentarial tradition on

Buddhist meditation Buddhist meditation is the practice of meditation in Buddhism. The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are ''bhāvanā'' ("mental development") and '' jhāna/dhyāna'' (mental training resulting in a calm and l ...

, the development of ''jhāna'' (Sanskrit: ''dhyāna'') is described as the development of five

mental factors Mental factors ( sa, चैतसिक, caitasika or ''chitta samskara'' ; pi, cetasika; Tibetan: སེམས་བྱུང ''sems byung''), in Buddhism, are identified within the teachings of the Abhidhamma (Buddhist psychology). They are d ...

(Sanskrit: ''caitasika''; Pali: ''cetasika'') that counteract the

five hindrances In the Buddhist tradition, the five hindrances ( Sinhala: ''පඤ්ච නීවරණ pañca nīvaraṇa''; Pali: ') are identified as mental factors that hinder progress in meditation and in our daily lives. In the Theravada tradition, these ...

: # '' vitakka'' ("applied thought") counteracts sloth and torpor (lethargy and drowsiness) # '' vicāra'' ("sustained thought") counteracts doubt (uncertainty) # '' pīti'' (rapture) counteracts ill-will (malice) # ''sukha'' (non-sensual pleasure") counteracts restlessness-worry (excitation and anxiety) # ''

ekaggata Ekaggatā (Pali; Sanskrit: '' ekāgratā'', एकाग्रता, "one-pointedness") is a Pali Buddhist term, meaning tranquility of mind or one-pointedness, but also "unification of mind." According to the Theravada-tradition, in their reint ...

'' (one-pointedness) counteracts sensory desire Both ''pīti'' and ''sukha'' are born of bodily seclusion and mental quietude in first ''jhāna'', but both are then born of focused concentration (''samādhi'') in the second ''jhāna'' and only ''sukha'' is sustained in the third ''jhāna'' until it is abandoned for pure, mindful

(''upekkhāsatipārisuddhi'') in the fourth ''jhāna''. The ''

Visuddhimagga The ''Visuddhimagga'' (Pali; English: ''The Path of Purification''), is the 'great treatise' on Buddhist practice and Theravāda Abhidhamma written by Buddhaghosa approximately in the 5th century in Sri Lanka. It is a manual condensing and sys ...

'' distinguishes between ''pīti'' and ''sukha'' in the following experiential manner: :And wherever the two are associated, happiness ere, Ñāamoli's translation of ''pīti''is the contentedness at getting a desirable object, and bliss 'sukha''is the actual experiencing of it when got. Where there is happiness 'pīti''there is bliss (pleasure) 'sukha'' but where there is bliss 'sukha''there is not necessarily happiness 'pīti'' Happiness is included in the formations

aggregate Aggregate or aggregates may refer to: Computing and mathematics * collection of objects that are bound together by a root entity, otherwise known as an aggregate root. The aggregate root guarantees the consistency of changes being made within the ...

; bliss is included in the

feeling Feelings are subjective self-contained phenomenal experiences. According to the ''APA Dictionary of Psychology'', a feeling is "a self-contained phenomenal experience"; and feelings are "subjective, evaluative, and independent of the sensations ...

aggregate. If a man exhausted in a desert saw or heard about a pond on the edge of a wood, he would have happiness; if he went into the wood's shade and used the water, he would have bliss.... Providing a bare-bones conditional chain of events that overlaps the above more narrative exposition, the ''Upanisa Sutta'' ( SN 12.23) states that ''sukha'' arises from tranquillity (''

passaddhi ''Passaddhi'' is a Pali noun (Sanskrit: prasrabhi, Tibetan: ཤིན་ཏུ་སྦྱང་བ་,Tibetan Wylie: shin tu sbyang ba) that has been translated as "calmness", "tranquillity", "repose" and "serenity." The associated verb is ''pa ...

'') of the body and mind, and in turn gives rise to concentration (''samādhi''). Citing traditional post-canonical Pali literature related to this discourse, Bodhi (1980) adds the following functional definition of ''sukha'': :The subcommentary to the ''Upanisa Sutta'' explains ''sukha'' as the happiness of the access to absorption. The term 'access' (upacara) denotes the stage in the cultivation of serenity immediately preceding full absorption, the intended goal of serenity meditation. Access is characterized by the abandonment of the

and the arising of the 'counterpart sign,' the self-luminous object of interior perception which is the focal point for the higher stages of concentration.

As a characterization of awakening

Nibbāna (Sanskrit: ''Nirvāṇa'') entails the foundational extinction or "blowing out" of the processes of unwholesome desire, aversion, and delusion. From the perspective of awakened experience, the latter deleterious processes are appreciated as "agitations" of the mind. In comparative contrast to such agitation, ''sukha'' and its cognates are at places in the

used to characterize the calm of Nibbāna, the "Unconditioned," as a bliss: :The born, come-to-be, produced, :The made, the conditioned, the transient, :Conjoined with decay and death, :A nest of disease, perishable, :Sprung from nutriment and craving's cord — :That is not fit to take delight in. :The escape from that, the peaceful, :Beyond reasoning, everlasting, :The not-born, the unproduced, :The sorrowless state that is void of stain, :The cessation of states linked to suffering, :The stilling of the conditioned — bliss.

Sanskrit literature

In the

Yoga Sūtras The ''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'' is a collection of Sanskrit sutras (aphorisms) on the theory and practice of yoga – 195 sutras (according to Vyāsa and Krishnamacharya) and 196 sutras (according to others, including BKS Iyengar). The ...

, Patañjali uses the word 'sukha' when he defines asana as the balance between "Sukha" and "Stirah" (strength, steadiness, firmness).

Neuroscientific basis

Some researchers have proposed that a "shift" in the activity of the medial prefrontal cortex is what supports a state of inner fulfillment and equanimity.

Notes

References

External links

{{Buddhism topics Mental factors in Buddhism