Silla (;
Old Korean
Old Korean () is the first historically documented stage of the Korean language, typified by the language of the Unified Silla period (668–935).
The boundaries of Old Korean periodization remain in dispute. Some linguists classify the sparsely ...
:
徐羅伐,
Yale
Yale University is a private research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Established in 1701 as the Collegiate School, it is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the most prestigious in the wor ...
: Syerapel,
RR: ''Seorabeol'';
IPA
IPA commonly refers to:
* India pale ale, a style of beer
* International Phonetic Alphabet, a system of phonetic notation
* Isopropyl alcohol, a chemical compound
IPA may also refer to:
Organizations International
* Insolvency Practitioners ...
: ), was a Korean kingdom that existed between 57 BCE – 935 CE and located on the southern and central parts of the
Korean Peninsula
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
. Silla, along with
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla.
Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jum ...
and
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
, formed the
Three Kingdoms of Korea
Samhan or the Three Kingdoms of Korea () refers to the three kingdoms of Goguryeo (고구려, 高句麗), Baekje (백제, 百濟), and Silla (신라, 新羅). Goguryeo was later known as Goryeo (고려, 高麗), from which the modern name ''Kor ...
. Silla had the lowest population of approximately 850,000 people (170,000 households), which was significantly smaller than those of
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla.
Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jum ...
(3,800,000 people) and
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
(3,500,000 people).
Its foundation can be traced back to the semi-mythological figure of
Hyeokgeose of Silla (Old Korean: *pulkunae, "light of the world"), of the
Park clan. The country was first ruled intermittently by the
Miryang Park clan
The Miryang Park clan () or Milseong Park clan () is a Korean clan from Miryang, now in South Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. The clan descends from the 10th century prince Pak Ŏn-ch'im (), son of King Gyeongmyeong of Silla.
Notable members ...
for 232 years and the
Wolseong Seok clan for 172 years and beginning with the reign of
Michu Isageum the
Gyeongju Kim clan for 586 years. Park, Seok and Kim have no contemporary attestations and went by the Old Korean names of 居西干 ''Geoseogan'' (1st century BCE), 次次雄 ''Chachaung'' (1st century CE), 泥師今 ''Isageum'' (Old Korean: *nisokum) and 麻立干 ''Maripkan'' (5th-6th century) instead. It began as a
chiefdom in the
Jinhan confederacy, part of the
Samhan
Samhan, or Three Han, is the collective name of the Byeonhan, Jinhan, and Mahan confederacies that emerged in the first century BC during the Proto–Three Kingdoms of Korea, or Samhan, period. Located in the central and southern regions of t ...
and after consolidating its power in the immediate area, conquered the Gaya confederacy. Eventually allying with
Sui China and then
Tang China, it eventually conquered the other two kingdoms,
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla.
Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jum ...
in 660 and
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
in 668. Thereafter,
Unified Silla occupied most of the
Korean Peninsula
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
, while the northern part re-emerged as
Balhae, a successor-state of
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
. After nearly 1,000 years of rule, Silla fragmented into the brief
Later Three Kingdoms
The Later Three Kingdoms period (889-935 AD) of ancient Korea saw a partial revival of the old three kingdoms which had dominated the peninsula from the 1st century BC to the 7th century AD. After the Unified Silla kingdom had ruled Korea alone ...
of Silla,
Later Baekje
Hubaekje or Later Baekje (, ) was one of the Later Three Kingdoms of Korea, along with Taebong and Silla. Later Baekje was a Korean dynastic kingdom founded by the disaffected Silla general Gyeon Hwon in 900, whom led the local gentry and popul ...
, and
Taebong, handing over power to
Goryeo
Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificati ...
in 935.
Etymology
Until the official adoption of Hanja names for its administration, Silla was recorded using the Hundok reading of Hanja to phonetically approximate its native Korean name, including (), (), (), (), (), and ().
In 504,
Jijeung of Silla standardized the characters into (), which in Modern Korean is pronounced ''Shilla''. According to the ''
Samguk Sagi
''Samguk Sagi'' (, ''History of the Three Kingdoms'') is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The ''Samguk Sagi'' is written in Classical Chinese, the written language of the literati of ancient Korea, ...
'', the name of (''Shinra''), consisting of the components ''Shin'' (), as in ''Deokupilsin'' () and ''Ra'', as in ''Mangrasabang'' () is thought to be a later Confucian interpretation.
The modern
Seoul
Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) as stated iArticle 103 ...
is a shortened form of Seorabeol, meaning "capital city", and was continuously used throughout the
Goryeo
Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificati ...
and
Joseon
Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and re ...
periods even in official documents, despite the formal name having been Hanyang or Hanseong. The name of the Silla capital changed into its Late Middle Korean form ''Syeobeul'' (), meaning "royal capital city," which changed to ''Syeoul'' () soon after, and finally resulted in ''Seoul'' () in the Modern Korean language.
The name of either Silla or its capital Seorabeol was widely used throughout Northeast Asia as the ethnonym for the people of Silla, appearing as
''Shiragi'' in
Japanese and as ''Solgo'' or ''Solho'' in the language of the medieval
Jurchens and their later descendants, the
Manchus, respectively. Koreans are still known as ''Солонгос'' (''Solongos'') in Mongolian, which is according to popular
folk etymology
Folk etymology (also known as popular etymology, analogical reformation, reanalysis, morphological reanalysis or etymological reinterpretation) is a change in a word or phrase resulting from the replacement of an unfamiliar form by a more famili ...
is believed to be derived from the Mongolian word for "
rainbow" (''солонго'' ''solongo''). In a paper published in 2023 regarding the etymology of the Mongolian word ''Solongos'' "Korea, Koreans," the following seven etymological hypotheses regarding the origin of ''Solongos'' have been enumerated: (1) It comes from the Mongolian word ''solongo'' meaning "rainbow"; (2) It comes from the Mongolian word ''solongo'' meaning "
weasel
Weasels are mammals of the genus ''Mustela'' of the family Mustelidae. The genus ''Mustela'' includes the least weasels, polecats, stoats, ferrets and European mink. Members of this genus are small, active predators, with long and slender bo ...
"; (3) It comes from the Mongolian/Manchurian ethnonym
Solon
Solon ( grc-gre, Σόλων; BC) was an Athenian statesman, constitutional lawmaker and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and moral decline in Archaic Athens.Aristotle ''Politics'' ...
; (4) It comes from the name of the ancient kingdom of Silla; (5) It comes from
Jurchen *''Solgo(r)'' ~ ''Solho'' which in turn stems from Old Korean 수릿골 ''suɾiskol'' > 솔골 ''solkol'' "
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
"; (later) Korea, Korean"; (6) It comes from the Mongolian word ''solgoi'' "left, east"; (7) It comes from the name of the medieval kingdom of
Goryeo
Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificati ...
(via *''Hoɾyo'' > *''Solo(n)-''). The authors of this paper have ended up supporting the sixth hypothesis, ''i.e.'' that Mongolian ''Solongos'' "Korea, Koreans" ultimately should be cognate with Mongolian ''soluγai'' > ''solγoi'' "left, wrong side of the body, left-handed, enemy to the east (from the perspective of the Mongols)"."
[Kang Junyoung and Yoo Byungjae (Feb 2023), "A Study on the Origin of the Name of Korea (Solongos) in Mongolia." ''Mongol Studies'' (몽골학) No. 72, pp. 117~148. https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/mobile/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART002937650]
Silla was also referred to as
Gyerim
The Gyerim is a small woodland in Gyeongju National Park, Gyeongju, South Korea. The name literally means "rooster forest." The grove lies near the old site of the Silla kingdom palace in central Gyeongju. Nearby landmarks include the Banwolseong ...
(), literally "rooster forest", a name that has its
origins
Origin(s) or The Origin may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Comics and manga
* ''Origin'' (comics), a Wolverine comic book mini-series published by Marvel Comics in 2002
* ''The Origin'' (Buffy comic), a 1999 ''Buffy the Vampire Sl ...
in the forest near the Silla capital. Legend has it that the state's founder was born in the same forest, hatched from the egg of a
cockatrice
A cockatrice is a mythical beast, essentially a two-legged dragon, wyvern, or serpent-like creature with a rooster's head. Described by Laurence Breiner as "an ornament in the drama and poetry of the Elizabethans", it was featured prominently i ...
().
History
Founding
During the
Proto–Three Kingdoms period, central and southern Korea consisted of three confederacies called the
Samhan
Samhan, or Three Han, is the collective name of the Byeonhan, Jinhan, and Mahan confederacies that emerged in the first century BC during the Proto–Three Kingdoms of Korea, or Samhan, period. Located in the central and southern regions of t ...
. Silla began as "Saro-guk", a statelet within the 12-member confederacy known as
Jinhan. Saro-guk consisted of six clans later known as the Six Clans of Jinhan () from Gojoseon.
[Samguk-sagi Silla, Park Hyeokgeose Chapter 1 (三國史記 新羅本記 朴赫居世 1) :
"…新羅始祖元年 漢宣帝五鳳元年 夏四月丙辰始祖朴赫居世立先是朝鮮遺民分居東海濱山谷爲六村曰閼川楊山曰突山高墟曰觜山珎支曰茂山大樹曰金山加里曰明活山高耶是爲辰韓六部…"
Translation: In the year of Byeongjin, the founder Park Hyeokgeose has ascended to the throne. Preceding this, were the dispersed people of Gojoseon scattered upon six villages across the eastern shores and mountain ridges; the Alcheon-yangsan, Dolsan-goheo, Jasan-Jinji, Musan-Daesu, Geumsan-gari, and the Myeonghwalsan-Goya. These villages have come to become the Six Tribes of Jinhan.]
According to Korean records, Silla was founded by
Bak Hyeokgeose of Silla
Hyeokgeose of Silla (69 BC – 4 AD, r. 57 BC–4 AD), also known by his personal full name as Bak (Park, Pak) Hyeokgeose (朴赫居世), was the founding monarch of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He was the progenitor of all B ...
in 57 BCE, around present-day
Gyeongju
Gyeongju ( ko, 경주, ), historically known as ''Seorabeol'' ( ko, 서라벌, ), is a coastal city in the far southeastern corner of North Gyeongsang Province in South Korea. It is the second largest city by area in the province after Andong, ...
. Hyeokgeose is said to have been hatched from an egg laid from a white horse, and when he turned 13, six clans submitted to him as king and established the kingdom of "Saro (pronounced
i.raʔat the time)" which later became the kingdom of Silla.
In various inscriptions on archaeological founding such as personal gravestones and monuments, it is recorded that Silla royals considered themselves having
Xiongnu
The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 20 ...
ancestry through the Xiongnu prince Kim Il-je, also known as
Jin Midi in Chinese sources.
According to several historians, it is possible that this unknown tribe was originally of
Koreanic
Koreanic is a small language family consisting of the Korean language, Korean and Jeju language, Jeju languages. The latter is often described as a dialect of Korean, but is distinct enough to be considered a separate language. Alexander Vovin s ...
origin in the Korean peninsula and joined the Xiongnu confederation. Later the tribe's ruling family returned to Korea from Liaodong peninsula where they thrive, and after coming back to the peninsula they got married into the royal family of Silla. There are also some Korean researchers that point out that the grave goods of Silla and of the eastern Xiongnu are alike,
and some researchers insist that the Silla king is descended from Xiongnu.
Nonetheless, this hypothesis in respect to the origins of Silla royalty are not accepted in mainstream academia, but rather stand as a minor opinion. Considering the situation of the era when the Monument of
King Munmu
Munmu of Silla (626–681; reigned 661–681) was the 30th king of the Korean kingdom of Silla. He is usually considered to have been the first ruler of the Unified Silla period. Munmu was the son of King Muyeol and Munmyeong, who was the youn ...
was created, it is presumed to be propaganda created for friendship with China and northerners and the legitimacy of the dynasty.
Nihon Shoki and
Kojiki
The , also sometimes read as or , is an early Japanese chronicle of myths, legends, hymns, genealogies, oral traditions, and semi-historical accounts down to 641 concerning the origin of the Japanese archipelago, the , and the Japanese imperia ...
also mentions Silla as the place where the Japanese god,
Susanoo
__FORCETOC__
Susanoo (; historical orthography: , ) is a in Japanese mythology. The younger brother of Amaterasu, goddess of the sun and mythical ancestress of the Japanese imperial line, he is a multifaceted deity with contradictory chara ...
first descended from the heavens after his banishment in a place called "Soshimori ()". Up until the
liberation of Korea
The surrender of the Empire of Japan in World War II was announced by Emperor Hirohito on 15 August and formally signed on 2 September 1945, bringing the war's hostilities to a close. By the end of July 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy ...
in 1945,
Meiji era
The is an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868 to July 30, 1912.
The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonization b ...
Japanese historians claimed that Susanoo had ruled over Silla and that the Koreans were the descendants of him,
thus finding justification and legitimizing the
Japanese occupation of Korea
Between 1910 and 1945, Korea was ruled as a part of the Empire of Japan. Joseon, Joseon Korea had come into the Japanese sphere of influence with the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876; a complex coalition of the Meiji period, Meiji government, military ...
through the use of
Nissen dōsoron
Nissen dōsoron ( ja, 日鮮同祖論) is a theory that reinforces the idea that the Japanese people and the Koreans, Korean people share a common ancestry. It was first introduced during the Japanese annexation of Korea in the early 20th century ...
.
According to the ''
Shinsen Shōjiroku'',
Inahi no Mikoto the brother of the mythological
Emperor Jimmu was the ancestor to the kings of Silla. Another source found in ''
Samguk Sagi
''Samguk Sagi'' (, ''History of the Three Kingdoms'') is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The ''Samguk Sagi'' is written in Classical Chinese, the written language of the literati of ancient Korea, ...
'' claims that a Japanese man named,
Hogong
Hogong was a minister of Silla in the age of nation-building. It is recorded that he was originally from the Wa people of Japan, though his family name or clan name was unknown to the compiler of the Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms. 三 ...
helped build the kingdom of Silla.
Early period
In its early days, Silla started off as a city-state by the name of Saro (), initially founded by
Yemaek
Yemaek or Yamaek () was an ancient tribal group in the northern Korean Peninsula and Manchuria who are regarded by some scholars as the ancestors of modern Koreans. They had ancestral ties to various Korean kingdoms including Gojoseon, Buyeo, Go ...
refugees from
Gojoseon.
It has also accepted dispersed people fleeing from the Lelang Commandery after Goguryeo's invasion, while later on incorporating native Jin people in the vicinity and
Ye people to the North.
Talhae of Silla (57 CE–80 CE) was the son-in-law of
Namhae of Silla
Namhae of Silla (?–24, r. 4–24 CE) was the second King of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He is commonly called Namhae Chachaung, ''chachaung'' being an early Silla title.
Namhae is the only king who is called Chachaung. Accordi ...
(4 CE–24 CE). According to the
Samguk Sagi
''Samguk Sagi'' (, ''History of the Three Kingdoms'') is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The ''Samguk Sagi'' is written in Classical Chinese, the written language of the literati of ancient Korea, ...
, Seoktalhae was the prince of ''Yongseongguk'' (龍成國) or ''Dapana'' (多婆那國), located 1,000-
ri (里), northeast of Japan (?). Following the will of Namhae of Silla, he became the fourth king of Silla. One day, he found a low peak next to Mt. Toham (吐含山) and packed it with his own house, and he buried charcoal next to the house of a Japonic official named Hogong (瓠公), who lived there, and deceived him that his ancestors were blacksmiths, but the Hogong family took their home. Hogong was tricked into handing over his house and property to the Seoktalhae. During this period,
Kim Al-chi, the ancestor of
Gyeongju Kim
Gyeongju ( ko, 경주, ), historically known as ''Seorabeol'' ( ko, 서라벌, ), is a coastal city in the far southeastern corner of North Gyeongsang Province in South Korea. It is the second largest city by area in the province after Andong, ...
, was adopted by Talhae of Silla.
The territory outside the capital was greatly conquered during the period of
Pasa of Silla (80–112). As soon as he ascended the throne, he ordered officials to encourage agriculture, silkworm farming and train soldiers. There was a territorial dispute between the
Eumjipbeol and Siljikgok, and the two countries first asked Pasa of Silla to mediate, Pasa of Silla was handed over to
King Suro of Gimhae, who was the local leader at the time. King Suro instead resolved the territorial issue and ruled in favor of Eumjipbeol. However, King Suro sent an assassin to kill the head of the six Silla divisions, who hid in the Eumjipbeol while the assassin was escaping, and King Tachugan (陀鄒干) protected the assassin. In response, Pasa of Silla invaded Eumjipbeol in 102 and Tachugan surrendered, and the Siljikgok and Apdok, which were frightened by Silla, also surrendered. Six years later, it entered the inland area and attacked and merged
Dabulguk, Bijigukuk, and Chopalguk.
During the
Naehae of Silla
Naehae of Silla (died 230, r. 196–230) was the tenth king of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He is commonly called Naehae Isageum, ''isageum'' being the royal title in early Silla. As a descendant of Silla's 4th king Talhae, his ...
period (196–230), the Eight Port Kingdoms War (浦上八國 亂) broke out to determine hegemony in the southern part of the peninsula. In 209, when the "eight upper countries (of the estuary)" (浦上八國) in the
Nakdong River
The Nakdonggang River or Nakdonggang () is the longest river in South Korea, and passes through major cities such as Daegu and Busan. It takes its name from its role as the eastern border of the Gaya confederacy during Korea's Three Kingdoms Er ...
basin attacked the Silla-friendly
Aragaya, the prince of Aragaya asked Silla for a rescue army, and the king ordered Crown Prince Seok Uro to gather his troops and attack the eight kingdoms. Crown Prince SeokUro saved Aragaya and rescued 6,000 of the pro-Silla Gaya people who had been captured and returned to their homeland. Three years later, three among the eight countries (浦上八國), Golpo-guk, Chilpo-guk, and Gosapo-guk, will launch counterattacks against Silla. A battle took place in
Yeomhae, the southeastern part of the capital, and the war ended when the Silla king came out to fight against it, and the soldiers of the three kingdoms were defeated.
By the 2nd century, Silla existed as its own distinct political entity in the southeastern area of the
Korean peninsula
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
. It expanded its influence over the neighboring Jinhan chiefdoms, but throughout the 3rd century was probably no more than the strongest constituent in the Jinhan confederacy.
To the west,
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla.
Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jum ...
had centralized into a kingdom by about 250 CE, overtaking the
Mahan confederacy
Mahan () was a loose confederacy of statelets that existed from around the 1st century BC to 5th century AD in the southern Korean peninsula in the Chungcheong and Jeolla provinces. Gina Lee Barnes, 《State Formation in Korea: Historical and A ...
. To the southwest,
Byeonhan
Byeonhan (, ), also known as Byeonjin, (, ) was a loose confederacy of chiefdoms that existed from around the beginning of the Common Era to the 4th century in the southern Korean peninsula. Byeonhan was one of the Samhan (or "Three Hans"), alo ...
was being replaced by the
Gaya confederacy
Gaya (, ) was a Korean confederacy of territorial polities in the Nakdong River basin of southern Korea, growing out of the Byeonhan confederacy of the Samhan period.
The traditional period used by historians for Gaya chronology is AD 42–53 ...
. In northern Korea,
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
, founded around 50 CE, destroyed the last Chinese commandery in 313 CE and had grown into the largest regional power.
Emergence of a centralized monarchy
Naemul of Silla
Naemul of Silla (died 402) (r. 356–402) was the 17th ruler of the Korean kingdom of Silla. He was the nephew of King Michu. He married Michu's daughter, Lady Boban. He is given the title ''Isageum'', the same one borne by earlier rulers ...
(356–402) of the Kim clan established a hereditary monarchy and took the royal title of ''Maripgan'' (麻立干; 마립간). However, in the Samguk Sagi,
Naemul of Silla
Naemul of Silla (died 402) (r. 356–402) was the 17th ruler of the Korean kingdom of Silla. He was the nephew of King Michu. He married Michu's daughter, Lady Boban. He is given the title ''Isageum'', the same one borne by earlier rulers ...
still appears as a title of ''Isageum'' (泥師今; 이사금). He is considered by many historians as the starting point of the
Gyeongju Kim
Gyeongju ( ko, 경주, ), historically known as ''Seorabeol'' ( ko, 서라벌, ), is a coastal city in the far southeastern corner of North Gyeongsang Province in South Korea. It is the second largest city by area in the province after Andong, ...
period, which lasted more than 550 years. However, even when the Kim monopolized the throne for more than 500 years, the veneration of the founder Bak Hyeokgeose continued.
![Royal Crown of Silla](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Royal_Crown_of_Silla._National_Museum_of_Korea.jpg)
In 377, Silla sent emissaries to China and established relations with
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
. Facing pressure from
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla.
Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jum ...
in the west and Japan in the south, in the later part of the 4th century, Silla allied with
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
. However, after King
Gwanggaeto's unification campaign, Silla lost its status as a sovereign country becoming a vassal of Goguryeo. When Goguryeo began to expand its territory southward, moving its capital to
Pyongyang
Pyongyang (, , ) is the capital and largest city of North Korea, where it is known as the "Capital of the Revolution". Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River about upstream from its mouth on the Yellow Sea. According to the 2008 populatio ...
in 427,
Nulji of Silla
Nulji (reigned 417–458) was the nineteenth ruler (''maripgan'') of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He was the son of King Naemul and Lady Boban, who was the daughter of King Michu.
Nulji married the daughter of King Silseong of ...
was forced to ally with Baekje.
By the time of
Beopheung of Silla
Beopheung of Silla (r. 514–540 AD) was the 23rd monarch of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. He was preceded by King Jijeung (r. 500–514) and succeeded by King Jinheung.
By the time of his reign, Buddhism had become fairly commo ...
(514–540), Silla was a full-fledged kingdom, with Buddhism as state religion, and its own
Korean era name
Korean era names were titles adopted in historical Korea for the purpose of year identification and numbering. Era names were used during the period of Silla, Goguryeo, Balhae, Taebong, Goryeo, Joseon, and the Korean Empire. Various Korean regimes ...
. Silla absorbed the Gaya confederacy during the
Gaya–Silla Wars, annexing
Geumgwan Gaya in 532 and conquering
Daegaya in 562, thereby expanding its borders to the
Nakdong River
The Nakdonggang River or Nakdonggang () is the longest river in South Korea, and passes through major cities such as Daegu and Busan. It takes its name from its role as the eastern border of the Gaya confederacy during Korea's Three Kingdoms Er ...
basin.
Jinheung of Silla (540–576) established a strong military force. Silla helped
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla.
Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jum ...
drive
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
out of the
Han River (
Seoul
Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) as stated iArticle 103 ...
) area, and then wrested control of the entire central western Korea region from Baekje in 553, breaching the 120-year Baekje-Silla alliance. Also, King Jinheung established the
Hwarang.
The early period ended with the death of
Jindeok of Silla and the demise of the "hallowed bone" (; ''
seonggol'') rank system.
Etymology of title
The royal title ''Maripgan'' () is analyzed into two elements in many popular explanations, with the first element alleged to be from the
Korean root
* ''mari'' (마리) from Middle Korean 마리〮 ''màlí'', "head"/
countable of "head / per head" or "hair"
* ''mang-rip'' or ''mang-nip'' (網笠), "a
traditional-style hat made of horsehair"
* ''mo-rip'' (毛笠), "a kind of hat worn by servants in the old days"
* ''mi-rip'' or ''mi-reup'', meaning "a knack, a trick, the hang of something"
* ''madi'' (맏이) or ''maji'' (맏히), meaning "the firstborn, the eldest (child of a family); an elder, a senior, a person whose age is greater than someone else's age"
* ''mat-jip'' (맛집), meaning "the house in which the head of a household lives, the main house on an estate"
* ''mŏrŏ'' or ''maru'' (마루), meaning "ridge, peak, crest (of a roof, a mountain, a wave, ''etc.''); zenith, climax, prime; the first, the standard"
* ''maru'' (마루) or ''mallu'', meaning "floor"
or from a word related to Middle Korean ''marh'' meaning "stake, post, pile, picket, peg, pin (of a tent)".
The second element, ''gan'' (
Hangul
The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul, . Hangul may also be written as following South Korea's standard Romanization. ( ) in South Korea and Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea, is the modern official writing system for the Korean language. The let ...
: 간), is a likely cognate to ''han'' (
Hangul
The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul, . Hangul may also be written as following South Korea's standard Romanization. ( ) in South Korea and Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea, is the modern official writing system for the Korean language. The let ...
: 한) and the word for "big, great" ''keun,'' first attested as Late Old Korean 黑根 *hùkú-n. Both carry the meaning of "great, leader", which was previously used by the princes of southern Korea, and is sometimes also speculated to have an external relationship with the Mongolic/Turkic title of
Khan
Khan may refer to:
*Khan (inn), from Persian, a caravanserai or resting-place for a travelling caravan
*Khan (surname), including a list of people with the name
*Khan (title), a royal title for a ruler in Mongol and Turkic languages and used by ...
.
Unified Silla
In the 7th century, Silla allied itself with the
Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of va ...
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
. In 660, under
Muyeol of Silla (654–661), the Silla–Tang alliance subjugated Baekje after the
Baekje–Tang War. In 668, under
King Munmu of Silla
Munmu of Silla (626–681; reigned 661–681) was the 30th king of the Korean kingdom of Silla. He is usually considered to have been the first ruler of the Unified Silla period. Munmu was the son of King Muyeol and Munmyeong, who was the young ...
(King Muyeol's successor) and General
Kim Yu-sin
Gim Yu-sin (sometimes romanized Kim Yu-shin, Gim Yu-sin, or Gim Yu-shin) (595 – 18 August 673) was a Korean military general and politician in 7th-century Silla. He led the unification of the Korean Peninsula by Silla under the reign of King ...
, the Silla–Tang alliance conquered Goguryeo to its north after the
Goguryeo–Tang War. Silla then
fought against the Tang dynasty for nearly a decade to expel Chinese forces on the peninsula intent on creating Tang colonies there to finally establish a unified kingdom as far north as modern Pyongyang. The northern region of the defunct Goguryeo state later reemerged as
Balhae.
Silla's middle period is characterized by the rising power of the monarchy at the expense of the ''
jingol'' nobility. This was made possible by the new wealth and prestige garnered as a result of Silla's unification of the peninsula, as well as the monarchy's successful suppression of several armed aristocratic revolts following early upon unification, which afforded the king the opportunity of purging the most powerful families and rivals to central authority. Further, for a brief period of about a century from the late 7th to late 8th centuries the monarchy made an attempt to divest aristocratic officialdom of their landed base by instituting a system of salary payments, or office land (''jikjeon'', 직전, 職田), in lieu of the former system whereby aristocratic officials were given grants of land to exploit as salary (the so–called tax villages, or ''nog-eup'', 녹읍, 祿邑).
By the late 8th century, however, these royal initiatives had failed to check the power of the entrenched aristocracy. The mid to late 8th century saw renewed revolts led by branches of the Kim clan which effectively limited royal authority. Most prominent of these was a revolt led by
Kim Daegong
Kim or KIM may refer to:
Names
* Kim (given name)
* Kim (surname)
** Kim (Korean surname)
*** Kim family (disambiguation), several dynasties
**** Kim family (North Korea), the rulers of North Korea since Kim Il-sung in 1948
** Kim, Vietnamese ...
that persisted for three years. One key evidence of the erosion of kingly authority was the rescinding of the office land system and the re-institution of the former tax village system as salary land for aristocratic officialdom in 757.
In Jinjin and Silla, the king was referred to as Gan, and during the Unified Silla Period, the title "Gan" was also used as Chungji Jagan and Agan.
The middle period of Silla came to an end with the assassination of
Hyegong of Silla
Hyegong of Silla (758–780) (r. 765–780) was the 36th ruler of the Korean kingdom of Silla. Being the only child between King Gyeongdeok and Lady Manwol ( Queen Gyeongsu), Hyegong was the last descendant of King Muyeol to sit on the throne. B ...
in 780, terminating the kingly line of succession of
Muyeol of Silla, the architect of Silla's unification of the peninsula. Hyegong's demise was a bloody one, the culmination of an extended civil war involving most of the kingdom's high–ranking noble families. With Hyegong's death, during the remaining years of Silla, the king was reduced to little more than a figurehead as powerful aristocratic families became increasingly independent of central control.
Thereafter the Silla kingship was fixed in the house of
Wonseong of Silla (785–798), though the office itself was continually contested among various branches of the Kim lineage.
Nevertheless, the middle period of Silla witnessed the state at its zenith, the brief consolidation of royal power, and the attempt to institute a Chinese style bureaucratic system.
Decline and fall
The final century and a half of the Silla state was one of nearly constant upheaval and civil war as the king was reduced to little more than a figurehead and powerful aristocratic families rose to actual dominance outside the capital and royal court.
The tail end of this period, called the
Later Three Kingdoms
The Later Three Kingdoms period (889-935 AD) of ancient Korea saw a partial revival of the old three kingdoms which had dominated the peninsula from the 1st century BC to the 7th century AD. After the Unified Silla kingdom had ruled Korea alone ...
period, briefly saw the emergence of the kingdoms of
Later Baekje
Hubaekje or Later Baekje (, ) was one of the Later Three Kingdoms of Korea, along with Taebong and Silla. Later Baekje was a Korean dynastic kingdom founded by the disaffected Silla general Gyeon Hwon in 900, whom led the local gentry and popul ...
and
Taebong, which were really composed of military forces capitalizing on their respective region's historical background, and Silla's submission to
Goryeo
Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificati ...
.
Society and politics
From at least the 6th century, when Silla acquired a detailed system of law and governance, social status and official advancement were dictated by the
bone rank system. This rigid lineage-based system also dictated clothing, house size, and the permitted range of marriage.
Since its emergence as a centralized polity Silla society had been characterized by its strict aristocratic makeup. Silla had two royal classes: "sacred bone" (''seonggol'', 성골, 聖骨) and "true bone" (''jingol'', 진골, 眞骨). Up until the reign of King Muyeol this aristocracy had been divided into "sacred bone" and "true bone" aristocrats, with the former differentiated by their eligibility to attain the kingship. This duality had ended when Queen Jindeok, the last ruler from the "sacred bone" class, died in 654. The numbers of "sacred bone" aristocrats had been decreasing for generations, as the title was only conferred to those whose parents were both "sacred bones", whereas children of a "sacred" and a "true bone" parent were considered as "true bones". There were also many ways for a "sacred bone" to be demoted to a "true bone", thus making the entire system even more likely to collapse eventually.
The king (or queen) theoretically was an absolute monarch, but royal powers were somewhat constrained by a strong aristocracy.
The "
Hwabaek" (화백,和白) served as royal council with decision-making authorities on some vital issues like succession to the throne or declarations of war. The Hwabaek was headed by a person (
Sangdaedeung) chosen from the "sacred bone" rank. One of the key decisions of this royal council was the adoption of
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
as state religion.
Following unification Silla began to rely more upon Chinese models of bureaucracy to administer its greatly expanded territory. This was a marked change from pre-unification days when the Silla monarchy stressed Buddhism, and the Silla monarch's role as a "Buddha-king". Another salient factor in post-unification politics were the increasing tensions between the Korean monarchy and aristocracy.
Military
The early Silla military was built around a small number of Silla royal guards designed to protect royalty and nobility and in times of war served as the primary military force if needed. Due to the frequency of conflicts between
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla.
Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jum ...
and
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
as well as
Yamato
was originally the area around today's Sakurai City in Nara Prefecture of Japan, which became Yamato Province and by extension a name for the whole of Japan.
Yamato is also the dynastic name of the ruling Imperial House of Japan.
Japanese his ...
Japan, Silla created six local garrisons one for each district. The royal guards eventually morphed into "sworn banner" or
Sodang
Seodang were private village schools providing elementary education during the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties of Korea.
Background
They were primarily occupied with providing initial training in the Chinese classics to boys of 7-16 years of age, but ...
units. In 625 another group of Sodang was created. Garrison soldiers were responsible for local defense and also served as a police force.
A number of Silla's greatest generals and military leaders were
Hwarang (equivalent to the Western knights or chevaliers). Originally a social group, due to the continuous military rivalry between the
Three Kingdoms of Korea
Samhan or the Three Kingdoms of Korea () refers to the three kingdoms of Goguryeo (고구려, 高句麗), Baekje (백제, 百濟), and Silla (신라, 新羅). Goguryeo was later known as Goryeo (고려, 高麗), from which the modern name ''Kor ...
, they eventually transformed from a group of elite male aristocratic youth into soldiers and military leaders. Hwarang were key in the fall of Goguryeo (which resulted in the unification of the
Korean Peninsula
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
under
Unified Silla) and the
Silla–Tang Wars, which expelled Tang forces in the other two Korean kingdoms.
Silla is known to have operated crossbows called the Cheonbono (천보노) that was said to have had a range of one thousand steps and a special pike unit called the Jangchang-Dang (장창당) to counter enemy cavalry. In particular, Silla's crossbows were prized by Tang China due to its excellent functions and durability. Silla would later employ special crossbow units against its Korean counterparts such as
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
and
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla.
Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jum ...
, as well as the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
during the
Silla–Tang War
The Silla–Tang War (670–676) occurred between Silla (joined by Goguryeo and Baekje loyalists) and the Tang dynasty. It began in the geopolitical context immediately following the conquest of Goguryeo and Baekje by the joint forces of Silla and ...
. The pike unit, called Changchangdang that would later be known as the Bigeum Legion (비금서당) as part of the Nine Legions (구서당) and which was consisted of Silla folks, had a special purpose to counter the
Göktürks
The Göktürks, Celestial Turks or Blue Turks ( otk, 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣, Türük Bodun; ; ) were a nomadic confederation of Turkic peoples in medieval Inner Asia. The Göktürks, under the leadership of Bumin Qaghan (d. 552) and ...
cavalries operated by the Tang army during the
Silla-Tang War.
In addition, Silla's central army, the Nine Legions (구서당), were consisted of Silla,
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
,
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla.
Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jum ...
, and
Mohe people. These nine legions aimed at defending the
capital
Capital may refer to:
Common uses
* Capital city, a municipality of primary status
** List of national capital cities
* Capital letter, an upper-case letter Economics and social sciences
* Capital (economics), the durable produced goods used f ...
became complete in formation and compilation after
Silla unified the Three Kingdoms. Each Legions were known for their representative colors marked on their collars and were constituted by different groups. The Golden, Red, and Dark Blue Legion employed Goguryeoans while the Blue and White Legion accepted Baekje folks into their ranks. The Bigeum (also Red in color), Green, and Purple Legion were formed by Sillan people whilst the Black Legion took dispersed Mohe refugees into their fold that came along with Goguryeo refugees after the
Fall of Goguryeo.
Silla is also known for its maritime prowess shown by the navy backed with master shipbuilding and seamanship. The boats employed were usually called 'Shillaseon(신라선)', which had an international reputation for its solid durability and effective capabilities that were said to 'enable men surf across the biggest of waves' amongst the Chinese and Japanese according to the
Shoku Nihon Koki. During the Silla-Tang War, the Silla navy under the command of general Shideuk defeated the Tang Navy 22 times out of 23 engagements in Gibeolpo, today's
Seocheon County
Seocheon County () is a county in Chungcheongnam-do, South Korea. It is famous for its seafood and location near the mouth of the Geum River.
Administrative divisions
Seocheon county has two major centers, Janghang-eup and Seocheon-eup. Seocheon- ...
. Jang Bogo, a prominent maritime figure of Silla, was also famous for his navy based on the
Cheonghaejin
Cheonghaejin (literally "Clear sea headquarters") was a major military headquarters and trading hub located on Wando island, South Jeolla province of South Korea, and established by Korean general Jang Bogo in 828 ACE during the Silla kingdom p ...
Garrison.
Culture
![Cheomseongdae 첨성대](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Cheomseongdae_%EC%B2%A8%EC%84%B1%EB%8C%80.jpg)
A significant number of Silla tombs can still be found in Gyeongju, the capital of Silla. Silla tombs consist of a stone chamber surrounded by a soil mound. The historic area around Gyeongju was added to the
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
World Heritage
A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for h ...
list in 2000. Much of it is also protected as part of
Gyeongju National Park
Gyeongju National Park ( ko, 경주국립공원, 慶州國立公園) is located in the province of Gyeongsangbuk-do, South Korea, and is the country's only historical national park. It was first designated a national park in 1968. The park cove ...
. Additionally, two villages near Gyeongju named
Hahoe
The Hahoe Folk Village (Korean: 안동하회마을) is a traditional village from the Joseon Dynasty, located in Andong, Gyeongsangbuk-do, South Korea. The 'Ha' is short for river and 'hoe' means to 'turn around, return, come back.
The village ...
and
Yangdong Folk Village were submitted for UNESCO heritages in 2008 or later by related cities and the South Korean government. Since the tombs were harder to break into than those of Baekje, a larger number of objects has been preserved. Notable amongst these are Silla's elaborate gold crowns and jewelry.
The massive
Bronze Bell of
King Seongdeok the Great of Silla is known to produce a distinctive sound.
Cheomseongdae
Cheomseongdae ( ko, 첨성대; Hanja: , ) is an astronomical observatory in Gyeongju, South Korea. Cheomseongdae is the oldest surviving astronomical observatory in Asia, and possibly even the world. It was constructed in the 7th century in the ...
near Gyeongju is the oldest extant
astronomical observatory
An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial, marine, or celestial events. Astronomy, climatology/meteorology, geophysical, oceanography and volcanology are examples of disciplines for which observatories have been constructed. His ...
in East Asia but some disagree on its exact functions. It was built during the reign of Queen
Seondeok (632–647).
It was from Silla that Korea's oldest extant genre of poems, known as ''
hyangga'', developed and were recorded. Additionally, among the three kingdoms, Silla has the best preserved ancient Korean literature written in
Classical Chinese
Classical Chinese, also known as Literary Chinese (古文 ''gǔwén'' "ancient text", or 文言 ''wényán'' "text speak", meaning
"literary language/speech"; modern vernacular: 文言文 ''wényánwén'' "text speak text", meaning
"literar ...
, which includes the
''hanshi'' poetry of
Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn, as well as the
travelogue of Buddhist monk
Hyecho.
Muslim traders brought the name "Silla" to the world outside the traditional East Asian sphere through the
Silk Road
The Silk Road () was a network of Eurasian trade routes active from the second century BCE until the mid-15th century. Spanning over 6,400 kilometers (4,000 miles), it played a central role in facilitating economic, cultural, political, and reli ...
. Geographers of the Arab and Persian world, including
ibn Khurdadhbih
Abu'l-Qasim Ubaydallah ibn Abdallah ibn Khordadbeh ( ar, ابوالقاسم عبیدالله ابن خرداذبه; 820/825–913), commonly known as Ibn Khordadbeh (also spelled Ibn Khurradadhbih; ), was a high-ranking Persian bureaucrat and ...
,
al-Masudi
Al-Mas'udi ( ar, أَبُو ٱلْحَسَن عَلِيّ ٱبْن ٱلْحُسَيْن ٱبْن عَلِيّ ٱلْمَسْعُودِيّ, '; –956) was an Arab historian, geographer and traveler. He is sometimes referred to as the "Herodotus ...
,
Dimashiki,
Al-Nuwayri
Al-Nuwayrī, full name Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad bin ʿAbd al-Wahhāb al-Nuwayrī ( ar, شهاب الدين أحمد بن عبد الوهاب النويري, born April 5, 1279 in Akhmim, present-day Egypt – died June 5, 1333 in Cairo) was an Eg ...
, and
al-Maqrizi
Al-Maqrīzī or Maḳrīzī (Arabic: ), whose full name was Taqī al-Dīn Abū al-'Abbās Aḥmad ibn 'Alī ibn 'Abd al-Qādir ibn Muḥammad al-Maqrīzī (Arabic: ) (1364–1442) was a medieval Egyptian Arab historian during the Mamluk era, kn ...
, left records about Silla.
The current descendants to the Silla dynasty fall under the Park name. Family records since the last ruler have been provided, but these records have yet to be fully verified.
Native ethnic religion/Shamanism/Animism
The ancient indigenous native religion of Korea presented one of the most important aspects in early Korean society and involved the very lives of its people as well of its culture. One of the key features is the belief in the spirits of nature, that inhabit all the things in existence.
[Lee, Kidong. “The Indigenous Religions of Silla: Their Diversity and Durability.” Korean Studies, vol. 28, 2004, pp. 49–74. JSTOR, . Accessed 13 Jan. 2023.] Its presence is seen in Korean culture itself and could be considered inseparable from it, from cultural and national festivals such as
Seollal and
Chuseok, to many practices within Korean Buddhism that originate from it.
The ethnic religion of Silla was a key element within the Silla state and constituted the State religion around which many of the national rites, festivals and ceremonies revolved around.
The ruler of Silla was simultaneously its religious head and one of the most revered figures in the nation, having a near deity/saint like status due to their descendance from the spirits of the skies. The title of the second ruler of Silla,
Nurye "Yuri" Isageum, called ''Chachaung'' was one of the high shamans of the state for example.
The ruler also performed the national ceremonies to support the nation in upcoming times together with his sister serving as a high ranking shamaness figure only second to the ruler himself.
Silla's unique exceptionalist nationalism focused on the struggle for survival against the much more powerful neighbours of Goguryeo and Baekje.
The
Hwarang order had its origin in Silla's native religion as well, where the youth would strive to fight for their country and monarch. They would embark on nationalistic pilgrimages to seek out the spirits, who would grant them powers to vanquish their enemies. The
Hwarang segi is one of the manuscripts that give insight into their lives and practices.
Springs and Mountains are some of the sources, where the spirits of life originate from, who sometimes take on the form of animals and girls.
When Silla adopted Buddhism, the previous ethnic religion was syncretized with the new faith and largely became synonymous to it. Buddhist deities are often treated the same way deities from the native religion are. Buddhism subsequently also found its way into native folk beliefs.
Shamanism remained important well into the Goryeo period, with a nativist uprising nominally led by a Buddhist court monk named
Myocheong
Myocheong (Hangul: 묘청, Hanja: 妙淸) was an influential Buddhist monk and geomancer of the royal court of the Goryeo dynasty.
Myocheong's Rebellion
During the reign of King Injong of Goryeo, Myocheong argued that Goryeo had become weakened ...
occurring in the 12th century.
The national festivals of Goryeo, Palgwanhoe and Yeondeunghoe, while they were Buddhist festivals were originally native shamanistic ones.
During Joseon shamans were still reached out to by the common folk, who for example often went to them to decide the names of their kids.
Buddhism
Centuries after
Buddhism emerged in India, the strand called
Mahayana Buddhism
''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing bra ...
spread out of
Central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
, modern-day
Afghanistan
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is bordere ...
, and arrived in Silla the very last out of
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
and
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla.
Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jum ...
due to its geographic isolation. In Korea, it was adopted as the state religion of 3 constituent polities of the Three Kingdoms Period, first by
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
in 372 CE, by Silla in 528 CE, and by
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla.
Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jum ...
in 552 CE.
[Lee Injae, Owen Miller, Park Jinhoon, Yi Hyun-Hae, 2014, Korean History in Maps, Cambridge University Press, pp. 44–49, 52–60.] Buddhism was introduced much more reluctantly compared to the two others to Silla in 528.
[Park, Jin Y. article "Buddhism in Korea" in Keown and Prebish 2010 : 449.] Silla had been exposed to the religion for over a century during which the faith had certainly made inroads into the native populace and mixed with the native Shamanist and Animist folk religion to form the Korean specific form of Buddhism. The Buddhist monk Ado (monk), Ado introduced Silla to Buddhism when he arrived to proselytize in the mid 5th century. The Samguk yusa and Samguk Sagi, Samguk sagi following 3 monks among the first to bring Buddhist teaching, or Dharma, to Korea: Malananta (late 4th century) – an Indian Buddhist monk who brought Buddhism to King Chimnyu of Baekje, Baekje of
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla.
Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jum ...
in the southern Korea, Korean peninsula in 384, Shandao, Sundo – a Chinese Buddhist monk who brought Buddhism to
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
in northern Korea in 372, and Ado (monk), Ado – a Buddhist monk who brought Buddhism to Silla in central Korea.
[, pg. 71] However, according to legend, the Silla monarchy was convinced to adopt the faith only by the martyrdom of the Silla general Ichadon, who was executed for his Buddhist faith by the Silla monarch in 527 only to have his blood flow the color of milk.
The importance of
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
in Silla society of the late early period is difficult to exaggerate. From King Beopheung and for the following six reigns Silla kings adopted Buddhist names and came to portray themselves as Buddhist–kings.
![Nine story pagoda of the Hwangryongsa](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Nine_story_pagoda_of_the_Hwangryongsa.JPG)
By the time of the 7th century, Buddhism in Korea reached its golden age with the advent of prominent, elite scholar-monks such as Wonhyo, Uisang, and Jajang that influenced East Asian philosophy and played pivotal roles in laying key ideas within East Asian Buddhism like Essence-Function. With the support of the government, massive temples like the Hwangnyongsa, Temple of the Golden Dragon, Bulguksa, Temple of the Buddhist Realms and Hermitage (religious retreat), hermitages like Seokguram were built across the nation. Buddhist ideals and practices permeated the people's daily lives regardless of class and the court, as well as the government, actively promoted Buddhism as a symbol of patriotism in times of invasions. The main assessment is that relics and temple ruins related to Silla found today were ahead of their time and surpassed those of Goryeo and Joseon in terms of size and extravagancy. Many Sillan monks who were part of the elite caste chose to expand their experience and knowledge by studying abroad in Tang China or travelling far west to India.
Hyecho, known for his travelogue "''Wang ocheonchukguk jeon, An Account of Travel to the Five Indian Kingdoms''", was one of the many Korean monks that ventured to territories west to China yet to be visited by Koreans at that time.
Silla's strong Buddhist nature is also reflected by the thousands of remnant Buddhist stone figures and carvings, mostly importantly on Namsan (Gyeongju), Namsan. The international influence of the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
on these figures and carvings can be witnessed in the hallmarks of a round full form, a stern expression of the face, and drapery that clings to the body, but stylistic elements of native Korean culture can still be identified.
Foreign relations
![阎立本王会图朝鲜三国使臣](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/%E9%98%8E%E7%AB%8B%E6%9C%AC%E7%8E%8B%E4%BC%9A%E5%9B%BE%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E4%B8%89%E5%9B%BD%E4%BD%BF%E8%87%A3.png)
Korea's and Iran's long-running relationship started with cultural exchanges dating back to the
Three Kingdoms of Korea
Samhan or the Three Kingdoms of Korea () refers to the three kingdoms of Goguryeo (고구려, 高句麗), Baekje (백제, 百濟), and Silla (신라, 新羅). Goguryeo was later known as Goryeo (고려, 高麗), from which the modern name ''Kor ...
era, more than 1600 years ago by the way of the Silk Road. A dark blue glass was found in the Cheonmachong Tomb, one of Silla's royal tombs unearthed in Gyeongju. An exotic golden sword was found in Gyerim-ro, a street also located in Gyeongju. These are all relics that are presumed to be sent to Silla from ancient Iran or Persia through the Silk Road. Other items uncovered during the excavation include a silver bowl engraved with an image of the Persian goddess Anahita; a golden dagger from Persia; clay busts; and figurines portraying Middle Eastern merchants.
It was only during the Goryeo dynasty during Hyeonjeong's reign when trade with Persia was officially recorded in Korean history. But in academic circles, it is presumed that both countries had active cultural exchanges during the 7th century Silla era which means the relationship between Korea and Iran began more than 1,500 years ago. "In a history book written by the Persian scholar Khurdadbid, it states that Silla is located at the eastern end of China and reads 'In this beautiful country Silla, there is much gold, majestic cities and hardworking people. Their culture is comparable with Persia'. ''Samguk Sagi''— the official chronicle of the Three Kingdoms era, compiled in 1145—contains further descriptions of commercial items sold by Middle Eastern merchants and widely used in Silla society. The influence of Ancient Iranic peoples, Iranian culture was profoundly felt in other ways as well, most notably in the fields of music, visual arts, and literature. The popularity of Iranian designs in Korea can be seen in the widespread use of pearl-studded roundels and symmetrical, zoomorphic patterns.
An ancient Persian epic poem, the Kushnameh, contains detailed descriptions of Silla. Former South Korean president Park Geun-hye said during a festival celebrating Iran and Korea's 1,500 years of shared cultural ties, "The Kushnameh, that tells of a Persian prince who went to Silla in the seventh century and got married with a Korean princess, thus forming a royal marriage.”
Silla also traded indirectly with the Roman Empire through the
Silk Road
The Silk Road () was a network of Eurasian trade routes active from the second century BCE until the mid-15th century. Spanning over 6,400 kilometers (4,000 miles), it played a central role in facilitating economic, cultural, political, and reli ...
. Many Roman relics were excavated from the royal tombs of Silla, and it is presumed that Roman glass was a particularly popular luxury product among the high-ranking class.
The Silla tombs where Roman glass has been proven to have been excavated include Geumnyeong Tomb, Cheonmachong, Cheonma Tomb, Hwangnamdae Tomb, and Nambun Tomb No. 98.
Silla was also a place of interest by the Japanese as the
Nihon Shoki and the
Kojiki
The , also sometimes read as or , is an early Japanese chronicle of myths, legends, hymns, genealogies, oral traditions, and semi-historical accounts down to 641 concerning the origin of the Japanese archipelago, the , and the Japanese imperia ...
both claim that the Japanese god,
Susanoo
__FORCETOC__
Susanoo (; historical orthography: , ) is a in Japanese mythology. The younger brother of Amaterasu, goddess of the sun and mythical ancestress of the Japanese imperial line, he is a multifaceted deity with contradictory chara ...
(brother of Amaterasu) first emerged from the kingdom of Silla after being banished from the heavens, but soon left the peninsula for the Japanese archipelago after being dissatisfied with the land. He was also used as a means of spreading propaganda through
Nissen dōsoron
Nissen dōsoron ( ja, 日鮮同祖論) is a theory that reinforces the idea that the Japanese people and the Koreans, Korean people share a common ancestry. It was first introduced during the Japanese annexation of Korea in the early 20th century ...
that Susanoo once reigned over Silla and that the modern Koreans are his descendants (in turn the Japanese), ultimately using him to justify the
Japanese occupation of Korea
Between 1910 and 1945, Korea was ruled as a part of the Empire of Japan. Joseon, Joseon Korea had come into the Japanese sphere of influence with the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876; a complex coalition of the Meiji period, Meiji government, military ...
.
Gallery
See also
* Crowns of Silla
* Gyeongju National Museum
* History of Korea
* List of Silla people
* Silla monarchs family tree
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
*
*
*
External links
Silla - World History EncyclopediaGyeongju National Museum
{{Authority control
Silla,
States and territories established in the 1st century BC
50s BC establishments
57 BC
935 disestablishments
Ancient peoples of Korea
Former countries in East Asia
Former countries in Korean history
History of Korea
Culture of Korea
Three Kingdoms of Korea
Former monarchies of East Asia
Tributaries of Imperial China