Sigismund III Vasa ( pl, Zygmunt III Waza, lt, Žygimantas Vaza; 20 June 1566 – 30 April 1632
N.S.) was
King of Poland
Poland was ruled at various times either by dukes and princes (10th to 14th centuries) or by kings (11th to 18th centuries). During the latter period, a tradition of free election of monarchs made it a uniquely electable position in Europe (16t ...
and
Grand Duke of Lithuania
The monarchy of Lithuania concerned the monarchical head of state of Lithuania, which was established as an absolute and hereditary monarchy. Throughout Lithuania's history there were three ducal dynasties that managed to stay in power—House ...
from 1587 to 1632 and, as Sigismund,
King of Sweden
The monarchy of Sweden is the monarchical head of state of Sweden,See the Instrument of Government, Chapter 1, Article 5. which is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy with a parliamentary system.Parliamentary system: see the Instrument o ...
and
Grand Duke of Finland from 1592 to 1599. He was the first Polish sovereign from the
House of Vasa. Religiously zealous, he imposed
Roman Catholicism
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwide . It is am ...
across the vast realm, and his crusades against neighbouring states marked Poland's largest territorial expansion. As an enlightened despot, he presided over an era of
prosperity
Prosperity is the flourishing, thriving, good fortune and successful social status. Prosperity often produces profuse wealth including other factors which can be profusely wealthy in all degrees, such as happiness and health.
Competing notion ...
and achievement, further distinguished by the transfer of the country's capital from
Kraków
Kraków (), or Cracow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland until 1596 ...
to
Warsaw
Warsaw ( pl, Warszawa, ), officially the Capital City of Warsaw,, abbreviation: ''m.st. Warszawa'' is the capital and largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the River Vistula in east-central Poland, and its population is officia ...
.
Sigismund was the son of King
John III of Sweden and his first wife,
Catherine Jagiellon
Catherine Jagiellon ( pl, Katarzyna Jagiellonka; sv, Katarina Jagellonica, Lithuanian: ''Kotryna Jogailatė''; 1 November 1526 – 16 September 1583) was a Polish princess and Queen of Sweden as the first wife of King John III. As such, she ...
, daughter of King
Sigismund I of Poland
Sigismund I the Old ( pl, Zygmunt I Stary, lt, Žygimantas II Senasis; 1 January 1467 – 1 April 1548) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1506 until his death in 1548. Sigismund I was a member of the Jagiellonian dynasty, the ...
. Elected monarch of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1587, he sought to unify Poland and Sweden under one Catholic kingdom, and when he succeeded his deceased father in 1592 the
Polish–Swedish union
The Polish–Swedish union was a short-lived personal union between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Kingdom of Sweden between 1592 and 1599. It began when Sigismund III Vasa, elected King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, was ...
was created. Opposition in
Protestant
Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...
Sweden caused a
war against Sigismund
The war against Sigismund ( sv, Kriget mot Sigismund) was a war between Duke Charles, later known as King Charles IX of Sweden, and Sigismund, who was at the time the King of both Sweden and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (that is, the ...
headed by Sigismund's uncle
Charles IX, who deposed him in 1599.
Sigismund attempted to hold
absolute power in all his dominions and frequently undermined parliament. He suppressed internal opposition, strengthened Catholic influence and granted privileges to the
Jesuits
The Society of Jesus ( la, Societas Iesu; abbreviation: SJ), also known as the Jesuits (; la, Iesuitæ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
, whom he employed as advisors and spies during the
Counter-Reformation
The Counter-Reformation (), also called the Catholic Reformation () or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation. It began with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) a ...
. He actively interfered in the affairs of neighbouring countries; his
invasion of Russia during the
Time of Troubles
The Time of Troubles (russian: Смутное время, ), or Smuta (russian: Смута), was a period of political crisis during the Tsardom of Russia which began in 1598 with the death of Fyodor I (Fyodor Ivanovich, the last of the Rurik dy ...
resulted in brief control over Moscow and seizure of
Smolensk
Smolensk ( rus, Смоленск, p=smɐˈlʲensk, a=smolensk_ru.ogg) is a city and the administrative center of Smolensk Oblast, Russia, located on the Dnieper River, west-southwest of Moscow. First mentioned in 863, it is one of the oldest c ...
. Sigismund's army also defeated the
Ottoman forces in southeastern Europe, which hastened the downfall of Sultan
Osman II
Osman II ( ota, عثمان ثانى ''‘Osmān-i sānī''; tr, II. Osman; 3 November 1604 – 20 May 1622), also known as Osman the Young ( tr, Genç Osman), was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 26 February 1618 until his regicide on 20 May 162 ...
. However, the Polish–Swedish conflict had a less favourable outcome. After a series of skirmishes ending in a truce, King
Gustavus Adolphus
Gustavus Adolphus (9 December Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">N.S_19_December.html" ;"title="Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="/nowiki>Old Style and New Style dates">N.S 19 December">Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="/now ...
of Sweden launched a campaign against the Commonwealth and annexed parts of
Polish Livonia.
Sigismund remains a controversial figure in Poland. One of the country's most recognisable
monarchs
A monarch is a head of stateWebster's II New College DictionarMonarch Houghton Mifflin. Boston. 2001. p. 707. for life or until abdication, and therefore the head of state of a monarchy. A monarch may exercise the highest authority and power in ...
, his long reign coincided with the
Polish Golden Age
The Polish Golden Age was the Renaissance period in Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, roughly corresponding to the period of rule of the King Sigismund I the Old and his son, Sigismund II Augustus, the last of the Jagiellonian Dynasty monar ...
, the apex in the prestige, power and economic influence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. On the other hand, it was also during his rule that the seeds of decline surfaced. Considerable contributions to the arts and architecture as well as military victories were tarnished by intrigues and religious persecutions. He was commemorated in Warsaw by
Sigismund's Column
Sigismund's Column ( pl, Kolumna Zygmunta), originally erected in 1644, is located at Castle Square, Warsaw, Poland and is one of Warsaw's most famous landmarks as well as the first secular monument in the form of a column in modern history. The ...
, one of the city's chief landmarks and the first secular monument in the form of a column in
modern history
The term modern period or modern era (sometimes also called modern history or modern times) is the period of history that succeeds the Middle Ages (which ended approximately 1500 AD). This terminology is a historical periodization that is applie ...
. It was commissioned after Sigismund's death by his son and successor,
Władysław IV Władysław is a Polish given male name, cognate with Vladislav. The feminine form is Władysława, archaic forms are Włodzisław (male) and Włodzisława (female), and Wladislaw is a variation. These names may refer to:
Famous people Mononym
* ...
.
Early life
![Simmler Catherine Jagiellon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Simmler_Catherine_Jagiellon.jpg)
Born on 20 June 1566 at
Gripsholm Castle
Gripsholm Castle ( sv, Gripsholms slott) is a castle in Mariefred, Södermanland, Sweden. It is located by lake Mälaren in south central Sweden, in the municipality of Strängnäs, about 60 km west of Stockholm. Since Gustav Vasa, Gripsho ...
, Sigismund was the second child and only son of
Catherine Jagiellon
Catherine Jagiellon ( pl, Katarzyna Jagiellonka; sv, Katarina Jagellonica, Lithuanian: ''Kotryna Jogailatė''; 1 November 1526 – 16 September 1583) was a Polish princess and Queen of Sweden as the first wife of King John III. As such, she ...
and Grand Duke
John of Finland.
The couple was being held prisoner at Gripsholm since 1563 when John staged a failed rebellion against his deranged brother
Eric XIV of Sweden
Eric XIV ( sv, Erik XIV; 13 December 153326 February 1577) was King of Sweden from 1560 until he was deposed in 1569. Eric XIV was the eldest son of Gustav I (1496–1560) and Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg (1513–1535). He was also ruler of Est ...
. Although
Protestant Christians were growing political wing in Poland at the time, Sigismund was raised as a
Roman Catholic
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
.
His mother Catherine was the daughter of Polish king
Sigismund the Old
Sigismund I the Old ( pl, Zygmunt I Stary, lt, Žygimantas II Senasis; 1 January 1467 – 1 April 1548) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1506 until his death in 1548. Sigismund I was a member of the Jagiellonian dynasty, the ...
and
Bona Sforza of
Milan
Milan ( , , Lombard: ; it, Milano ) is a city in northern Italy, capital of Lombardy, and the second-most populous city proper in Italy after Rome. The city proper has a population of about 1.4 million, while its metropolitan city h ...
, all of whom where practicing Catholics.
Sigismund's older sister Isabella died aged two in 1566. His younger sister
Anna
Anna may refer to:
People Surname and given name
* Anna (name)
Mononym
* Anna the Prophetess, in the Gospel of Luke
* Anna (wife of Artabasdos) (fl. 715–773)
* Anna (daughter of Boris I) (9th–10th century)
* Anna (Anisia) (fl. 1218 to 12 ...
was a
Lutheran
Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism, identifying primarily with the theology of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German monk and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Cathol ...
, but the close relationship between the two siblings remained unchanged until her death in 1625.
In October 1567, Sigismund and his parents were released from prison at the request of his uncle
Charles
Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''*k ...
. In January 1569, Eric XIV was deposed and Sigismund's father ascended the throne of Sweden as John III. He maintained good relations with his father despite John's second marriage to
Gunilla Bielke
Gunilla Bielke; Swedish: ''Gunilla Johansdotter Bielke af Åkerö'' (25 June 1568 – 19 July 1597) was Queen of Sweden as the second wife of King John III. Queen Gunilla is acknowledged to have acted as the political adviser to John III and to h ...
, a Protestant noble lady of lower status and Catherine's former
maid of honour
A maid of honour is a junior attendant of a queen in royal households. The position was and is junior to the lady-in-waiting. The equivalent title and office has historically been used in most European royal courts.
Role
Traditionally, a queen ...
.
In 1589, Sigismund's half-brother
John
John is a common English name and surname:
* John (given name)
* John (surname)
John may also refer to:
New Testament
Works
* Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John
* First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John
* Secon ...
, the future Duke of
Östergötland, was born.
As a child, Sigismund was tutored in both Polish and Swedish, thus making him bilingual.
He was also proficient in German, Italian, and
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
. Catherine ensured that her son was educated in the spirit of Catholicism and Polish patriotism; the young prince was made aware of his blood connection to the
Jagiellonian dynasty
The Jagiellonian dynasty (, pl, dynastia jagiellońska), otherwise the Jagiellon dynasty ( pl, dynastia Jagiellonów), the House of Jagiellon ( pl, Dom Jagiellonów), or simply the Jagiellons ( pl, Jagiellonowie), was the name assumed by a cad ...
which ruled Poland in its
finest period for two hundred years.
Although Sigismund in his youth enjoyed reading and learning, observers did not acknowledge his intelligence. He was handsome, rather tall, and of slim build, but timid and an introvert who became heavily influenced by the teachings of the church.
Nevertheless, Sigismund was undoubtedly multitalented and artistically inclined.
Accession
![Žygimont Vaza](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/%C5%BDygimont_Vaza._%D0%96%D1%8B%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0_%281585%29.jpg)
In 1587, Sigismund stood for election to the Polish throne after the death of
Stephen Báthory
Stephen Báthory ( hu, Báthory István; pl, Stefan Batory; ; 27 September 1533 – 12 December 1586) was Voivode of Transylvania (1571–1576), Prince of Transylvania (1576–1586), King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania (1576–1586) ...
.
His candidacy was secured by
Queen Dowager Anna and several elite magnates who considered him a native candidate as a descendant of the Jagiellons, though the election was openly questioned and opposed by the nobles politically associated with the
Zborowski family
Zborowski (feminine Zborowska, plural Zborowscy) is a Polish surname. It may refer to:
* Andriy Zborovskyi (born 1986), Ukrainian footballer
* Eliot Zborowski (1858–1903), American racing driver
* Helmut Zborowski (1905–1969), Austrian aircra ...
.
With the blessing of primate
Stanisław Karnkowski
Stanisław Karnkowski of Junosza (1520–1603) was the Great Referendary of the Polish Crown (since 1558), the Great Secretary of Poland (since 1563), bishop of Włocławek (1567-1580) as well as archbishop of Gniezno and Primate of Poland (sinc ...
and strong support from other people of influence he was duly elected ruler of the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and, after 1791, as the Commonwealth of Poland, was a bi-confederal state, sometimes called a federation, of Crown of the Kingdom of ...
on 19 August 1587.
His official name and title became "
by the grace of God
By the Grace of God ( la, Dei Gratia, abbreviated D.G.) is a formulaic phrase used especially in Christian monarchies as an introductory part of the full styles of a monarch. For example in England and later the United Kingdom, the phrase was fo ...
,
king of Poland
Poland was ruled at various times either by dukes and princes (10th to 14th centuries) or by kings (11th to 18th centuries). During the latter period, a tradition of free election of monarchs made it a uniquely electable position in Europe (16t ...
,
grand duke of Lithuania
The monarchy of Lithuania concerned the monarchical head of state of Lithuania, which was established as an absolute and hereditary monarchy. Throughout Lithuania's history there were three ducal dynasties that managed to stay in power—House ...
, ruler of
Ruthenia
Ruthenia or , uk, Рутенія, translit=Rutenia or uk, Русь, translit=Rus, label=none, pl, Ruś, be, Рутэнія, Русь, russian: Рутения, Русь is an exonym, originally used in Medieval Latin as one of several terms ...
,
Prussia
Prussia, , Old Prussian: ''Prūsa'' or ''Prūsija'' was a German state on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It formed the German Empire under Prussian rule when it united the German states in 1871. It was ''de facto'' dissolved by an em ...
,
Masovia
Mazovia or Masovia ( pl, Mazowsze) is a historical region in mid-north-eastern Poland. It spans the North European Plain, roughly between Łódź and Białystok, with Warsaw being the unofficial capital and largest city. Throughout the centurie ...
,
Samogitia
Samogitia or Žemaitija ( Samogitian: ''Žemaitėjė''; see below for alternative and historical names) is one of the five cultural regions of Lithuania and formerly one of the two core administrative divisions of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ...
,
Livonia
Livonia ( liv, Līvõmō, et, Liivimaa, fi, Liivinmaa, German and Scandinavian languages: ', archaic German: ''Liefland'', nl, Lijfland, Latvian and lt, Livonija, pl, Inflanty, archaic English: ''Livland'', ''Liwlandia''; russian: Ли ...
and also hereditary
king of the Swedes,
Goths
The Goths ( got, 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰, translit=''Gutþiuda''; la, Gothi, grc-gre, Γότθοι, Gótthoi) were a Germanic people who played a major role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Europe ...
and
Wends
Wends ( ang, Winedas ; non, Vindar; german: Wenden , ; da, vendere; sv, vender; pl, Wendowie, cz, Wendové) is a historical name for Slavs living near Germanic settlement areas. It refers not to a homogeneous people, but to various peopl ...
"; the latter titles being a reference to the fact that he was already the
Crown Prince
A crown prince or hereditary prince is the heir apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The female form of the title is crown princess, which may refer either to an heiress apparent or, especially in earlier times, to the wif ...
of Sweden, and thus would lawfully succeed to the
throne of Sweden upon the death of his father.
The outcome of the election was strongly contested by factions of the Polish nobility that backed the candidacy of Archduke
Maximilian III of Austria, who
launched a military expedition. When the news reached Sigismund in Sweden, he crossed the
Baltic
Baltic may refer to:
Peoples and languages
* Baltic languages, a subfamily of Indo-European languages, including Lithuanian, Latvian and extinct Old Prussian
*Balts (or Baltic peoples), ethnic groups speaking the Baltic languages and/or originati ...
and landed in Poland on 7 October, immediately agreeing to grant royal privileges to the
Sejm
The Sejm (English: , Polish: ), officially known as the Sejm of the Republic of Poland (Polish: ''Sejm Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej''), is the lower house of the bicameral parliament of Poland.
The Sejm has been the highest governing body of t ...
(parliament) in the hope of calming the opposition and settling the disputed election. He was proclaimed king by Treasurer
Jan Dulski on behalf of
Crown Marshal Andrzej Opaliński, and after arriving in the Royal Capital City of
Kraków
Kraków (), or Cracow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland until 1596 ...
he was crowned on 27 December at
Wawel Cathedral
The Wawel Cathedral ( pl, Katedra Wawelska), formally titled the Royal Archcathedral Basilica of Saints Stanislaus and Wenceslaus, is a Roman Catholic cathedral situated on Wawel Hill in Kraków, Poland. Nearly 1000 years old, it is part of the ...
.
Sigismund's position was solidified when Zamoyski defeated Maximilian at the
Battle of Byczyna
The Battle of Byczyna, also known as the Battle of Pitschen (german: Pitschen; pl, Byczyna), was the deciding battle of the 1587–1588 War of the Polish Succession, which erupted after two rival candidates were elected to the Polish throne. ...
and took him prisoner. At the request of
Pope Sixtus V
Pope Sixtus V ( it, Sisto V; 13 December 1521 – 27 August 1590), born Felice Piergentile, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 24 April 1585 to his death in August 1590. As a youth, he joined the Franciscan order ...
, the Archduke was then released and in turn surrendered his claim to Poland in 1589. He was also successful in maintaining peace with his powerful southern neighbour by marrying Archduchess
Anne of Habsburg in 1592.
Simultaneously, he secured an alliance with
Catholic Austria against Protestant foes.
When his father died, Sigismund was granted permission by the Polish Diet to claim the
Swedish crown
The Swedish Crown ( pl, Korona Szwedzka), also known as the "Purchased Crown" (''Zakupiona Korona''), was a part of the Polish Crown Jewels.
History
The crown was made for King Sigismund II Augustus. After Sigismund's death, it was pawned to Gi ...
, which he had inherited from his father. The Swedes, who previously declared John III a Catholic conspirator and traitor, became lenient when the new monarch pledged to respect
Lutheranism
Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism, identifying primarily with the theology of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German monk and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Cathol ...
as the country's new state religion. Sigismund was crowned at
Uppsala
Uppsala (, or all ending in , ; archaically spelled ''Upsala'') is the county seat of Uppsala County and the List of urban areas in Sweden by population, fourth-largest city in Sweden, after Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Malmö. It had 177,074 inha ...
on 19 February 1594, but his promise to uphold the Protestant faith in Sweden began on shaky ground, as demonstrated by the presence of a papal
nuncio in the royal procession. Tensions grew following his coronation. Sigismund remained a devout Roman Catholic and left the country abruptly, which made the Swedes sceptical of their new ruler. After returning to Poland, he appointed his uncle,
Duke Charles, to rule as his
regent
A regent (from Latin : ruling, governing) is a person appointed to govern a state '' pro tempore'' (Latin: 'for the time being') because the monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge the powers and duties of the monarchy ...
. Sigismund's ultimate intention was to reinstate Catholicism in Sweden, by force if necessary. The
Jesuit
, image = Ihs-logo.svg
, image_size = 175px
, caption = ChristogramOfficial seal of the Jesuits
, abbreviation = SJ
, nickname = Jesuits
, formation =
, founders ...
s often acted as agents refuting Protestantism and promoting Catholicism in the country.
Opposition
![Jan Zamoyski 2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Jan_Zamoyski_2.jpg)
The hostility between Chancellor
Jan Zamoyski
Jan Sariusz Zamoyski ( la, Ioannes Zamoyski de Zamoscie; 19 March 1542 – 3 June 1605) was a Polish nobleman, magnate, and the 1st '' ordynat'' of Zamość. He served as the Royal Secretary from 1565, Deputy Chancellor from 1576, Grand Cha ...
and Sigismund began as soon as he arrived in Poland from Sweden to claim the crown.
Zamoyski, a patriotic brawler, along with other magnates were critical of the young king's liking for the Habsburg culture, certain habits and impassive cold character.
According to historian and writer
Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz
Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz ( , ; 6 February 1758 – 21 May 1841) was a Polish poet, playwright and statesman. He was a leading advocate for the Constitution of 3 May 1791.
Early life
Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz was born 6 February 1758 in Skoki, nea ...
, Zamoyski was said to have exclaimed "what a mute have you brought to us" upon meeting the king in October 1587.
The Chancellor was initially supportive of Sigismund's candidacy due to his maternal lineage.
During the first parliament sitting, the so-called
Pacification Sejm, in March 1589, Zamoyski proposed extensive reforms of the electoral system; notably, he presented the idea that only a member of a local native dynasty should be eligible to the Polish throne in the future, entailing the permanent exclusion of any
Habsburg
The House of Habsburg (), alternatively spelled Hapsburg in Englishgerman: Haus Habsburg, ; es, Casa de Habsburgo; hu, Habsburg család, it, Casa di Asburgo, nl, Huis van Habsburg, pl, dom Habsburgów, pt, Casa de Habsburgo, la, Domus Hab ...
candidates.
Sigismund saw a potential ally in Austria; he sought to establish a Catholic league that would actively engage in the
Counter-Reformation
The Counter-Reformation (), also called the Catholic Reformation () or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation. It began with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) a ...
.
Zamoyski openly condemned Sigismund for associating with the Habsburgs, particularly
Archduke Ernest, and speculated that Ernest was to be the potential successor if Sigismund abdicated and returned to Sweden.
The anti-Austrian sentiment was only explicable as a circuitous attempt to traverse the Habsburg hegemony and influence in Central Europe, which Zamoyski perceived as a major threat.
However, the parliament immediately rejected the proposal and ruled in favour of Austria, thus also accepting a marriage between Sigismund and
Anne of Habsburg.
Furthermore, the reestablishment of peaceful relations with Austria was dictated by the
Treaty of Bytom and Będzin from March 1589 which was negotiated by Ippolito Aldobrandini, future Pope
Clement VIII
Pope Clement VIII ( la, Clemens VIII; it, Clemente VIII; 24 February 1536 – 3 March 1605), born Ippolito Aldobrandini, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 2 February 1592 to his death in March 1605.
Born ...
.
![El archiduque Diego Ernesto de Austria](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/El_archiduque_Diego_Ernesto_de_Austria.jpg)
At the subsequent Sejm session, assembled in March 1590, Zamoyski persuaded the gathered deputies and representatives to exclude Archduke Maximilian from future candidacy to the throne, describing the possibility of Austrian intrigues and the looming threat of the Turkish Empire.
His opponents, headed by Primate Karnkowski, formed an informal
confederation
A confederation (also known as a confederacy or league) is a union of sovereign groups or states united for purposes of common action. Usually created by a treaty, confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical issu ...
immediately after the Sejm rose to protest the decrees.
All of the decrees of the first Sejm were rescinded by a second Sejm which sat at the end of the same year: the Hetmanship was suspended, the party of Maximilian was amnestied, the Zborowskis were rehabilitated, and Zamoyski's counterparts were removed from the royal court.
Tensions grew further over the ownership of
Estonia
Estonia, formally the Republic of Estonia, is a country by the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, a ...
between Sweden and Poland following the dissolution of the
Livonian Order
The Livonian Order was an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order,
formed in 1237. From 1435 to 1561 it was a member of the Livonian Confederation.
History
The order was formed from the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword after the ...
; Zamoyski held Sigismund accountable for the dispute.
Sigismund's leniency towards the Habsburgs also alienated some clerics; the Austrians wanted to prevent
Andrew Báthory
Andrew Báthory ( hu, Báthory András; pl, Andrzej Batory; 1562 or 1563 – 3 November 1599) was the Cardinal-deacon of Sant'Adriano al Foro from 1584 to 1599, Prince-Bishop of Warmia from 1589 to 1599, and Prince of Transylvania in 1599. His ...
from seizing the
bishopric of Kraków
In church governance, a diocese or bishopric is the ecclesiastical district under the jurisdiction of a bishop.
History
In the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided provinces were administratively associat ...
and succeeded in doing so by diplomatic coaxing or coercion. The new papal nuncio, Annibale di Capua, a staunch Habsburg supporter, eventually convinced Sigismund to nominate
Jerzy Radziwiłł
Jerzy Radziwiłł ( lt, Jurgis Radvila; 1480 – April 1541), nicknamed "Herkules", was a Szlachta, Polish–Lithuanian nobleman.
He was Podczaszy, Deputy Cup-Bearer of Lithuania from 1510, voivode of Kiev Voivodeship from 1510, Field Hetma ...
after
Piotr Myszkowski Piotr Myszkowski can refer to:
* Piotr Myszkowski (bishop)
Piotr Myszkowski (c. 1510 – 1591) was a 16th-century Roman Catholic Bishop of Plock and Kraków, in Poland.
Early life
Piotr Myszkowski was born about 1510 at Przeciszów into the Ja ...
died on 5 April 1591. Capua stressed that Andrew had not been an
ordained priest and was not legally capable to become bishop. The decision strained the once friendly relations between Poland and
Transylvania
Transylvania ( ro, Ardeal or ; hu, Erdély; german: Siebenbürgen) is a historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and south its natural border is the Carpathian Mountains, and to the west the Ap ...
.
Peace settlement
![Sigismund III of Poland-Lithuania and Sweden (Martin Kober)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Sigismund_III_of_Poland-Lithuania_and_Sweden_%28Martin_Kober%29.jpg)
As outlined by
Oskar Halecki
Oskar Halecki (26 May 1891, Vienna, Cisleithania, Austria-Hungary – 17 September 1973, White Plains, New York, United States of America) was a Polish historian, social and Catholic activist.
Life and career
Halecki, whose first name is sometim ...
, the king's friends were largely recruited from the higher
clergy
Clergy are formal leaders within established religions. Their roles and functions vary in different religious traditions, but usually involve presiding over specific rituals and teaching their religion's doctrines and practices. Some of the ter ...
and the Jesuits, who violated the 1573
Warsaw Confederation
The Warsaw Confederation, signed on 28 January 1573 by the Polish national assembly (''sejm konwokacyjny'') in Warsaw, was one of the first European acts granting religious freedoms. It was an important development in the history of Poland and o ...
guaranteeing religious freedoms in Poland and Lithuania.
As persecution loomed, political dissidents grouped and formed factions which called for adherence to the laws of the Confederation.
Zamoyski joined the dissidents, and, when Sigismund failed to prevent mob violence directed against non-Catholics in
Vilnius
Vilnius ( , ; see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Lithuania, with a population of 592,389 (according to the state register) or 625,107 (according to the municipality of Vilnius). The population of Vilnius's functional urb ...
and
Kraków
Kraków (), or Cracow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland until 1596 ...
in 1591, he summoned several conventions that "demanded the guarantees of security".
Sigismund yielded to their demands, however, he forbade any future conventions which could destabilize the state. The prohibition did not have a lasting effect, and gatherings of dissidents continued in the following year.
The opposition hoped to thwart the match with Archduchess Anne of Habsburg, whose state entry into Kraków at the end of May was greatly celebrated.
Sigismund disregarded any protest in regards to the marriage.
Consequently, on 1 June 1592 Zamoyski formed another confederation at
Jędrzejów (Latin: Andreiow) attended by the most eminent and distinguished
magnates, among them
Mikołaj Zebrzydowski
Mikołaj Zebrzydowski (1553–1620) of Radwan coat of arms, voivode of Lublin from 1589, Grand Crown Marshal between 1596–1600, voivode of Kraków from 1601. He is famous for an armed rebellion against King Sigismund III Vasa, the Zebrzydow ...
and
Stanisław Żółkiewski
Stanisław Żółkiewski (; 1547 – 7 October 1620) was a Polish nobleman of the Lubicz coat of arms, magnate, military commander and a chancellor of the Polish crown of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, who took part in many campaigns ...
.
At Andreiow, he allegedly exposed proof concerning a plot that would place Archduke Ernest on the throne if Sigismund was to abdicate.
Zamoyski's claim caused an uproar.
On 7 September, Sigismund summoned the "Warsaw Inquisition Sejm" (''sejm inkwizycyjny'')
to inquire into the so-called "Austrian cabals". Zamoyski's strong argument against that of the monarch was so persuasive that elderly Karnkowski sided with the Chancellor and his supporters,
who abstained from kissing the King's hand upon arrival as the custom required. Alleged letters and private correspondence between Sigismund and Ernest with the royal signature was presented as evidence. The King rebuked these accusations; his aides attributed the falsified signature to the court
scribe
A scribe is a person who serves as a professional copyist, especially one who made copies of manuscripts before the invention of automatic printing.
The profession of the scribe, previously widespread across cultures, lost most of its promi ...
, who was subsequently imprisoned at
Działdowo
Działdowo (german: Soldau) (Old Prussian: Saldawa) is a town in northern Poland with 20,935 inhabitants as of December 2021, the capital of Działdowo County. As part of Masuria, it is situated in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship (since 1999), D ...
(Soldau), tortured, but pleaded not guilty. The opposition extended their demands and asked for the immediate removal of all foreign dignitaries from the court, including
mercenaries
A mercenary, sometimes also known as a soldier of fortune or hired gun, is a private individual, particularly a soldier, that joins a military conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a member of any o ...
, which was not fully enforced.
The Sejm had no definite outcome; most of the gathered nobles and diplomats dispersed as further incrimination of the sovereign proved futile and detrimental to the stability of the state. There is little evidence or written works from the period concerning the terms under which the Sejm functioned or how it concluded.
Niemcewicz largely attributed the victory to Sigismund – the measures of the Counter-Reformation strengthened and within a year many of the convention's attendees died; acquiescent nobles favourable to the king were appointed as their successors, thus making his position less vulnerable.
The rivalry between Sigismund and Zamoyski continued until the latter's death in 1605.
War in Sweden
Tensions
The
Uppsala Resolution of 1594 dictated the rights and securities of Protestants in Sweden; it promised to uphold the Lutheran faith in the country, forbade non-Lutherans from being appointed to office or participating in the educational system and prevented Sigismund from freely raising taxes for war.
However, the resolution was undermined whenever possible.
With military backing, Sigismund installed his own commanders in Swedish castles and made them responsible directly to him.
He established the office of regional governor (''ståthållare'') and appointed Charles' lifelong enemy,
Klaus Fleming
Baron Klaus Eriksson Fleming ( sv, Clas Eriksson Fleming; 1535 in Pargas – 13 April 1597 in Pohja) was a Finnish-born member of the Swedish nobility and admiral, who played an important role in Finnish and Swedish history during the rise of S ...
, as the overlord of
Finland
Finland ( fi, Suomi ; sv, Finland ), officially the Republic of Finland (; ), is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It shares land borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of B ...
.
The governors served notice that they would abstain from persecuting Catholicism in their administered territories.
Erik Brahe
Erik Brahe (Stockholm, 23 June 1722 – 23 July 1756, Stockholm), was a Swedish count. He was executed for treason as one of the conspirators participating in the failed coup d'etat of queen Louisa Ulrika, the Coup of 1756.
He was the son of c ...
, a Roman Catholic, became the governor of Sweden's capital city,
Stockholm
Stockholm () is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in Sweden by population, largest city of Sweden as well as the List of urban areas in the Nordic countries, largest urban area in Scandinavia. Approximately 980,000 people liv ...
, in defiance of the 1594 charter which sparked widespread anger.
On 4 August 1594 Sigismund decreed that the Swedish parliament (''
Riksdag
The Riksdag (, ; also sv, riksdagen or ''Sveriges riksdag'' ) is the legislature and the supreme decision-making body of Sweden. Since 1971, the Riksdag has been a unicameral legislature with 349 members (), elected proportionally and se ...
'') had no right to function without royal consent.
Despite this, Charles summoned a parliament at
Söderköping
Söderköping is a locality and the seat of Söderköping Municipality, Östergötland County, Sweden with 6,992 inhabitants in 2010. Söderköping is, despite its small population, for historical reasons normally still referred to as a ''town''. ...
in autumn of 1595, at which he declared himself
regent
A regent (from Latin : ruling, governing) is a person appointed to govern a state '' pro tempore'' (Latin: 'for the time being') because the monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge the powers and duties of the monarchy ...
and head of government, who would govern Sweden reciprocally with the
Privy Council
A privy council is a body that advises the head of state of a state, typically, but not always, in the context of a monarchic government. The word "privy" means "private" or "secret"; thus, a privy council was originally a committee of the mon ...
during the King's absence from the realm.
The Finnish nobility led by Fleming rejected this resolution and so did Sigismund's emissary who ordered him, in the name of the king, to resign.
Fleming sympathised with Sigismund and considered Charles a rebel.
In response, Charles instigated a brief revolt against Fleming among the peasants under
Jaakko Ilkka
Jaakko Pentinpoika Ilkka (1550s, Ilmajoki – late January, 1597, Isokyrö) was a wealthy Ostrobothnians, Ostrobothnian landowner and leader of the Cudgel War, a 16th-century Finnish peasant revolt against Swedish rule.
Life Early years
Ilkka ...
in the province of
Ostrobothnia, known today as the
Cudgel War
The Cudgel War (also Club War, fi, Nuijasota, links=no, sv, Klubbekriget, links=no) was a 1596–1597 peasant uprising in Finland, which was then part of the Kingdom of Sweden. The name of the uprising derives from the fact that the peasants ar ...
.
As outlined by historian Gary Dean Peterson, Fleming might have quelled the rebellion but it was Charles who took advantage of the brutality of Fleming's men and started a successful propaganda war.
The prospects of Polish and Catholic domination over Sweden became uncertain when
Klaus Fleming
Baron Klaus Eriksson Fleming ( sv, Clas Eriksson Fleming; 1535 in Pargas – 13 April 1597 in Pohja) was a Finnish-born member of the Swedish nobility and admiral, who played an important role in Finnish and Swedish history during the rise of S ...
died on 13 April 1597.
He was succeeded by
Arvid Stålarm the Younger Arvid Stålarm, actually Arvid Eriksson (Stålarm) till Lindö i Tenala (c. 1540 or 1549 – May 1620, Gripsholm Castle) was a Swedish noble and soldier from the Finland-based Stålarm family. He is sometimes called "the Younger" to distingui ...
, who did not accede to Swedish demands and awaited Charles' intervention in Finland.
Meanwhile, the nobility dispersed;
Erik Gustafsson Stenbock,
Arvid Gustafsson Stenbock,
Erik Larsson Sparre, Erik Brahe and
Sten Banér fled to entreat Sigismund to return and counter Charles.
Civil war
![Sigismund at horse](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Sigismund_at_horse.jpg)
In 1597, a civil war erupted and Duke Charles was able to assume control over a large share of the powerful castles in Sweden, and in this manner achieved control over almost all the realm.
However, Finland remained loyal to Sigismund and resisted. In September 1597, he sailed for the Finnish coast and seized
Åbo Castle
Turku Castle ( fi, Turun linna, sv, Åbo slott) is a medieval building in the city of Turku in Finland. Together with Turku Cathedral, the castle is one of the oldest buildings still in use and the largest surviving medieval building in Finland. ...
from Fleming's widow,
Ebba Stenbock
Ebba Gustavsdotter Stenbock (ca. 1550 – 8 March 1614, in Sweden) was a Swedish noble. She led the defense of the stronghold Turku Castle for the loyalist of Sigismund III Vasa during the Siege by Charles IX of Sweden in succession of her spou ...
, by the end of the month.
Charles's troops were not prepared nor strong enough to conquer or hold Finland in its entirety – they sailed back to Stockholm in October and Stålarm retook Åbo the same year.
As noted by envoys, several high-ranking noblemen fighting for Sigismund's cause were instantaneously sent to the
scaffold
Scaffolding, also called scaffold or staging, is a temporary structure used to support a work crew and materials to aid in the construction, maintenance and repair of buildings, bridges and all other man-made structures. Scaffolds are widely used ...
.
Further tensions and escalation of violence as well as Charles's unpredictable stance persuaded Sigismund to intervene.
Christian IV of Denmark
Christian IV (12 April 1577 – 28 February 1648) was King of Denmark and Norway and Duke of Holstein and Schleswig from 1588 until his death in 1648. His reign of 59 years, 330 days is the longest of Danish monarchs and Scandinavian mon ...
agreed to cooperate but would not join the armed conflict.
The major seaports of
Danzig (Gdańsk),
Lübeck
Lübeck (; Low German also ), officially the Hanseatic City of Lübeck (german: Hansestadt Lübeck), is a city in Northern Germany. With around 217,000 inhabitants, Lübeck is the second-largest city on the German Baltic coast and in the stat ...
and
Rostock
Rostock (), officially the Hanseatic and University City of Rostock (german: link=no, Hanse- und Universitätsstadt Rostock), is the largest city in the German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and lies in the Mecklenburgian part of the state, c ...
were pressured to sever trade with Sweden.
Polish
privateers
A privateer is a private person or ship that engages in maritime warfare under a commission of war. Since robbery under arms was a common aspect of seaborne trade, until the early 19th century all merchant ships carried arms. A sovereign or deleg ...
began to violently attack Swedish vessels in the Baltic.
By February 1598 Sigismund assembled an army consisting of approximately 5,000 men.
On 23 July 1598 the army left Danzig (Gdańsk) with eighty transports, several warships and exiled members of the Swedish parliament.
Eight days later they landed in
Kalmar
Kalmar (, , ) is a city in the southeast of Sweden, situated by the Baltic Sea. It had 36,392 inhabitants in 2010 and is the seat of Kalmar Municipality. It is also the capital of Kalmar County, which comprises 12 municipalities with a total of ...
, which surrendered without a fight.
After the fall of Kalmar, Charles found himself with major trouble on his hands; the
Polish Crown army attracted Swedish followers, and Stockholm, lacking military defence, was easily taken with the help of the nobility and officers of
Götaland
Götaland (; also '' Geatland'', '' Gothia'', ''Gothland'', ''Gothenland'' or ''Gautland'') is one of three lands of Sweden and comprises ten provinces. Geographically it is located in the south of Sweden, bounded to the north by Svealand, wit ...
.
The cavalry of
Uppland
Uppland () is a historical province or ' on the eastern coast of Sweden, just north of Stockholm, the capital. It borders Södermanland, Västmanland and Gästrikland. It is also bounded by lake Mälaren and the Baltic Sea. On the small uninhab ...
soon joined the royalists, and new forces were mobilised in Finland and Estonia.
Charles' troops were greater in numbers, but mostly comprised poorly-trained militias and peasants from the friendly provinces.
![Linköpings slott - KMB - 16001000025408](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Link%C3%B6pings_slott_-_KMB_-_16001000025408.jpg)
Sigismund advanced his troops towards Stångebro in
Linköping
Linköping () is a city in southern Sweden, with around 105,000 inhabitants as of 2021. It is the seat of Linköping Municipality and the capital of Östergötland County. Linköping is also the episcopal see of the Diocese of Linköping (Church ...
where his sister
Anna Vasa resided.
On 8 September Charles executed a premature attack on Stångebro which was quickly repelled; his force was surrounded in the night and massacred by the Poles.
Severed heads on lances and spikes startled Sigismund who ordered an end to the violence.
The supposed truce did not come into effect, and, on the morning of 25 September, the armies clashed once more in a major engagement at the
Battle of Stångebro. The prevailing
fog was instrumental at hiding troop movement; the Swedish rebels used the opportunity to take the bridges on the river
Stångån when Sigismund's men were falsely led into a truce and retreated to their camp.
Their attempt to regroup and form a second defensive line proved futile and Charles emerged victorious as the Polish army was also cut off from supplies by superior
Swedish warships.
Aftermath and deposition
The peace agreement was sealed with a dinner at
Linköping Castle
Linköping Castle is situated at Linköping in Östergötland, Sweden. It stands opposite Linköping Cathedral (''Linköpings Domkyrka'').
History
Bishop Gisle of the Diocese of Linköping first built a bishop's farm with a limestone castle in ...
on 28 September.
Both sides agreed to lay down arms and send the troops back to their home provinces, except for the King's personal guard.
Charles' appointments were to be recognized and a parliament was to be called to settle any disputes.
The King, who was under pressure, fearing for his life without his army and having realised that he had lost the political battle, fled with his sister during the coming days to Poland.
At the same time as the peace treaty was being signed in Linköping, conflicts were taking place in
Dalarna
Dalarna () is a '' landskap'' (historical province) in central Sweden. English exonyms for it are Dalecarlia () and the Dales.
Dalarna adjoins Härjedalen, Hälsingland, Gästrikland, Västmanland and Värmland
Värmland () also known a ...
.
There, a pro-Sigismund bailiff,
Jacob Näf, had tried to raise up the
Dalecarlian
Dalecarlian (''dalmål'' in Swedish) is a group of East and West Scandinavian languages, and their respective dialects spoken in Dalarna County, Sweden. Some Dalecarlian varieties can be regarded as part of the Swedish dialect group in Gästri ...
s against Duke Charles.
Chaos ensued, Näf was executed, and the Dalecarlians set out on a campaign in 1598, burning and killing down to Brunnbäck ferry. In
Västergötland
Västergötland (), also known as West Gothland or the Latinized version Westrogothia in older literature, is one of the 25 traditional non-administrative provinces of Sweden (''landskap'' in Swedish), situated in the southwest of Sweden.
Väs ...
,
Carl Carlsson Gyllenhielm
Baron Carl Carlsson Gyllenhielm (4 March 1574 – 17 March 1650) was a Swedish soldier and politician. He was made a baron (''friherre'') in 1615, appointed Field Marshal in 1616, Privy Councilor in 1617, Governor General of Ingria in 1617 a ...
, illegitimate son of Duke Charles, defeated the rebellion.
A number of Swedes who had sided with Sigismund, including his council supporters, were handed over to Charles as part of the peace settlement.
They were later killed in the
Linköping Bloodbath
The Linköping Bloodbath ( sv, Linköpings blodbad) on 20 March 1600 was the public execution by beheading of five Swedish nobles in the aftermath of the War against Sigismund (1598–1599), which resulted in the ''de facto'' deposition of th ...
of 1600.
Sigismund was officially deposed from the throne of Sweden by a Riksdag held in Stockholm on 24 July 1599.
He was given six
(or twelve depending on source)
months to send his son, Prince
Ladislaus (Władysław) Vasa, to Sweden as his successor, under the condition that the boy would be brought up in the Protestant faith.
In February 1600, Duke Charles summoned the
Estates of the Realm
The estates of the realm, or three estates, were the broad orders of social hierarchy used in Christendom (Christian Europe) from the Middle Ages to early modern Europe. Different systems for dividing society members into estates developed an ...
to
Linköping
Linköping () is a city in southern Sweden, with around 105,000 inhabitants as of 2021. It is the seat of Linköping Municipality and the capital of Östergötland County. Linköping is also the episcopal see of the Diocese of Linköping (Church ...
.
Since Sigismund had not provided a reply, the Estates elected Duke Charles as King apparent, however he would not become Charles IX until his coronation four years later.
During the winter and spring of 1600, Charles also occupied the Swedish part of Estonia, as the castle commanders had shown sympathies towards Sigismund.
Polish affairs
Clash with England (1597)
![Portret Zygmunta III Wazy](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Portret_Zygmunta_III_Wazy.jpg)
In the 1590s, the interests of the
English
English usually refers to:
* English language
* English people
English may also refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England
** English national ide ...
and the
Ottoman Turks
The Ottoman Turks ( tr, Osmanlı Türkleri), were the Turkic founding and sociopolitically the most dominant ethnic group of the Ottoman Empire ( 1299/1302–1922).
Reliable information about the early history of Ottoman Turks remains scarce, ...
coincided in opposing the
Spanish
Spanish might refer to:
* Items from or related to Spain:
**Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain
**Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries
**Spanish cuisine
Other places
* Spanish, Ontario, Can ...
; on the other hand, Sigismund had clashed with the Turks in Poland's southeast. In the
Low Countries
The term Low Countries, also known as the Low Lands ( nl, de Lage Landen, french: les Pays-Bas, lb, déi Niddereg Lännereien) and historically called the Netherlands ( nl, de Nederlanden), Flanders, or Belgica, is a coastal lowland region in N ...
of northwestern Europe, Protestant forces sent by
Elizabeth I
Elizabeth I (7 September 153324 March 1603) was List of English monarchs, Queen of England and List of Irish monarchs, Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death in 1603. Elizabeth was the last of the five House of Tudor monarchs and is ...
fought the Catholic armies of Spain's
Philip II Habsburg, preventing Spain from capturing territory on the south side of the
English Channel
The English Channel, "The Sleeve"; nrf, la Maunche, "The Sleeve" (Cotentinais) or ( Jèrriais), (Guernésiais), "The Channel"; br, Mor Breizh, "Sea of Brittany"; cy, Môr Udd, "Lord's Sea"; kw, Mor Bretannek, "British Sea"; nl, Het Kana ...
. England's naval power also prevented Spain from completely dominating the
Mediterranean
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the e ...
, to the benefit of the Turks. During this time, England purchased a great deal of grain and timber from Poland to supply its navy, necessitating good relations with Poland.
Edward Barton, Elizabeth's ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, had warned them that England would have to respond if the Ottomans invaded Poland.
In July 1597, the
Queen's Privy Council instructed
Henry Billingsley
Sir Henry Billingsley (died 22 November 1606) was an English merchant, Lord Mayor of London and the first translator of Euclid into English.
Early life
He was a son of Sir William Billingsley, haberdasher and assay master of London, and his wif ...
,
Lord Mayor of London
The Lord Mayor of London is the mayor of the City of London and the leader of the City of London Corporation. Within the City, the Lord Mayor is accorded precedence over all individuals except the sovereign and retains various traditional powe ...
, to arrange housing for a Polish diplomat and report back to the Council.
On 23 July,
Paweł Działyński
Paweł Działyński ( la, Paulus Dzialinski; born 1560 – died 1609) of Ogończyk coat of arms, was a Polish courtier, royal secretary, ambassador and governor of Bobrowniki and Radziejów.
Inspiration
It is possible that the character ''Polon ...
arrived in
London
London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a majo ...
and was accommodated at the house of
Sir John Spencer.
On 25 July, Działyński was granted an audience with Elizabeth and her court at the
palace
A palace is a grand residence, especially a royal residence, or the home of a head of state or some other high-ranking dignitary, such as a bishop or archbishop. The word is derived from the Latin name palātium, for Palatine Hill in Rome which ...
in
Greenwich
Greenwich ( , ,) is a town in south-east London, England, within the ceremonial county of Greater London. It is situated east-southeast of Charing Cross.
Greenwich is notable for its maritime history and for giving its name to the Greenwich ...
.
As described by
Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury
Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, (1 June 156324 May 1612), was an English statesman noted for his direction of the government during the Union of the Crowns, as Tudor England gave way to Stuart period, Stuart rule (1603). Lord Salisbury s ...
, the ambassador out of Poland at first seemed to be "a gentleman of excellent fashion, wit, discourse, language, and person."
He presented his credentials, kissed the Queen's hand, then walked to the centre of the chamber and, as outlined by Cecil, "began his oration aloud in
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
, with such a gallant countenance as in my life I never beheld."
Działyński informed Elizabeth that Sigismund was outraged that her vessels were capturing the ships of Polish and
Hanseatic
The Hanseatic League (; gml, Hanse, , ; german: label=German language, Modern German, Deutsche Hanse) was a Middle Ages, medieval commercial and defensive confederation of merchant guilds and market towns in Central Europe, Central and Norther ...
merchants trading with the Spanish, and indicated that Sigismund was prepared to commence hostilities over the matter unless Elizabeth immediately rescinded this policy and returned captured ships and cargo.
Elizabeth rose "lionlike" and rebuked Działyński, comparing his speech to a declaration of war and manners to that of "a herald than an ambassador."
She reminded him that England was instrumental in halting the Turkish advances and added "I can hardly believe that if the King
igismundhimself were present he would have used such language."
Sigismund emerged successful in securing trade with the Spanish Crown and with England, though the relations between the two nations became strained. According to historians Kavita Mudan Finn and Valerie Schutte,
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare ( 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...
might have used Elizabeth's political anger at the Polish ambassador as an inspiration for
Queen Margaret who employs similar strategies in the play ''
Richard III''.
Zebrzydowski rebellion (1606)
![Rokosz sandomierski 1607](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Rokosz_sandomierski_1607.PNG)
Sigismund's attempt to grasp unlimited authority resulted in the
Zebrzydowski rebellion, an armed insurrection formed in 1606 by
Hetman
( uk, гетьман, translit=het'man) is a political title from Central and Eastern Europe, historically assigned to military commanders.
Used by the Czechs in Bohemia since the 15th century. It was the title of the second-highest military co ...
Mikołaj Zebrzydowski
Mikołaj Zebrzydowski (1553–1620) of Radwan coat of arms, voivode of Lublin from 1589, Grand Crown Marshal between 1596–1600, voivode of Kraków from 1601. He is famous for an armed rebellion against King Sigismund III Vasa, the Zebrzydow ...
,
Jan Szczęsny Herburt,
Stanisław Stadnicki
Stanisław Stadnicki (c. 1551 in Nowy Żmigród or Dubiecko – 1610 in Tarnawiec), a Polish nobleman, Lord Starosta of Sigulda, Żygwulsko (Sigulda), a known wikt:troublemaker, troublemaker, called 'the Devil of Łańcut' (Polish: ''diabeł łań ...
,
Aleksander Józef Lisowski
Aleksander Józef Lisowski HNG (c. 1580 – October 11, 1616) was a Polish–Lithuanian noble ( szlachcic), commander of a mercenary group that after his death adopted the name "''Lisowczycy''." His coat of arms was ''Jeż'' (Hedgehog).
...
and Prince
Janusz Radziwiłł in
Stężyca and
Lublin
Lublin is the ninth-largest city in Poland and the second-largest city of historical Lesser Poland. It is the capital and the center of Lublin Voivodeship with a population of 336,339 (December 2021). Lublin is the largest Polish city east of t ...
.
It was primarily caused by the growing dissatisfaction with the monarch among the Polish
szlachta
The ''szlachta'' (Polish: endonym, Lithuanian: šlėkta) were the noble estate of the realm in the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth who, as a class, had the dominating position in the ...
and wealthy
magnates
The magnate term, from the late Latin ''magnas'', a great man, itself from Latin ''magnus'', "great", means a man from the higher nobility, a man who belongs to the high office-holders, or a man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or ot ...
. The rebels disapproved of Sigismund's efforts to weaken the diplomatic and political capabilities of the nobility and to introduce an absolute monarchy.
The participants of the rebellion formed a war council and outlined their demands in 67 articles. They demanded the dethronement of Sigismund for breaching the
Henrician Articles
The Henrician Articles or King Henry's Articles ( Polish: ''Artykuły henrykowskie'', Latin: ''Articuli Henriciani'') were a permanent contract between the "Polish nation" (the szlachta, or nobility, of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) and a ...
and stipulated the expulsion of
Jesuits
The Society of Jesus ( la, Societas Iesu; abbreviation: SJ), also known as the Jesuits (; la, Iesuitæ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
from the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and, after 1791, as the Commonwealth of Poland, was a bi-confederal state, sometimes called a federation, of Crown of the Kingdom of ...
. The Sejm was to be granted the authority of appointing state officials instead of the King, local officials were to be elected and the rights of Protestants expanded.
The 1607 Parliament rejected these conditions. Meanwhile, the nobles mobilised in the village of
Guzów. In 1607 the Polish Royal Army, led by
Hetman
( uk, гетьман, translit=het'man) is a political title from Central and Eastern Europe, historically assigned to military commanders.
Used by the Czechs in Bohemia since the 15th century. It was the title of the second-highest military co ...
Jan Karol Chodkiewicz
Jan Karol Chodkiewicz ( lt, Jonas Karolis Chodkevičius, be, Ян Караль Хадкевіч ; 1561 – 24 September 1621) was a military commander of the Grand Ducal Lithuanian Army, who was from 1601 Field Hetman of Lithuania, and from 1 ...
, was sent to pacify the rebels. A
full-scale battle ensued on 5 July, with 200 casualties, which resulted in the victory of the Royalist forces.
The rebellious nobles formally surrendered to the King at the 1609 meeting of the parliament, which became known as the
Pacification Sejm. In return for their surrender the rebels were granted leniency.
Many royal supporters, including Hetman Chodkiewicz, had exacted amnesty for the rebels.
Despite the failure to overthrow Sigismund, the rebellion firmly established the rights and privileges of nobles in the Polish political system, confirmed the inviolability of the royal elections and religious tolerance.
Sigismund's invasion of Russia (1609–1618)
![Sigismund of Poland](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Sigismund_of_Poland.JPG)
Sigismund's major goals were achieving stability of government, combating Protestantism, and expanding Poland's territory. While the Russians were embroiled in a civil war known as the
Time of Troubles
The Time of Troubles (russian: Смутное время, ), or Smuta (russian: Смута), was a period of political crisis during the Tsardom of Russia which began in 1598 with the death of Fyodor I (Fyodor Ivanovich, the last of the Rurik dy ...
, Sigismund saw an opportunity to invade Russia and take power. Sweden also became involved, but never made a firm alliance with any one side.
Background
The death of
Feodor I of Russia
Fyodor I Ivanovich (russian: Фёдор I Иванович) or Feodor I Ioannovich (russian: Феодор I Иоаннович; 31 May 1557 – 17 January (NS) 1598), also known as Feodor the Bellringer (russian: Феодор Звонарь), ...
in 1598 caused internal instability and a succession crisis upon the extinction of the
Rurik dynasty
The Rurik dynasty ( be, Ру́рыкавічы, Rúrykavichy; russian: Рю́риковичи, Ryúrikovichi, ; uk, Рю́риковичі, Riúrykovychi, ; literally "sons/scions of Rurik"), also known as the Rurikid dynasty or Rurikids, was ...
. Further setbacks that contributed to the escalation of violence was the
famine of 1601–1603 which killed two million Russians, around a third of the population. The new
Tsar
Tsar ( or ), also spelled ''czar'', ''tzar'', or ''csar'', is a title used by East Slavs, East and South Slavs, South Slavic monarchs. The term is derived from the Latin word ''Caesar (title), caesar'', which was intended to mean "emperor" i ...
,
Boris Godunov, proved to be an ineffective ruler and died after suffering a brain haemorrhage in April 1605. He left one son,
Feodor II, who succeeded him and ruled for only a few months, until he and Godunov's widow were murdered under mysterious circumstances in June 1605, possibly on Sigismund's orders.
Simultaneously, various impostors and pretenders to the Russian throne appeared claiming to be
Dmitry Ivanovich, the youngest son of
Ivan the Terrible who in fact died in 1591. After the fall of Sigismund's candidates –
False Dmitry I
False Dmitry I ( rus, Лжедмитрий I, Lzhedmitriy I) (or Pseudo-Demetrius I) reigned as the Tsar of Russia from 10 June 1605 until his death on 17 May 1606 under the name of Dmitriy Ivanovich ( rus, Дмитрий Иванович). A ...
and his Polish wife
Marina Mniszech
Marina Mniszech, ( pl, Maryna Mniszech; russian: Марина Мнишек, Marina Mnishek, ) also known in Russian lore as Marinka the Witch ( 1588 – 24 December 1614) was a Polish noblewoman who became the Tsaritsa of Russia during the Time ...
(nicknamed "Marinka the Witch" by the Russians) –
Vasili Ivanovich Shuysky
The Princes Shuisky (russian: Шуйские, Shuyskiye) was a Rurikid family of Boyars descending from Grand Duke Dimitri Konstantinovich of Vladimir-Suzdal and Prince Andrey Yaroslavich, brother to Alexander Nevsky. The surname is derived f ...
was crowned as Vasili IV.
The death of False Dmitry and widespread chaos proved reason for Poland to prepare an invasion. Prior raids between 1605 and 1609 were conducted by Polish nobles or adventurers along with hired
cossacks
The Cossacks , es, cosaco , et, Kasakad, cazacii , fi, Kasakat, cazacii , french: cosaques , hu, kozákok, cazacii , it, cosacchi , orv, коза́ки, pl, Kozacy , pt, cossacos , ro, cazaci , russian: казаки́ or ...
and foreign
mercenaries
A mercenary, sometimes also known as a soldier of fortune or hired gun, is a private individual, particularly a soldier, that joins a military conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a member of any o ...
.
Sigismund's primary intention was to destroy the Russian state and impose
Catholic
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
ism with the use of force or terror if necessary.
Lew Sapieha
Lew Sapieha ( lt, Leonas Sapiega; be, Леў Сапега or Lieŭ Sapieha; 4 April 1557 – 7 July 1633) was a nobleman and statesman of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. He became Great Secretary of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1580, Gr ...
, Grand Chancellor of Lithuania, sought neutrality by proposing to
Boris Godunov an "eternal" peace treaty between Russia and Poland–Lithuania, but the idea did not gain support and was declined.
Campaign
The
Commonwealth army under the command of Hetman
Stanisław Żółkiewski
Stanisław Żółkiewski (; 1547 – 7 October 1620) was a Polish nobleman of the Lubicz coat of arms, magnate, military commander and a chancellor of the Polish crown of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, who took part in many campaigns ...
crossed the border and on 29 September 1609
laid siege to Smolensk. On 4 July 1610, at the
Battle of Klushino
The Battle of Klushino, or the Battle of Kłuszyn, was fought on 4 July 1610, between forces of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia during the Polish–Muscovite War, part of Russia's Time of Troubles. The battle occ ...
, the outnumbered Polish force achieved a decisive victory over Russian troops, mostly due to the tactical competence of the
Polish winged hussars. The battle was a major blow to the Russians; Tsar
Vasili IV was subsequently ousted by the
Seven Boyars
The Seven Boyars (russian: link=no, Семибоярщина, the Russian term indicating "Rule of the Seven Boyars" or "the Deeds of the Seven Boyars") were a group of Russian nobles who deposed Tsar Vasily Shuisky on 17 July 1610 and, later that ...
and Żółkiewski entered Moscow beginning the two-year tyrannical occupation of the
Kremlin. The Seven Boyars proclaimed Polish prince
Ladislaus, Sigismund's son, as the new Tsar of Russia.
In June 1611 Smolensk fell to the
Poles
Poles,, ; singular masculine: ''Polak'', singular feminine: ''Polka'' or Polish people, are a West Slavic nation and ethnic group, who share a common history, culture, the Polish language and are identified with the country of Poland in Ce ...
;
the deposed Vasili Shuysky was transported in a caged wagon to Warsaw, where he paid
tribute
A tribute (; from Latin ''tributum'', "contribution") is wealth, often in kind, that a party gives to another as a sign of submission, allegiance or respect. Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of land which the state conqu ...
to Sigismund and the
Senate
A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
at the
Royal Castle on 29 October 1611. He eventually died in captivity at
Gostynin
Gostynin is a town in central Poland with 19,414 inhabitants (2004). It is situated in the Masovian Voivodship since 1999 and was previously in the Płock Voivodship from 1975 to 1998. It is the capital of Gostynin County.
History
Gostynin h ...
; he was most likely poisoned as his brother died soon after. The Polish army also committed countless atrocities while stationing in Moscow.
In 1611,
Kuzma Minin
Kuzma (Kozma) Minin (; full name Kuzma Minich Zakhariev-Sukhoruky, born late 1570s - died 1616) was a Russian merchant from Nizhny Novgorod, Russia, who, together with Prince Dmitry Pozharsky, became a national hero for his role in defending th ...
and
Dmitry Pozharsky
Dmitry Mikhaylovich Pozharsky ( rus, Дми́трий Миха́йлович Пожа́рский, p=ˈdmʲitrʲɪj mʲɪˈxajləvʲɪtɕ pɐˈʐarskʲɪj; 17 October 1577 – 30 April 1642) was a Russian prince known for his military leadersh ...
formed a new army to launch an uprising against the Polish occupiers. The Poles eventually
withdrew from Moscow in September 1612 after pillaging and burning the city.
When news reached Sigismund he hurried with a relief force, but was unable to commence an attack.
The war continued with little military action until 1618 when the
Truce of Deulino
The Truce of Deulino (also known as Peace or Treaty of Dywilino) concluded the Polish–Muscovite War (1609–1618) between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia. It was signed on 11 December 1618 and took effect on 4 Jan ...
was signed, which granted Poland new territories, including the city of Smolensk. The agreement marked the greatest geographical expansion of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth until the loss of Livonia in 1629. However, Russia was able to retain independence and
Michael Romanov was crowned Tsar in 1613.
This established the
Romanov dynasty
The House of Romanov (also transcribed Romanoff; rus, Романовы, Románovy, rɐˈmanəvɨ) was the reigning imperial house of Russia from 1613 to 1917. They achieved prominence after the Tsarina, Anastasia Romanova, was married to ...
which ruled Russia until the
February Revolution
The February Revolution ( rus, Февра́льская револю́ция, r=Fevral'skaya revolyutsiya, p=fʲɪvˈralʲskəjə rʲɪvɐˈlʲutsɨjə), known in Soviet historiography as the February Bourgeois Democratic Revolution and somet ...
in 1917. Sigismund's personal ambition of ruling the vast lands in the east as well as converting its populace to Catholicism ended in a fiasco. According to
Alexander Gillespie, approximately five million Russians died between 1598 and 1613, the result of continuous conflict, civil war, instigated famine and Sigismund's politics.
Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)
Sigismund sought to join the Catholic side of the
Thirty Years' War
The Thirty Years' War was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history
The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (80 ...
, but was denied by the Polish parliament. British historian
Robert Nisbet Bain
Robert Nisbet Bain (1854–1909) was a British historian and linguist who worked for the British Museum.
Life
Bain was born in London in 1854 to David and Elizabeth (born Cowan) Bain.
Bain was a fluent linguist who could use over twenty la ...
wrote that his plan was to invade and possibly occupy
Transylvania
Transylvania ( ro, Ardeal or ; hu, Erdély; german: Siebenbürgen) is a historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and south its natural border is the Carpathian Mountains, and to the west the Ap ...
, then an Ottoman ally and therefore considered dangerous to the
Habsburg monarchy
The Habsburg monarchy (german: Habsburgermonarchie, ), also known as the Danubian monarchy (german: Donaumonarchie, ), or Habsburg Empire (german: Habsburgerreich, ), was the collection of empires, kingdoms, duchies, counties and other polities ...
and Poland.
The
Rákóczi
The House of Rákóczi (older spelling Rákóczy) was a Hungarian noble family in the Kingdom of Hungary between the 13th century and 18th century. Their name is also spelled ''Rákoci'' (in Slovakia), ''Rakoczi'' and ''Rakoczy'' in some forei ...
s and
Gabriel Bethlen
Gabriel Bethlen ( hu, Bethlen Gábor; 15 November 1580 – 15 November 1629) was Prince of Transylvania from 1613 to 1629 and Duke of Opole from 1622 to 1625. He was also King-elect of Hungary from 1620 to 1621, but he never took control of th ...
were sympathetic with the Sultan and would counterattack if the opportunity arose.
Bain further highlighted that the chief pillars of military strength in Poland, including
Stanisław Żółkiewski
Stanisław Żółkiewski (; 1547 – 7 October 1620) was a Polish nobleman of the Lubicz coat of arms, magnate, military commander and a chancellor of the Polish crown of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, who took part in many campaigns ...
, warmly approved of the King's policy in this respect, but it proved to be impracticable.
The parliament's non-interventionist stance went so far that it refused to grant any subsidies for the
Swedish Wars.
The indecision and political opposition weakened the alliance between the Habsburg states and the Commonwealth. Polish mercenaries did, however, join the
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a Polity, political entity in Western Europe, Western, Central Europe, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, dissolution i ...
in combat at the
Battle of Humenné against Transylvania.
Polish–Ottoman War (1620–1621)
![Apoteoza Zygmunta III](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Apoteoza_Zygmunta_III.jpg)
The
Principality of Moldavia
Moldavia ( ro, Moldova, or , literally "The Country of Moldavia"; in Romanian Cyrillic: or ; chu, Землѧ Молдавскаѧ; el, Ἡγεμονία τῆς Μολδαβίας) is a historical region and former principality in Central ...
was a Polish
fief
A fief (; la, feudum) was a central element in medieval contracts based on feudal law. It consisted of a form of property holding or other rights granted by an Lord, overlord to a vassal, who held it in fealty or "in fee" in return for a for ...
since the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
and Sigismund aimed at securing that despite the growing threat from the south. With the
Ottoman influence on the rise, the Sultan aimed at expanding the Ottoman Empire westward.
The
Ottoman–Habsburg wars
The Ottoman–Habsburg wars were fought from the 16th through the 18th centuries between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg monarchy, which was at times supported by the Kingdom of Hungary, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Habsburg Spai ...
, which lasted almost two centuries, were also a sign of the Sultan's desire to rule mainland Europe.
Voivode
Gaspar Graziani
Gaspar (or Gaşpar, Gasparo) Graziani (also credited as Grazziani, Gratiani and Graţiani; ''Kasper Gratiani'' in Polish; ca. 1575/1580–1620) was Voivode (Prince) of Moldavia between February 4OS/February 14 NS 1619 and September 19 OS/Sept ...
, ruler of Moldavia, decided to switch sides in favour of Poland and rebelled against the Turks.
In turn, Sigismund sent an army to aid Graziani, a move which sparked the
Polish–Ottoman War.
In 1620 the Polish forces were defeated at
Cecora and Hetman Żółkiewski perished during the battle.
In 1621 a strong army of Ottomans, led by
Osman II
Osman II ( ota, عثمان ثانى ''‘Osmān-i sānī''; tr, II. Osman; 3 November 1604 – 20 May 1622), also known as Osman the Young ( tr, Genç Osman), was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 26 February 1618 until his regicide on 20 May 162 ...
, advanced from
Edirne
Edirne (, ), formerly known as Adrianople or Hadrianopolis (Greek: Άδριανούπολις), is a city in Turkey, in the northwestern part of the province of Edirne in Eastern Thrace. Situated from the Greek and from the Bulgarian borders, ...
towards the Polish frontier. Approximately 160,000 men besieged the
Khotyn Fortress
The Khotyn Fortress ( uk, Хотинська фортеця, pl, twierdza w Chocimiu, tr, Hotin Kalesi, ro, Cetatea Hotinului) is a fortification complex located on the right bank of the Dniester River in Khotyn, Chernivtsi Oblast (province) ...
in September 1621, but were defeated at the
Battle of Khotyn by a Polish garrison counting no more than 50,000 soldiers. During the siege Hetman
Jan Karol Chodkiewicz
Jan Karol Chodkiewicz ( lt, Jonas Karolis Chodkevičius, be, Ян Караль Хадкевіч ; 1561 – 24 September 1621) was a military commander of the Grand Ducal Lithuanian Army, who was from 1601 Field Hetman of Lithuania, and from 1 ...
died of exhaustion and illness in the camp.
The
Treaty of Khotyn
Treaty of Khotyn (Chocim/Hotin), signed in the aftermath of the Battle of Khotyn, ended the Polish–Ottoman War. This peace treaty resulted in no border change but Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, for ...
was signed on 9 October 1621 which resulted in no territorial gain or loss, but Sigismund was to relinquish his claims on Moldavia and the Ottoman Empire was prevented from marching into Poland. Sultan Osman himself was not fully satisfied with the war's outcome and blamed the defiant
janissaries.
His wish and plans to modernize the army, which was blamed for the defeat, were however opposed by the traditionalist janissary units.
That opposition resulted in the
1622 rebellion in which Osman II was deposed and
strangled.
Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629)
Following a series of conflicts between Poland and Sweden in
1600–1611,
1617–1618, and
1621–1625, all of which ended in a
stalemate,
Gustavus Adolphus
Gustavus Adolphus (9 December Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">N.S_19_December.html" ;"title="Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="/nowiki>Old Style and New Style dates">N.S 19 December">Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="/now ...
invaded in 1626 to gain control over
Livonia
Livonia ( liv, Līvõmō, et, Liivimaa, fi, Liivinmaa, German and Scandinavian languages: ', archaic German: ''Liefland'', nl, Lijfland, Latvian and lt, Livonija, pl, Inflanty, archaic English: ''Livland'', ''Liwlandia''; russian: Ли ...
and relinquish Sigismund's claim to the Swedish crown.
Sigismund, already in advanced age, continued his long-term ambition to seize Sweden, which gave Gustavus Adolphus a reasonable
casus belli and justification for war.
Though the Polish army achieved major victories in the previous battles against Sweden, particularly at
Kircholm in 1605, the very end proved to be catastrophic.
The first skirmish took place in January 1626 near
Wallhof, in present-day
Latvia
Latvia ( or ; lv, Latvija ; ltg, Latveja; liv, Leţmō), officially the Republic of Latvia ( lv, Latvijas Republika, links=no, ltg, Latvejas Republika, links=no, liv, Leţmō Vabāmō, links=no), is a country in the Baltic region of ...
, where the Swedish army of 4,900 men ambushed a Polish force of 2,000 men commanded by
Jan Stanisław Sapieha
Jan Stanisław Sapieha ( lt, Jonas Stanislovas Sapiega; 25 October 1589 in Maladziečna - 10 April 1635 in Lyakhavichy) was a Polish-Lithuanian noble, starost of Słonim, Court Marshal of Lithuania from 1617, Great Lithuanian Marshal from 16 ...
, son of Lew Sapieha.
Polish casualties were estimated at between 500 and 1,000 dead, wounded and captured. According to historians, the Polish-Lithuanian commander later suffered a
nervous breakdown
A mental disorder, also referred to as a mental illness or psychiatric disorder, is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning. Such features may be persistent, relapsing and remitti ...
.
In May 1626 the Swedes entered
Polish Ducal Prussia. Escorted by a fleet, a second Swedish army disembarked in July near the town of
Piława (Pillau).
The landings were a complete surprise to the Commonwealth's defences, and despite a relatively small Swedish force, Gustavus Adolphus quickly captured the coastal towns and cities, almost without a fight.
Many of these were inhabited by
Protestants
Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century against what its followers perceived to b ...
who resisted the staunchly Catholic Sigismund and Polish domination of their lands; some towns opened their gates to the Protestant Swedish forces whom they portrayed as liberators. However, fortified
Gdańsk
Gdańsk ( , also ; ; csb, Gduńsk;Stefan Ramułt, ''Słownik języka pomorskiego, czyli kaszubskiego'', Kraków 1893, Gdańsk 2003, ISBN 83-87408-64-6. , Johann Georg Theodor Grässe, ''Orbis latinus oder Verzeichniss der lateinischen Benen ...
(Danzig), which maintained its own standing army and a sizeable fleet, refused to surrender.
Simultaneously, Sigismund received little to no support from his vassal
George William of Brandenburg-Prussia, who, as a
Calvinist
Calvinism (also called the Reformed Tradition, Reformed Protestantism, Reformed Christianity, or simply Reformed) is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice set down by John Ca ...
, pledged neutrality in the conflict.
Jędrzej Moraczewski
Jędrzej Edward Moraczewski (; 13 January 1870 – 5 August 1944) was a Polish socialist politician who, loyal to Józef Piłsudski and viewed as acceptable by both left- and right-wing Polish political factions, served as the second Prime Minist ...
described George's neutral stance to salvage his dukedom as "comical".
![Rubens Sigismund III Vasa](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Rubens_Sigismund_III_Vasa.jpg)
The Poles attempted to divert the Swedes from Gdańsk by deploying an army to fight at
Gniew
Gniew (pronounced ; csb, Gméw, or ''Gniéw''; formerly german: Mewe) is a historic town situated on the left bank of the Vistula River, in the Pomeranian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. It has 6,870 inhabitants (2016). It is one of the ol ...
.
The fighting continued for several days until 1 October, when Sigismund ordered the withdrawal of his troops, and called on reinforcements from around the country.
The battle, despite a tactical victory for Sweden, was a strategic blow to Gustavus, who was subsequently unable to besiege Gdańsk.
At
Dirschau
Tczew (, csb, Dërszewò; formerly ) is a city on the Vistula River in Eastern Pomerania, Kociewie, northern Poland with 59,111 inhabitants (December 2021). The city is known for its Old Town and the Vistula Bridge, or Bridge of Tczew, which pl ...
, in the summer of 1627, Gustavus Adolphus was seriously wounded and the Prussian campaign came to a halt.
The wound forced the king to stay in bed until autumn, and his right arm was weakened with some fingers partially paralyzed.
As the major trade ports on the coast of the
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that is enclosed by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden and the North and Central European Plain.
The sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from ...
were blocked by Swedish vessels, Sigismund sent a small squadron of ten ships under
Arend Dickmann
Arend Dickmann, (1572 – 28 November 1627) also originally spelled as Dijckman, was an Admiral of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy, that commanded the fleet in the Battle of Oliwa in 1627, during the Polish–Swedish War.
History ...
to engage the Swedes at the
Battle of Oliva. It was the largest naval battle fought by the
Polish royal navy, which successfully defeated the enemy fleet and broke the Swedish blockade.
Although Poland emerged victorious in the final
battle at Trzciana, Sigismund's exhausted camp accepted a peace offer.
The
Truce of Altmark
__NOTOC__
The six-year Truce of Altmark (or Treaty of Stary Targ, pl, Rozejm w Altmarku, sv, Stillståndet i Altmark) was signed on 16 (O.S.)/26 (N.S.) September 1629 in the village of Altmark (Stary Targ), in Poland, by the Polish–Lithuani ...
signed on 26 September 1629 (16 September O.S.) granted Sweden the control of
Livonia
Livonia ( liv, Līvõmō, et, Liivimaa, fi, Liivinmaa, German and Scandinavian languages: ', archaic German: ''Liefland'', nl, Lijfland, Latvian and lt, Livonija, pl, Inflanty, archaic English: ''Livland'', ''Liwlandia''; russian: Ли ...
, though Prussia,
Latgale
Latgale ( ltg, Latgola; ; ger, Lettgallen; be, Латгалія, Łathalija; pl, Łatgalia; la, Lettgallia), also known as Latgalia is one of the Historical Latvian Lands. It is the easternmost region and is north of the Daugava River. While m ...
and
Dyneburg
Daugavpils (; russian: Двинск; ltg, Daugpiļs ; german: Dünaburg, ; pl, Dyneburg; see other names) is a state city in south-eastern Latvia, located on the banks of the Daugava River, from which the city gets its name. The parts of the ...
remained under Polish governance.
Assassination attempt
![Zamach na Zygmunta III](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Zamach_na_Zygmunta_III.JPG)
An unsuccessful attempt on the life of the King was made on 15 November 1620. It occurred on Sunday morning when the monarch and his entourage was to attend
mass
Mass is an intrinsic property of a body. It was traditionally believed to be related to the quantity of matter in a physical body, until the discovery of the atom and particle physics. It was found that different atoms and different elementar ...
at
St. John's Archcathedral in Warsaw.
Sigismund was to arrive by crossing the alley or passage that linked the
Royal Castle with the temple. As the royal procession drew closer to the churchdoor, hidden in a nearby portal was petty nobleman
Michał Piekarski, armed with a
war axe.
When the monarch reached the final steps, Piekarski leaped out and threw himself on the King, stabbing him twice, firstly in the back and then in the cheek, and striking him in the arm.
However, he was not able to deliver a fatal blow due to the intervention of royal guardsmen as well as Court Marshal
Łukasz Opaliński, who shielded the King.
Concurrently, Prince Ladislaus wounded the assassin on the head with a
sabre
A sabre ( French: sabʁ or saber in American English) is a type of backsword with a curved blade associated with the light cavalry of the early modern and Napoleonic periods. Originally associated with Central European cavalry such as th ...
.
Other accounts state that no guards were present; the
cortege
Many words in the English vocabulary are of French origin, most coming from the Anglo-Norman spoken by the upper classes in England for several hundred years after the Norman Conquest, before the language settled into what became Modern Engl ...
had a casual character and the assassin was most likely overpowered by the attendees.
![Ulica Kanonia w Warszawie](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Ulica_Kanonia_w_Warszawie.jpg)
Parishioners gathered around the pale and lifeless King, who collapsed to the ground after the incident.
The guards and other attendants, among them
Marcin Szyszkowski, were able to revive him and after a medical examination the wounds were found to be non-life-threatening.
Chaos erupted when false rumours spread that the King had been murdered as his clothes were stained in blood.
Initially, the townsfolk believed that the city was being attacked; the confusion arose when an Italian priest's cry ''traditore!'' (traitor) was misinterpreted as "
Tatar
The Tatars ()[Tatar]
in the Collins English Dictionary is an umbrella term for different ".
The assassin was widely regarded as a mentally unstable
melancholic
Melancholia or melancholy (from el, µέλαινα χολή ',Burton, Bk. I, p. 147 meaning black bile) is a concept found throughout ancient, medieval and premodern medicine in Europe that describes a condition characterized by markedly d ...
, unrestrained in deeds.
Piekarski's most probable cause for the assassination was fame and recognition; the successful assassination of
Henry IV in
Paris
Paris () is the capital and most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), making it the 30th most densely populated city in the world in 2020. S ...
(1610) by
François Ravaillac
François Ravaillac (; 1578 – 27 May 1610) was a French Catholic zealot who assassinated King Henry IV of France in 1610.
Biography Early life and education
Ravaillac was born in 1578 at Angoulême of an educated family: his grandfather Fr ...
served as motivation for his actions.
For the appropriate moment Piekarski waited patiently ten years.
At his trial, he did not deny the crime he committed and heavily insulted the monarch, whilst blaming himself for the failed
regicide
Regicide is the purposeful killing of a monarch or sovereign of a polity and is often associated with the usurpation of power. A regicide can also be the person responsible for the killing. The word comes from the Latin roots of ''regis'' ...
.
Piekarski was executed in a similar manner as Ravaillac on 27 November 1620 in Warsaw; he was publicly humiliated, tortured, and his body
torn apart by horses.
The dismembered remains were subsequently burned and their ashes scattered by a cannon.
Religion
![Dolabella John Albert Vasa](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Dolabella_John_Albert_Vasa.jpg)
The reign of Sigismund marked the beginning of religious persecution during the
Counter-Reformation
The Counter-Reformation (), also called the Catholic Reformation () or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation. It began with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) a ...
and the downfall of
Protestantism
Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century against what its followers perceived to b ...
in Poland–Lithuania. His hate towards
Evangelicals
Evangelicalism (), also called evangelical Christianity or evangelical Protestantism, is a worldwide Interdenominationalism, interdenominational movement within Protestantism, Protestant Christianity that affirms the centrality of being "bor ...
coupled with the advice of Jesuit priests led to repressions and the eventual demise of the
Polish Brethren
The Polish Brethren (Polish: ''Bracia Polscy'') were members of the Minor Reformed Church of Poland, a Nontrinitarian Protestant church that existed in Poland from 1565 to 1658. By those on the outside, they were called " Arians" or " Socinians" ( ...
decades later; their expulsion from Poland in 1658 contributed to the spread of
Unitarianism
Unitarianism (from Latin ''unitas'' "unity, oneness", from ''unus'' "one") is a nontrinitarian branch of Christian theology. Most other branches of Christianity and the major Churches accept the doctrine of the Trinity which states that there i ...
across the globe.
The
Polish Reformed Church
The Polish Reformed Church, officially called the Evangelical Reformed Church in the Republic of Poland (Polish: ''Kościół Ewangelicko-Reformowany w RP'') is a historic Calvinistic Protestant church in Poland established in the 16th century, ...
, once a thriving institution and community, began to fall.
Akin actions were undertaken against other minorities in the country. Sigismund's contempt for
Eastern Orthodoxy
Eastern Orthodoxy, also known as Eastern Orthodox Christianity, is one of the three main Branches of Christianity, branches of Chalcedonian Christianity, alongside Catholic Church, Catholicism and Protestantism.
Like the Pentarchy of the first m ...
was equally strong; it was his initiative that the native Ruthenian peoples inhabiting the eastern lands of the Commonwealth be forcibly converted to Catholicism, which laid the foundation for the modern
Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church
, native_name_lang = uk
, caption_background =
, image = StGeorgeCathedral Lviv.JPG
, imagewidth =
, type = Particular church (sui iuris)
, alt =
, caption = St. George's ...
. However, in Sweden the policies had an adverse effect; the
Reformation
The Reformation (alternatively named the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation) was a major movement within Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the Catholic Church and in ...
in Northern Europe continued and
anti-Catholic
Anti-Catholicism is hostility towards Catholics or opposition to the Catholic Church, its clergy, and/or its adherents. At various points after the Reformation, some majority Protestant states, including England, Prussia, Scotland, and the Uni ...
sentiment strengthened.
The discrimination further extended to
Jews
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
and
Muslims
Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abraha ...
(Tatars), whose rights were already restricted.
The
Warsaw Confederation
The Warsaw Confederation, signed on 28 January 1573 by the Polish national assembly (''sejm konwokacyjny'') in Warsaw, was one of the first European acts granting religious freedoms. It was an important development in the history of Poland and o ...
of 1573 granted religious freedoms unlike elsewhere in Europe, but the degree to which those freedoms were guaranteed often varied. In 1588, Sigismund decreed that the "Israelites" and Tatars are forbidden by law to hold public office or assume political roles.
Daily contact with Christians was to be limited and any attempts made at converting Christians to
Judaism
Judaism ( he, ''Yahăḏūṯ'') is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural, and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. It has its roots as an organized religion in the ...
or Islam was punishable by death.
Insubordinates were
burned at the stake
Death by burning (also known as immolation) is an execution and murder method involving combustion or exposure to extreme heat. It has a long history as a form of public capital punishment, and many societies have employed it as a punishment f ...
, or, in the case of Muslim men who married Christian women,
beheaded
Decapitation or beheading is the total separation of the head from the body. Such an injury is invariably fatal to humans and most other animals, since it deprives the brain of oxygenated blood, while all other organs are deprived of the ...
.
Circumcision
Circumcision is a surgical procedure, procedure that removes the foreskin from the human penis. In the most common form of the operation, the foreskin is extended with forceps, then a circumcision device may be placed, after which the foreskin ...
of Christian children by Jews was made a
capital offence
Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is the state-sanctioned practice of deliberately killing a person as a punishment for an actual or supposed crime, usually following an authorized, rule-governed process to conclude that t ...
.
However, trade practices continued to thrive and Poland remained a safe haven for refugees fleeing oppression in other parts of the continent, chiefly during the
Thirty Years' War
The Thirty Years' War was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history
The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (80 ...
.
Religious
nepotism
Nepotism is an advantage, privilege, or position that is granted to relatives and friends in an occupation or field. These fields may include but are not limited to, business, politics, academia, entertainment, sports, fitness, religion, an ...
under Sigismund and in the years following his death was undoubtedly apparent – three of his sons,
John Casimir,
John Albert and
Charles Ferdinand, were ordained as priests and held notable posts. Charles was appointed the
bishop of Wrocław in 1625 and
bishop of Płock
A bishop is an ordained clergy member who is entrusted with a position of authority and oversight in a religious institution.
In Christianity, bishops are normally responsible for the governance of dioceses. The role or office of bishop is ca ...
in 1640. John Albert became
bishop of Warmia
This is a list of Bishops and Prince-Bishops of the Diocese of Warmia ( pl, link=no, Diecezja warmińska, la, link=no, Dioecesis Varmiensis, german: link=no, Bistum Ermland), which was elevated to the Archdiocese of Warmia in 1992.
The Bisho ...
at the age of nine in 1621 and
cardinal-
bishop of Kraków
A bishop is an ordained clergy member who is entrusted with a position of authority and oversight in a religious institution.
In Christianity, bishops are normally responsible for the governance of dioceses. The role or office of bishop is ca ...
at the age of twenty in 1632. John Casimir, prior to his election to the throne, was made a cardinal at the behest of
Pope Innocent X
Pope Innocent X ( la, Innocentius X; it, Innocenzo X; 6 May 1574 – 7 January 1655), born Giovanni Battista Pamphilj (or Pamphili), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 15 September 1644 to his death in Januar ...
.
Death
![Melich Sigismund III Vasa on catafalque](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Melich_Sigismund_III_Vasa_on_catafalque.jpg)
Towards the end of his reign, Sigismund withdrew altogether from politics and devoted himself exclusively to family matters and his interests in performing arts. Little is known about the King's wellbeing at the time suggesting that he was in good health. However, in his last days he became bedridden due to
gout
Gout ( ) is a form of inflammatory arthritis characterized by recurrent attacks of a red, tender, hot and swollen joint, caused by deposition of monosodium urate monohydrate crystals. Pain typically comes on rapidly, reaching maximal intensit ...
and joint pain, an affliction which was likely inherited from his grandfather
Sigismund the Old
Sigismund I the Old ( pl, Zygmunt I Stary, lt, Žygimantas II Senasis; 1 January 1467 – 1 April 1548) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1506 until his death in 1548. Sigismund I was a member of the Jagiellonian dynasty, the ...
. His uncle,
Sigismund II Augustus
Sigismund II Augustus ( pl, Zygmunt II August, lt, Žygimantas Augustas; 1 August 1520 – 7 July 1572) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, the son of Sigismund I the Old, whom Sigismund II succeeded in 1548. He was the first ruler ...
, also suffered from long-term
arthritis.
Shortly after the unexpected death of his second wife,
Constance
Constance may refer to:
Places
*Konstanz, Germany, sometimes written as Constance in English
*Constance Bay, Ottawa, Canada
* Constance, Kentucky
* Constance, Minnesota
* Constance (Portugal)
* Mount Constance, Washington State
People
* Consta ...
, Sigismund fell dangerously ill and experienced mental problems, notably he was struck with severe
depression.
In November 1631, bishop
Achacy Grochowski travelled to
Warsaw
Warsaw ( pl, Warszawa, ), officially the Capital City of Warsaw,, abbreviation: ''m.st. Warszawa'' is the capital and largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the River Vistula in east-central Poland, and its population is officia ...
and wrote "the monarch is of sound mind, his heart and stomach
bdomenare healthy".
Already in advanced age for the period, on
Saint Catherine's Day
Saint Catherine's Day, also called the Feast of Saint Catherine, is 25 November. It has retained its popularity throughout the centuries. It commemorates the martyrdom of Saint Catherine of Alexandria, one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers.
Historic ...
(25 November) he appeared "cheerful, with a ruddy face, and in good spirit hoped to leave bed".
Nevertheless, the gouty arthritis progressed and medics applied red-hot iron to the painful swelling with no effect.
The king sensed that death is near and ordered an immediate assembly of nobles, which convened on 1 April.
The so-called 'extraordinary parliament' (''
sejm ekstraordynaryjny
Sejm ekstraordynaryjny, sejm nadzwyczajny (''special sejm'') was a kind of sejm in pre-partition Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, a ...
'') secured the candidacy and election of his son, Ladislaus, to the throne.
On
Easter Sunday
Easter,Traditional names for the feast in English are "Easter Day", as in the ''Book of Common Prayer''; "Easter Sunday", used by James Ussher''The Whole Works of the Most Rev. James Ussher, Volume 4'') and Samuel Pepys''The Diary of Samuel P ...
he participated in final prayers, whilst being supported by his sons to prevent him from collapsing.
At eight in the morning on 25 April,
Kasper Doenhoff
Prince Kasper Doenhoff (german: Kaspar von Dönhoff, pl, Kacper Denhoff, 1587–1645) was a Polish nobleman of Baltic-German extraction, a Reichsfürst of the Holy Roman Empire and Governor of Dorpat Province within the Polish–Lithuanian Co ...
, a courtier in charge of opening curtains in the royal bedchamber and greeting the monarch, did not hear a response.
Unable to see at a distance he approached Sigismund whose face was paralyzed from a
stroke.
Hours later he briefly recovered his speech and murmured "there is no cure against the will
ower
Ower is a hamlet in the New Forest district of Hampshire, England. Its nearest towns are Totton – approximately to the southeast, and Romsey – around to the north-east.
Ower lies on the A36 road northwest of Totton. It lies mo ...
of death".
The paralysis worsened and on 27 April
Urszula Meyerin
Urszula Meyerin (also, ''Meierin''; 1570–1635) was a politically influential Polish courtier and mistress to King Sigismund III of Poland. Her real surname may have been ''Gienger'' (or ''Gienger von Grünbüchl''), but that remains in dispute; ...
acted as spokeswoman, speaking on behalf of the mumbling king.
Prince Ladislaus arrived on the same day.
On 28 April, Sigismund's bed was surrounded by his courtiers and the Jesuit priests, who performed
exorcism
Exorcism () is the religious or spiritual practice of evicting demons, jinns, or other malevolent spiritual entities from a person, or an area, that is believed to be possessed. Depending on the spiritual beliefs of the exorcist, this may be ...
-like prayers.
It was his wish that the court be witness to his demise, as interpreted in the words "vanitas vanitatis",
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
for 'all is vanity'.
After days of suffering, Sigismund passed away at Warsaw's
Royal Castle at approximately 2:45 am (02:45) on 30 April 1632.
His close aide
Albrycht S. Radziwill wrote "the
autopsy
An autopsy (post-mortem examination, obduction, necropsy, or autopsia cadaverum) is a surgical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse by dissection to determine the cause, mode, and manner of death or to evaluate any di ...
on the same day in the afternoon determined that the king's internal organs were healthy. He could have lived another twenty years".
His embalmed body was placed in an elaborate
tin
Tin is a chemical element with the symbol Sn (from la, stannum) and atomic number 50. Tin is a silvery-coloured metal.
Tin is soft enough to be cut with little force and a bar of tin can be bent by hand with little effort. When bent, t ...
coffin decorated with soldiers, battle scenes and musical motifs, a masterpiece of 17th-century tin-making. The coffin was interred inside the royal crypt at
Wawel Cathedral
The Wawel Cathedral ( pl, Katedra Wawelska), formally titled the Royal Archcathedral Basilica of Saints Stanislaus and Wenceslaus, is a Roman Catholic cathedral situated on Wawel Hill in Kraków, Poland. Nearly 1000 years old, it is part of the ...
in
Kraków
Kraków (), or Cracow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland until 1596 ...
on 4 February 1633.
Legacy
![Kolumna Zygmunta III Wazy 2020](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Kolumna_Zygmunta_III_Wazy_2020.jpg)
Sigismund's death came at a time of great divisions and constant quarrels. His rule of nearly 45 years is perceived by some as controversial – it was distinguished by considerable developments in
architecture
Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and constructing building ...
, the arts and
culture
Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups.Tyl ...
coupled with conspiracies, religious antipathy and the endless conflict with Sweden.
Szymon Starowolski
Szymon Starowolski (1588 – 1656; Simon Starovolscius) was a writer, scholar and historian in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was probably born near Pruzhany, and died near Kraków. He was a very prolific writer, and left behind over 70 ...
positioned Sigismund's legacy above that of his predecessors. Others were less flattering. The decision to appoint Jesuit priests as ministers on matters which did not necessarily concern religion caused ubiquitous disapproval.
Spiteful foes convinced of the damage he inflicted on the nation wrote with contempt "this man, whose knowledge exceeded in goldsmithing but not politics, lived far too long". Members of opposing camps were relieved and enthusiastic to see his progressive son, Ladislaus, take the throne. Nonetheless, the nobility and
magnates
The magnate term, from the late Latin ''magnas'', a great man, itself from Latin ''magnus'', "great", means a man from the higher nobility, a man who belongs to the high office-holders, or a man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or ot ...
from all political spheres obeyed tradition by wearing black outfits for the duration of the
interregnum as a sign of mourning.
The strict compliance to the practice is said to have stunned foreign dignitaries.
There is no doubt that Sigismund was one of Poland's most capable and recognisable sovereigns.
Sigismund's reign arguably marked an end to the
Polish Golden Age
The Polish Golden Age was the Renaissance period in Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, roughly corresponding to the period of rule of the King Sigismund I the Old and his son, Sigismund II Augustus, the last of the Jagiellonian Dynasty monar ...
and the dawn of the Silver Age. He presided over the transition from cultural
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas ...
to the
Baroque
The Baroque (, ; ) is a style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished in Europe from the early 17th century until the 1750s. In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese empires including t ...
, and witnessed the first stages of a nationwide literary reform.
Notably, it was under his rule that
Polish
Polish may refer to:
* Anything from or related to Poland, a country in Europe
* Polish language
* Poles
Poles,, ; singular masculine: ''Polak'', singular feminine: ''Polka'' or Polish people, are a West Slavic nation and ethnic group, w ...
began to supersede
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
in academic thought and artistic expression.
Some ground-breaking achievements were made, for example, the publication of
Jakub Wujek
Jakub Wujek (1541 – 27 April 1597, son of Maciej Wujek) was a Polish Jesuit, religious writer, Doctor of Theology, Vice-Chancellor of the Vilnius Academy and translator of the Bible into Polish.
He is well-known for his translation of the Bi ...
's Polish translation of the
Holy Bible in 1599,
which remained in use until the mid-20th century.
The period also saw the rise of societal
satire
Satire is a genre of the visual, literary, and performing arts, usually in the form of fiction and less frequently non-fiction, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, often with the intent of shaming ...
,
parody
A parody, also known as a spoof, a satire, a send-up, a take-off, a lampoon, a play on (something), or a caricature, is a creative work designed to imitate, comment on, and/or mock its subject by means of satiric or ironic imitation. Often its subj ...
and extensive political commentaries which reflected the country's faults in hope of improvement, such as the ''
Eight sermons before the Sejm'' by
Piotr Skarga
Piotr Skarga (less often Piotr Powęski; 2 February 1536 – 27 September 1612) was a Polish Jesuit, preacher, hagiographer, polemicist, and leading figure of the Counter-Reformation in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Due to his oratoric ...
.
However, these works were considered controversial and dangerous to publish, particularly after the failed
1606 rebellion.
Józef Szujski
Józef Szujski ( Tarnow, 16 June 1835 – Cracow, 7 February 1883) was a Polish politician, historian, poet and professor of the Jagiellonian University.
Life
He studied at Tarnow, then at Cracow (1854) and at Vienna (1858-9). He began hi ...
notes that the literature became "infested with
pleonasms,
pasquinade
A pasquinade or pasquil is a form of satire, usually an anonymous brief lampoon in verse or prose, and can also be seen as a form of literary caricature. The genre became popular in early modern Europe, in the 16th century, though the term had ...
s and moral
sermon
A sermon is a religious discourse or oration by a preacher, usually a member of clergy. Sermons address a scriptural, theological, or moral topic, usually expounding on a type of belief, law, or behavior within both past and present contexts. ...
".
Consequently, regional councils imposed
censorship
Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information. This may be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or "inconvenient". Censorship can be conducted by governments ...
and suppression of speech.
Renowned academician
Joannes Broscius
Joannes or John ( la, Iohannes; died 425) was western Roman emperor from 423 to 425.
On the death of the Emperor Honorius (emperor), Honorius (15 August 423), Theodosius II, the remaining ruler of the House of Theodosius, hesitated in announci ...
(Jan Brożek) wrote a satirical
lampoon
Lampoon may refer to:
*Parody
*Amphol Lampoon (born 1963), Thai actor and singer
*''The Harvard Lampoon'', a noted humor magazine
** ''National Lampoon'' (magazine), a defunct offshoot of ''Harvard Lampoon''
***National Lampoon, Incorporated, a 20 ...
''Gratis'' directed against the Jesuit priests, which was confiscated and burnt publicly in 1625.
Exposed printers and distributors were tied to a
pillory and flogged or beaten mercilessly.
Franciszek Siarczyński spoke of a cultural revolution that took place at the time and shaped Poland's society for the centuries to come. The simplicity and austerity of older Polish customs faded and were replaced in favour of those from Italy or Germany.
Fabrics
Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, different fabric types, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics. However, weaving is not the ...
and garments diversified, thus becoming more striking; Siarczyński writes "clothing, once wool, adorned our sides, now
silk
Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the coc ...
,
velvet
Weave details visible on a purple-colored velvet fabric
Velvet is a type of woven tufted fabric in which the cut threads are evenly distributed, with a short pile, giving it a distinctive soft feel. By extension, the word ''velvety'' means ...
,
moire, gold and silver lining. Even a commoner frowns on sheepskin coats. Our
coaches
Coach may refer to:
Guidance/instruction
* Coach (sport), a director of athletes' training and activities
* Coaching, the practice of guiding an individual through a process
** Acting coach, a teacher who trains performers
Transportation
* Coac ...
and carriages turned ostentatious. We no more venture to our neighbours and camp without the splendour". Jerzy Maternicki outlined that Sigismund was instrumental in developing
mining
Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the Earth, usually from an ore body, lode, vein, seam, reef, or placer deposit. The exploitation of these deposits for raw material is based on the economic via ...
in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
The memory of Sigismund III is still vivid in Warsaw, which he expanded and made the capital of Poland in 1596.
Władysław IV Vasa
Władysław IV Vasa; lt, Vladislovas Vaza; sv, Vladislav IV av Polen; rus, Владислав IV Ваза, r=Vladislav IV Vaza; la, Ladislaus IV Vasa or Ladislaus IV of Poland (9 June 1595 – 20 May 1648) was King of Poland, Grand Duke of ...
ordered the construction of a monument dedicated to his father in the heart of the city as a reminder of the 'Sigismundian' legacy.
The engineers drew inspiration from the memorials of
Ancient Rome
In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 B ...
, notably the
Column of Phocas
The Column of Phocas ( it, Colonna di Foca) is a Roman monumental column in the Roman Forum of Rome, Italy, built when Rome was part of the Eastern Roman Empire after its reconquest from the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths.
History
Erected in front o ...
.
The new 22-meter
Corinthian column was crowned with a bronze statue of the king wearing armour, holding a cross and a sword.
Władysław personally unveiled
Sigismund's Column
Sigismund's Column ( pl, Kolumna Zygmunta), originally erected in 1644, is located at Castle Square, Warsaw, Poland and is one of Warsaw's most famous landmarks as well as the first secular monument in the form of a column in modern history. The ...
on 24 November 1644 as the first
secular
Secularity, also the secular or secularness (from Latin ''saeculum'', "worldly" or "of a generation"), is the state of being unrelated or neutral in regards to religion. Anything that does not have an explicit reference to religion, either negativ ...
column in Europe's modern history.
Personal life
![Schorer Reliquary of St](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Schorer_Reliquary_of_St._Stanislaus.jpg)
Scholars frequently noted Sigismund's extreme piety, with some calling him a fanatic even during his lifetime.
Adherents, however, subtly described it as absolute devotion to religion and
Roman Catholic
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
observance, which especially drew praise from
papal legates
300px, A woodcut showing Henry II of England greeting the pope's legate.
A papal legate or apostolic legate (from the ancient Roman title ''legatus'') is a personal representative of the pope to foreign nations, or to some part of the Catholic ...
and foreign clerics who visited the court.
According to Giovanni Paolo Mucante and cardinal
Enrico Caetani who were sent by
Pope Clement VIII
Pope Clement VIII ( la, Clemens VIII; it, Clemente VIII; 24 February 1536 – 3 March 1605), born Ippolito Aldobrandini, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 2 February 1592 to his death in March 1605.
Born ...
, "Sigismund's behaviour was comparable to that of a priest. He fervently attends mass daily, then hears
choral music
A choir ( ; also known as a chorale or chorus) is a musical ensemble of singers. Choral music, in turn, is the music written specifically for such an ensemble to perform. Choirs may perform music from the classical music repertoire, which sp ...
,
sermon
A sermon is a religious discourse or oration by a preacher, usually a member of clergy. Sermons address a scriptural, theological, or moral topic, usually expounding on a type of belief, law, or behavior within both past and present contexts. ...
s and orations. He
fasts
Fasting is the abstention from eating and sometimes drinking. From a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (see " Breakfast"), or to the metabolic state achieved after ...
, and practices
sexual abstinence
Sexual abstinence or sexual restraint is the practice of refraining from some or all aspects of sexual activity for medical, psychological, legal, social, financial, philosophical, moral, or religious reasons. Sexual abstinence is distinct from ...
on Wednesdays and Fridays, two days before and after
confession
A confession is a statement – made by a person or by a group of persons – acknowledging some personal fact that the person (or the group) would ostensibly prefer to keep hidden. The term presumes that the speaker is providing information th ...
. This large kingdom would have no schismatics,
Calvinists or
Lutherans
Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism, identifying primarily with the theology of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German monk and reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched ...
if it depended on him".
Historian Paweł Fabisz writes that when
James of England and Scotland sent a book with
anti-papal connotations, Sigismund deemed the gift "vile" and threw it into the fireplace.
Throughout the entire reign Sigismund maintained high etiquette and courtliness.
Mucante emphasized his
frugal
Frugality is the quality of being frugal, sparing, thrifty, prudent or economical in the consumption of consumable resources such as food, time or money, and avoiding waste, lavishness or extravagance.
In behavioral science, frugality has been ...
ity and calm nature.
Nevertheless, he hosted balls and held
masquerades during which he would entertain guests and play the
harpsichord. The king was a skilled dancer and performed
Polish folk dances
Polish folk dances are a tradition rooted in ten centuries of Polish culture and history. Many of the dances stem from regional customs and historical events and are distinct from Czech, Slovak and Germanic styles. National dances include forma ...
as well as Italian dances like the
saltarello
The ''saltarello'' is a musical dance originally from Italy. The first mention of it is in Add MS 29987, a late-fourteenth- or early fifteenth-century manuscript of Tuscan origin, now in the British Library. It was usually played in a fast tr ...
and
passamezzo The passamezzo (plural: ''passamezzi'' or ''passamezzos'') is an Italian folk dance of the 16th and early 17th centuries.
Many pieces named "passamezzo" follow one of two chord progressions that came to be named after the dance, passamezzo antico ...
. Upon the marriage to his first wife,
Anne of Austria
Anne of Austria (french: Anne d'Autriche, italic=no, es, Ana María Mauricia, italic=no; 22 September 1601 – 20 January 1666) was an infanta of Spain who became Queen of France as the wife of King Louis XIII from their marriage in 1615 unti ...
, on 25 November 1592 he ordered a themed masquerade on Kraków's
Main Market Square and, to the disbelief of his subjects, danced for the public. Sigismund was also known to be physically active in his youth
and enjoyed occasional hunting, ice skating and frequently played
football
Football is a family of team sports that involve, to varying degrees, kicking a ball to score a goal. Unqualified, the word ''football'' normally means the form of football that is the most popular where the word is used. Sports commonly c ...
; he is widely credited for introducing and popularising the sport in Poland.
Members of the royal court disapproved of such activities which were perceived as improper and not worthy of a monarch, particularly the sports.
![Alchemik Sedziwoj Matejko](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Alchemik_Sedziwoj_Matejko.JPG)
Sigismund's personal approach to internal affairs was unpredictable; he was said to have been somewhat temperamental and impetuous at times.
Joachim Lelewel compared his character to that of the despotic
Philip II of Spain
Philip II) in Spain, while in Portugal and his Italian kingdoms he ruled as Philip I ( pt, Filipe I). (21 May 152713 September 1598), also known as Philip the Prudent ( es, Felipe el Prudente), was King of Spain from 1556, King of Portugal from ...
, but unlike Philip who overtly ordered persecution of non-Catholics, Sigismund was more discrete.
A determined and stubborn
man who sought to strengthen his authority, he was reluctant to participate in pointless conferences. As recalled by his close aide
Albrycht Radziwill, at one meeting the king decided to sketch an owl in his notepad rather than note important advice.
Sigismund held high regard for the arts and early
Baroque architecture
Baroque architecture is a highly decorative and theatrical style which appeared in Italy in the early 17th century and gradually spread across Europe. It was originally introduced by the Catholic Church, particularly by the Jesuits, as a means t ...
; he willingly sponsored foreign masters and engineers who came to Poland at his invitation. He actively took part in the designing of
façade
A façade () (also written facade) is generally the front part or exterior of a building. It is a Loanword, loan word from the French language, French (), which means 'frontage' or 'face'.
In architecture, the façade of a building is often t ...
s and structural elements as well as Eucharistic objects such as
chalice
A chalice (from Latin 'mug', borrowed from Ancient Greek () 'cup') or goblet is a footed cup intended to hold a drink. In religious practice, a chalice is often used for drinking during a ceremony or may carry a certain symbolic meaning.
Re ...
s, crucifixes,
candelabra and even book covers. During a visit to the
Lwów Bernardine Church in 1621 he reprimanded the chief planners for making the temple seem disproportionate. Sigismund was a gifted painter and craftsman; only a few of his works survive, among them parts of
Saint Adalbert's silver reliquary at the
Cathedral
A cathedral is a church that contains the '' cathedra'' () of a bishop, thus serving as the central church of a diocese, conference, or episcopate. Churches with the function of "cathedral" are usually specific to those Christian denomination ...
in
Gniezno
Gniezno (; german: Gnesen; la, Gnesna) is a city in central-western Poland, about east of Poznań. Its population in 2021 was 66,769, making it the sixth-largest city in the Greater Poland Voivodeship. One of the Piast dynasty's chief cities, ...
. He was also fascinated by
alchemy
Alchemy (from Arabic: ''al-kīmiyā''; from Ancient Greek: χυμεία, ''khumeía'') is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in China, India, the Muslim world, ...
and ancient methods of turning metals into
gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from la, aurum) and atomic number 79. This makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. It is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile met ...
; it is said he experimented with the alchemist and philosopher
Michael Sendivogius
Michael Sendivogius (; pl, Michał Sędziwój; 2 February 1566 – 1636) was a Polish alchemist, philosopher, and medical doctor. A pioneer of chemistry, he developed ways of purification and creation of various acids, metals and other ch ...
.
Marriages and children
![Kober, Martin - Portrait of Anna of Austria, Queen of Poland](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Kober%2C_Martin_-_Portrait_of_Anna_of_Austria%2C_Queen_of_Poland.JPG)
On 31 May 1592 Sigismund married his first wife
Anne of Austria
Anne of Austria (french: Anne d'Autriche, italic=no, es, Ana María Mauricia, italic=no; 22 September 1601 – 20 January 1666) was an infanta of Spain who became Queen of France as the wife of King Louis XIII from their marriage in 1615 unti ...
(1573–1598), daughter of Archduke
Charles II of Austria
Charles II Francis of Austria (german: Karl II. Franz von Innerösterreich) (3 June 1540 – 10 July 1590) was an Archduke of Austria and ruler of Inner Austria (Styria, Carniola, Carinthia and Gorizia) from 1564. He was a member of the House o ...
and his wife
Maria Anna of Bavaria. She was well received in Poland, despite being a Habsburg. Certain leading magnates were initially opposed to the marriage, however the opinion shifted in her favour due to personal characteristics; she was known to be attentive, sharp-minded, humble, pious and kind, though of poor health. The couple led a happy but introverted life. Anne was particularly hostile towards the Swedes; her attitude was shaped by an unsuccessful visit to Sweden in 1593 where she was said to have been mistreated. She complained of the cold and general misery in Sweden, and fell ill there in October 1593. The continuous stress arising from the unpredictable behaviour of
Charles Vasa (future King Charles IX and adversary of Sigismund) also contributed to her distaste. According to an account, she gave birth in
Stockholm
Stockholm () is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in Sweden by population, largest city of Sweden as well as the List of urban areas in the Nordic countries, largest urban area in Scandinavia. Approximately 980,000 people liv ...
to a baby girl named Catherine who died soon after and was secretly buried upon their return to Poland. Her health rapidly deteriorated with successive pregnancies over the next four years. She died from a
puerperal fever at childbirth along with the baby boy on 10 February 1598 in Warsaw.
Following her death, Sigismund was in deep mourning; he expressed sorrow in private letters to his mother-in-law
Maria Anna of Bavaria,
and isolated himself from subjects. Anne and Sigismund had five known children during their marriage:
# Anne Marie ( pl, Anna Maria; 23 May 1593 9 February 1600)
# Catherine ( pl, Katarzyna; May 1594 June 1594)
#
Ladislaus ( pl, Władysław; 9 June 1595 20 May 1648), reigned 1632–1648 as Władysław IV
# Catherine ( pl, Katarzyna; 27 September 1596 June 1597)
# Christopher ( pl, Krzysztof; 10 February 1598)
![Portret Konstancji Austriaczki (fragment)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Portret_Konstancji_Austriaczki_%28fragment%29.jpg)
Sigismund was expected to marry
Anna of Tyrol
Anna of Tyrol (4 October 1585 – 14 December 1618) was by birth an Archduchess of Austria and member of the Tyrolean branch of the House of Habsburg and by marriage Holy Roman Empress, German Queen, Queen of Bohemia and Queen of Hungary.
The ...
in 1603, however
Emperor Rudolf II
Rudolf II (18 July 1552 – 20 January 1612) was Holy Roman Emperor (1576–1612), King of Hungary and Croatia (as Rudolf I, 1572–1608), King of Bohemia (1575–1608/1611) and Archduke of Austria (1576–1608). He was a member of the Hous ...
did not give his consent. Instead, on 11 December 1605 he wedded
Constance of Austria
Constance of Austria (german: Konstanza; pl, Konstancja; 24 December 1588 – 10 July 1631) was Queen of Poland as the second wife of King Sigismund III Vasa and the mother of King John II Casimir.
Biography
Constance was a daughter of Charles ...
(1588–1631), Anne's younger sister. The match was condemned by nobles and clerics who previously opposed Anne and the Habsburg alliance; the match was savagely described as "
incest
Incest ( ) is human sexual activity between family members or close relatives. This typically includes sexual activity between people in consanguinity (blood relations), and sometimes those related by affinity (marriage or stepfamily), adoption ...
uous".
The death of
Jan Zamoyski
Jan Sariusz Zamoyski ( la, Ioannes Zamoyski de Zamoscie; 19 March 1542 – 3 June 1605) was a Polish nobleman, magnate, and the 1st '' ordynat'' of Zamość. He served as the Royal Secretary from 1565, Deputy Chancellor from 1576, Grand Cha ...
, leader of the opposition, in June 1605 allowed for the marriage to take place without incidents. Some threatened to abandon the royal court, notably
Piotr Skarga
Piotr Skarga (less often Piotr Powęski; 2 February 1536 – 27 September 1612) was a Polish Jesuit, preacher, hagiographer, polemicist, and leading figure of the Counter-Reformation in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Due to his oratoric ...
.
The marriage further fuelled the anger of Sigismund's most vocal adversaries,
Nicholas Zebrzydowski. The wedding ceremony and Constance's entrance into Kraków was so ostentatious it was recorded in the form of a large
gouache
Gouache (; ), body color, or opaque watercolor is a water-medium paint consisting of natural pigment, water, a binding agent (usually gum arabic or dextrin), and sometimes additional inert material. Gouache is designed to be opaque. Gouache ...
roll painting known as ''rolka sztokholmska'', now housed in Sweden. Like her sister, Constance was well-educated and religious; she attended mass two to four times a day. She was also a good mother, who particularly cared for her stepson, Ladislaus, even in his twenties. On the other hand, Constance approved of her husband's struggle for absolute power; she maintained considerable influence over Sigismund and the senators. To the general public she appeared cold, strait-laced, intolerant and even
antisemitic
Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is considered to be a form of racism.
Antis ...
; in 1626, she forbade the Jews to settle in the town of
Żywiec
Żywiec () (german: Saybusch) is a town in southern Poland with 31,194 inhabitants (2019). Between 1975 and 1998, it was located within the Bielsko-Biała Voivodeship, but has since become part of the Silesian Voivodeship.It is the capital of Ż ...
which she privately owned and administered. Under her patronage, Austro-German culture as well as Spanish fashion flourished at the court. Constance died on 10 July 1631 from a
heat stroke
Heat stroke or heatstroke, also known as sun stroke, is a severe heat illness that results in a body temperature greater than , along with red skin, headache, dizziness, and confusion. Sweating is generally present in exertional heatstroke, ...
she suffered after attending mass on the
Feast of Corpus Christi
The Feast of Corpus Christi (), also known as the Solemnity of the Most Holy Body and Blood of Christ, is a Christian liturgical solemnity celebrating the Real Presence of the Body and Blood, Soul and Divinity of Jesus Christ in the elements o ...
weeks earlier. They had seven children:
# John Casimir ( pl, Jan Kazimierz; 25 December 1607 14 January 1608)
#
John Casimir ( pl, Jan Kazimierz; 22 March 1609 16 December 1672), reigned 1648–1668 as John II Casimir
#
John Albert ( pl, Jan Albert/Olbracht; 25 May 1612 22 December 1634)
#
Charles Ferdinand ( pl, Karol Ferdynand; 13 October 1613 9 May 1655)
#
Alexander Charles ( pl, Aleksander Karol; 4 November 1614 19 November 1634)
# Anna Constance ( pl, Anna Konstancja; 26 January 1616 24 May 1616)
#
Anna Catherine Constance ( pl, Anna Katarzyna Konstancja; 7 August 1619 8 October 1651), the first wife of
Philip William, Elector Palatine
Philip William of Neuburg, Elector Palatine (german: Philipp Wilhelm) (24 November 1615 – 2 September 1690) was Count Palatine of Neuburg from 1653 to 1690, Duke of Jülich and Berg from 1653 to 1679 and Elector of the Palatinate from 1685 to 1 ...
.
Urszula Meyerin
The nature of the relationship between Sigismund and one of his trusted courtiers,
Urszula Meyerin
Urszula Meyerin (also, ''Meierin''; 1570–1635) was a politically influential Polish courtier and mistress to King Sigismund III of Poland. Her real surname may have been ''Gienger'' (or ''Gienger von Grünbüchl''), but that remains in dispute; ...
, has been continually questioned by Polish historians. Born in
Munich
Munich ( ; german: München ; bar, Minga ) is the capital and most populous city of the States of Germany, German state of Bavaria. With a population of 1,558,395 inhabitants as of 31 July 2020, it is the List of cities in Germany by popu ...
as Ursula Gienger,
she came to Poland with the cortège of future queen Anne in 1592.
The king was said to have been infatuated with Urszula, who was known to be attractive and pious. Upon her arrival, she became involved in the affairs of state and was appointed
chamberlain
Chamberlain may refer to:
Profession
*Chamberlain (office), the officer in charge of managing the household of a sovereign or other noble figure
People
*Chamberlain (surname)
**Houston Stewart Chamberlain (1855–1927), German-British philosop ...
(''ochmistrzyni'' in Polish) at the Queen's court.
To emphasize her political role and importance, she adopted the Old German equivalent to the title of chamberlain, "Meyerin", as her
sobriquet
A sobriquet ( ), or soubriquet, is a nickname, sometimes assumed, but often given by another, that is descriptive. A sobriquet is distinct from a pseudonym, as it is typically a familiar name used in place of a real name, without the need of expla ...
and official name.
She devotedly assisted in raising the children and, with time, acted as their tutor.
Meyerin's position as
grey eminence
Grey (more common in British English) or gray (more common in American English) is an intermediate color between black and white. It is a neutral or achromatic color, meaning literally that it is "without color", because it can be composed o ...
and influence on the royal couple made her immensely unpopular among the nobility. Consequently, she was compared to the Spanish
Duke of Lerma
Francisco Gómez de Sandoval y Rojas, 1st Duke of Lerma, 5th Marquess of Denia, 1st Count of Ampudia (1552/1553 – 17 May 1625), was a favourite of Philip III of Spain, the first of the ''validos'' ('most worthy') through whom the later H ...
, who ruled in the king's stead, and contemptuously described as "the king's mistress", "ravenous gold-digger", "minister in a skirt" or "Jesuit's bigotry".
Sigismund's secretary
Jan Szczęsny Herburt in his memoirs called her "an obscene
favourite
A favourite (British English) or favorite (American English) was the intimate companion of a ruler or other important person. In post-classical and early-modern Europe, among other times and places, the term was used of individuals delegated si ...
". However, it is unknown whether the relations between the two were physical.
Gallery
File:Newrew - False Dimitry I swearing Sigismund III introduction of catholicism in Russia.jpg, False Dmitriy I
False Dmitry I ( rus, Лжедмитрий I, Lzhedmitriy I) (or Pseudo-Demetrius I) reigned as the Tsar of Russia from 10 June 1605 until his death on 17 May 1606 under the name of Dmitriy Ivanovich ( rus, Дмитрий Иванович). ...
takes an oath of allegiance to Sigismund III, by Nikolai Nevrev
Nikolai Vasilyevich Nevrev (russian: Никола́й Васи́льевич Не́врев; 1830, Moscow – 3 May 1904, Mogilev Governorate) was a Russian painter who specialized in genre and historical scenes.
Life
Nevrev was born to a famil ...
(1874)
File:Kolumna Zygmunta (zbliżenie) 02.JPG, Statue of King Sigismund III on top of Sigismund's Column
Sigismund's Column ( pl, Kolumna Zygmunta), originally erected in 1644, is located at Castle Square, Warsaw, Poland and is one of Warsaw's most famous landmarks as well as the first secular monument in the form of a column in modern history. The ...
in Warsaw
File:40 ducats of Sigismund III Vasa from 1621.PNG, A 40-ducat coin depicting King Sigismund III Vasa, 1621
File:Mater Dolorosa.JPG, ''Mater Dolorosa
Our Lady of Sorrows ( la, Beata Maria Virgo Perdolens), Our Lady of Dolours, the Sorrowful Mother or Mother of Sorrows ( la, Mater Dolorosa, link=no), and Our Lady of Piety, Our Lady of the Seven Sorrows or Our Lady of the Seven Dolours are names ...
'' painted by Sigismund in the 1620s, based on works by Gortzius Geldorp
File:Gdansk tourist pictures 2009 0077.JPG, Facade relief on the Golden House
The Domus Aurea (Latin, "Golden House") was a vast landscaped complex built by the Emperor Nero largely on the Oppian Hill in the heart of ancient Rome after the great fire in 64 AD had destroyed a large part of the city.Roth (1993)
It repla ...
in Gdańsk
Gdańsk ( , also ; ; csb, Gduńsk;Stefan Ramułt, ''Słownik języka pomorskiego, czyli kaszubskiego'', Kraków 1893, Gdańsk 2003, ISBN 83-87408-64-6. , Johann Georg Theodor Grässe, ''Orbis latinus oder Verzeichniss der lateinischen Benen ...
File:Chorągiew_królewska_króla_Zygmunta_III_Wazy.svg, Banner used during Sigismund III Vasa's reign
Ancestry
See also
*
History of Poland (1569–1795)
The history of Poland spans over a thousand years, from medieval tribes, Christianization and monarchy; through Poland's Golden Age, expansionism and becoming one of the largest European powers; to its collapse and partitions, two world wars, ...
*
History of Sweden (1523–1611)
The Early Vasa era is a period that in Swedish and Finnish history lasted between 1523–1611. It began with the reconquest of Stockholm by Gustav Vasa and his men from the Danes in 1523, which was triggered by the event known as the Stock ...
*
Unions of Sweden
Notes
References
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Further reading
* Daniel Stone, ''The Polish Lithuanian State, 1386–1795'' (University of Washington 2001).
*
Janusz Tazbir
Janusz Tazbir (August 5, 1927 – May 3, 2016 ) was a Polish historian, specializing in the culture and religion of Poland in the 16th and 17th centuries. He was the Polish-side Chairman of German-Polish Textbook Commission from 1991 to 1997.
C ...
: ''Historia kościoła katolickiego w Polsce 1460–1795''. Warsaw: 1966, p. 91.
* Stanisław Rosik, ''Przemysław Wiszewski: Poczet polskich królów i książąt''. p. 927.
* Stanisław Rosik, Przemysław Wiszewski, ''Poczet polskich królów i książąt'', p. 929.
* Stanisław Rosik, Przemysław Wiszewski, ''Wielki Poczet polskich królów i książąt'', Wrocław 2006, p. 923.
* ''Warszawa w latach 1526–1795'', Warsaw 1984 , p. 13.
External links
*
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, -
, -
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sigismund 3 Vasa
1566 births
1632 deaths
Dethroned monarchs
16th-century Polish monarchs
17th-century Polish monarchs
16th-century Swedish monarchs
People from Strängnäs Municipality
Rulers of Finland
Polish Roman Catholics
Grand Dukes of Lithuania
House of Vasa
Knights of the Golden Fleece
Polish people of the Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)
Burials at Wawel Cathedral
People of the War against Sigismund
Sons of kings