Shtokavian

Shtokavian or Štokavian (; sh-Latn, štokavski / sh-Cyrl, italics=no, штокавски, ) is the prestige dialect of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language and the basis of its Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin standards. It is a part of the South Slavic dialect continuum. Its name comes from the form for the interrogatory pronoun for "what" in Western Shtokavian, (it is in Eastern Shtokavian). This is in contrast to Kajkavian and Chakavian ( and also meaning "what").

Shtokavian is spoken in Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, much of Croatia, as well as the southern part of Austria's Burgenland. The primary subdivisions of Shtokavian are based on two principles: one is whether the subdialect is Old-Shtokavian or Neo-Shtokavian, and different accents according to the way the old Slavic phoneme ''jat'' has changed. Modern dialectology generally recognises seven Shtokavian subdialects.

Early history of Shtokavian

The Proto-Shtokavian idiom appeared in the 12th century. In the following century or two, Shtokavian was divided into two zones: western, which covered the major part of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Slavonia in Croatia, and eastern, dominant in Serbia, easternmost Bosnia and Herzegovina and greater parts of Montenegro. Western Shtokavian was principally characterized by a three-accent system, whereas eastern Shtokavian was marked by a two-accent system. According to research of historical linguistics, Old-Shtokavian was well established by the mid-15th century. In this period it was still mixed with Church Slavonic to varying degrees. According to Ivo Banac in the area of today's Slavonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina (west of Brčko, Vlasenica and Neretva line) and on the littoral between Bay of Kotor and Cetina medieval Croats spoke old West Shtokavian dialect for which some believe that occurs from the Chakavian while medieval Serbs spoke two dialects, old East Shtokavian and Torlak.

As can be seen from the image on the right, originally the Shtokavian dialect covered a significantly smaller area than it covers today, meaning that the Shtokavian speech has spread for the last five centuries, overwhelmingly at the expense of Chakavian and Kajkavian idioms. Modern areal distribution of these three dialects as well as their internal stratification (Shtokavian and Chakavian in particular) is primarily a result of the migrations resulting from the spread of Ottoman Empire in the Balkans. Migratory waves were particularly strong in the 16th–18th century, bringing about large-scale linguistic and ethnic changes on the Central South Slavic area. (See: Great Serb Migrations).

By far the most numerous, mobile and expansionist migrations were those of Ijekavian-Shtokavian speakers of eastern Herzegovina, who have spread into most of Western Serbia, many areas of eastern and western Bosnia, large swathes of Croatia ( Banovina, Kordun, Lika, parts of Gorski kotar, continental parts of northern Dalmatia, some places north of Kupa, parts of Slavonia, southeastern Baranya etc.). This is the reason Eastern Herzegovinian is the most spoken Serbo-Croatian dialect today, and why it bears the name that is only descriptive of its area of origin. These migrations also played the pivotal role in the spread of Neo-Shtokavian innovations.

Shtokavian dialect spoken by Croats has more dialects, there are innovative new Shtokavian dialect ikavian as it is spoken in west Herzegovina, area of Dalmatian Zagora, Lika, parts of Velebit area and in some places of Gorski kotar, Vojvodina, Bačka and in neighboring Hungarian areas. New Shtokavian is spoken by Croats in eastern Herzegovina and more recently in the Dubrovnik area and in many places in the former Military Frontier.

Earliest texts of Shtokavian dialect

Proto-Shtokavian, or Church Slavic with ingredients of nascent Shtokavian, were recorded in legal documents like the charter of Ban Kulin, regulating the commerce between Bosnia and Dubrovnik in Croatia, dated 1189, and in liturgical texts like Gršković's and Mihanović's fragments, ca. 1150, in southern Bosnia or Herzegovina. Experts' opinions are divided with regard to the extent these texts, especially the Kulin ban parchment, contain contemporary Shtokavian vernacular. Mainly Shtokavian, with ingredients of Church Slavic, are numerous legal and commercial documents from pre-Ottoman Bosnia, Hum, Serbia, Zeta, and southern Dalmatia, especially Dubrovnik. The first comprehensive vernacular Shtokavian text is the Vatican Croatian Prayer Book, written in Dubrovnik a decade or two before 1400. In the next two centuries Shtokavian vernacular texts had been written mainly in Dubrovnik, other Adriatic cities and islands influenced by Dubrovnik, as well as in Bosnia, by Bosnian Franciscans and Bosniak Muslim vernacular '' alhamiado'' literature – the first example being "Chirwat turkisi" or "Croatian song", dated 1589.

Relationship towards neighboring dialects

Shtokavian is characterized by a number of characteristic historical sound changes, accentual changes, changes in inflection, morphology and syntax. Some of these isoglosses are not exclusive and have also been shared by neighboring dialects, and some of them have mostly but not completely spread over the whole Shtokavian area. The differences between Shtokavian and the unrelated, neighboring Bulgarian– Macedonian dialects are clear-cut, whereas the differences with the related Serbo-Croatian dialects of Chakavian and Kajkavian are much more fluid, and the mutual influence of various subdialects plays a more prominent role.

The main bundle of isoglosses separates Slovenian and Kajkavian on the one hand from Shtokavian and Chakavian on the other. These are:
# long falling accent of newer origin (neocircumflex)
# development of the consonant group ''rj'' (as opposed to consonant ''/r/'') from former soft ''/r'/'' before a vowel (e.g., , )
# reflexes of ''/o/'' or ''/ọ/'' of the old Common Slavic nasal vowel ''/ǫ/'', and not ''/u/''
# inflectional morpheme ''-o'' (as opposed to ''-ojo'') in the instrumental singular of a-declension

Other characteristics distinguishing Kajkavian from Shtokavian, beside the demonstrative/interrogatory pronoun ''kaj'' (as opposed to ''što/šta'' used in Shtokavian), are:Cited after
# a reflex of old semivowels of ''/ẹ/'' (e.g. ''dẹn'' < Common Slavic *dьnь, ''pẹs'' < Common Slavic *pьsъ); closed ''/ẹ/'' appearing also as a ''jat'' reflex
# retention of word-final ''-l'' (e.g. , as opposed to Shtokavian ''došao'')
# word-initial ''u-'' becoming ''v-'' (e.g. , , )
# dephonemicization of affricates /č/ and /ć/ to some form of middle value
# genitive plural of masculine nouns has the morpheme ''-of'' / ''-ef''
# syncretized dative, locative and instrumental plural has the ending ''-ami''
# the ending ''-me'' in the first-person plural present (e.g. ''vidime'')
# affix ''š'' in the formation of adjectival comparatives (e.g. ''debleši'', ''slabeši'')
# supine
# future tense formation in the form of ''bom/bum došel, došla, došlo''

Characteristics distinguishing Chakavian from Shtokavian, beside the demonstrative/interrogatory pronoun ''ča'', are:
# preservation of polytonic three-accent system
# vocalization of weak jers in word-initial syllables (e.g. ''malin/melin'' < Common Slavic *mъlinъ; cf. Shtokavian ''mlin'')
# vowel ''/a/'' as opposed to ''/e/'' after palatal consonants ''/j/'', ''/č/'', ''/ž/'' (e.g. Čk. ''jazik/zajik'' : Št. ''jezik'', Čk. ''počati'' : Št. '' početi'', Čk. ''žaja'' : Št. '' želja'')
# the appearance of extremely palatal ''/t'/'' or ''/ć'/'' (< earlier ''/t'/'') and ''/j/'' (< earlier ''/d'/'') either in free positions or in groups ''št''', ''žd'''
# depalatalization of ''/n'/'' and ''/l'/''
# ''/ž/'' instead of ''/dʒ/'' (c.f. Čk. ''žep'' : Št. ''džep'')
# ''/č/'' > ''/š/'' before consonants (c.f. Čk. ''maška'' : Št. '' mačka'')
# word-initial consonant groups ''čr-'', ''čri-'', ''čre-'' (c.f. Čk. ''črivo/črevo'' : Št. '' cr(ij)evo'', Čk. ''črn'' : Št. '' crn'')
# conditional mood with ''biš'' in the second-person singular
# non- syncretized dative, locative and instrumental plural

General characteristics

General characteristics of Shtokavian are the following:

# '' što'' or '' šta'' as the demonstrative/interrogative pronoun
# differentiation between two short (in addition to two or three long) accents, rising and falling, though not in all Shtokavian speakers
# preservation of unaccented length, but not consistently across all speeches
# ''/u/'' as the reflex of Common Slavic back nasal vowel ''/ǫ/'' as well as the syllabic ''/l/'' (with the exception of central Bosnia where a diphthongal ''/uo/'' is also recorded as a reflex)
# initial group of ''v-'' + weak semivowel yields ''u-'' (e.g. '' unuk'' < Common Slavic *vъnukъ)
# schwa resulting from the ''jer'' merger yields ''/a/'', with the exception of the Zeta-Raška dialect
# metathesis of ''vьse'' to ''sve''
# ''čr-'' > ''cr-'', with the exception of Slavonian, Molise and Vlachia (Gradišće) dialect
# word-final ''-l'' changes to ''/o/'' or ''/a/''; the exception is verbal adjective in the Slavonian southwest
# ''d''' > /dʑ/ () with numerous exceptions
# ''cr'' > ''tr'' in the word '' trešnja'' "cherry"; some exceptions in Slavonia, Hungary and Romania
# /ć/ and /đ/ from ''jt'', ''jd'' (e.g. '' poći'', ''pođem''); exceptions in Slavonian and Eastern Bosnian dialect
# so-called "new iotation" of dentals and labials, with many exceptions, especially in Slavonia and Bosnia
# general loss of phoneme ''/x/'', with many exceptions
# ending ''-ā'' in genitive plural of masculine and feminine nouns, with many exceptions
# ending ''-u'' in locative singular of masculine and neuter nouns (e.g. , )
# augment ''-ov-'' / ''-ev-'' in the plural of most monosyllabic masculine nouns, with many exceptions (e.g. in the area between Neretva and Dubrovnik)
# syncretism of dative, locative and instrumental plural of nouns, with many exceptions
# preservation of ending in genitive and accusative singular of masculine and neuter gender if pronominal-adjectival declension (e.g., ), with exceptions on the area of Dubrovnik and Livno
# special form with the ending ''-a'' for the neuter gender in nominative plural of pronominal-adjectival declension (e.g. and no )
# preservation of aorist, which is however missing in some areas (e.g., around Dubrovnik)
# special constructs reflecting old dual for numerals 2–4 (''dva, tri, četiri stola'')
# many so-called "Turkisms" (''turcizmi'') or "Orientalisms", i.e. words borrowed from Ottoman Turkish

As can be seen from the list, many of this isoglosses are missing from particular Shtokavian idioms, just as many of them are shared with neighboring non-Shtokavian dialects.

Accentuation

The Shtokavian dialect is divided into Old-Shtokavian and Neo-Shtokavian subdialects. The primary distinction is the accentuation system: although there are variations, "old" dialects preserve the older accent system, which consists of two types of falling (dynamic) accents, one long and one short, and unstressed syllables, which can be long and short. Both long and short unstressed syllables could precede the stressed syllables. Stress placement is free and mobile in paradigms.

In the process known as "Neo-Shtokavian metatony" or "retraction", length of the old syllables was preserved, but their quality changed. Stress (intensity) on the inner syllables moved to the preceding syllable, but they kept the high pitch. That process produced the "rising" accents characteristic for Neo-Shtokavian, and yielded the modern four-tone system. Stress on the initial syllables remained the same in quality and pitch.

Most speakers of Shtokavian, native or taught, from Serbia and Croatia do not distinguish between short rising and short falling tones. They also pronounce most unstressed long vowels as short, with some exceptions, such as genitive plural endings.

The following notation is used for Shtokavian accents:

The following table shows the examples of Neo-Shtokavian retraction:

As result of this process, the following set of rules emerged, which are still in effect in all standard variants of Serbo-Croatian:
* Falling accents may only occur word-initially (otherwise it would have been retracted).
* Rising accents may occur anywhere except word-finally.
** thus, monosyllabic words may only have falling accent.
* Unstressed length may only appear after a stressed syllable.

In practice, influx of foreign words and formation of compound words have loosened these rules, especially in spoken idioms (e.g. ''paradȁjz'', ''asistȅnt'', ''poljoprȉvreda''), but they are maintained in standard language and dictionaries.

Classification

Old-Shtokavian dialects

Timok–Prizren (Torlakian)

The transitional dialects stretch southwest from the Timok Valley near the Bulgarian border to Prizren. There is disagreement among linguists whether these dialects belong to the Shtokavian area, because there are many other morphological characteristics apart from rendering of ''što'' (also, some dialects use ''kakvo'' or ''kvo'', typical for Bulgarian), which would place them into a "transitional" group between Shtokavian and Eastern South Slavic languages (Bulgarian and Macedonian). The Timok-Prizren group falls to the Balkan language area: declension has all but disappeared, the infinitive has yielded to subjunctives ''da''-constructions, and adjectives are compared exclusively with prefixes. The accent in the dialect group is a stress accent, and it falls on any syllable in the word. The old semi-vowel has been retained throughout. The vocalic ''l'' has been retained (''vlk'' = ''vuk''), and some dialects don't distinguish ''ć/č'' and ''đ/dž'' by preferring the latter, postalveolar variants. Some subdialects preserve ''l'' at the end of words (where otherwise it has developed into a short o) – ''došl'', ''znal'', etc. (cf. Kajkavian and Bulgarian); in others, this ''l'' has become the syllable ''ja''.

Torlakian is spoken in Metohija, around Prizren, Gnjilane and Štrpce especially, in Southern Serbia around Bujanovac, Vranje, Leskovac, Niš, Aleksinac, in the part of Toplica Valley around Prokuplje, in Eastern Serbia around Pirot, Svrljig, Soko Banja, Boljevac, Knjaževac ending up with the area around Zaječar, where the Kosovo-Resava dialect becomes more dominant. It has been recorded several exclaves with Torlakian speeches inside Kosovo-Resava dialect area. One is the most prominent and preserved, like village Dublje near Svilajnac, where the majority of settlers came from Torlakian speaking village Veliki Izvor near Zajecar. Few centuries ago, before settlers from Kosovo and Metohija brought Kosovo-Resava speeches to Eastern Serbia (to Bor and Negotin area), Torlakian speech had been overwhelmingly represented in this region.

Slavonian

Also called the ''Archaic Šćakavian'', it is spoken by Croats who live in some parts of Slavonia, Bačka, Baranja, Syrmia, in Croatia and Vojvodina, as well as in northern Bosnia. It is divided into two subdialects: southern (Posavian / ''posavski'') and northern (Podravian / ''podravski''). The Slavonian dialect has mixed Ikavian and Ekavian pronunciations. Ikavian accent is predominant in the Posavina, Baranja, Bačka, and in the Slavonian subdialect enclave of Derventa, whereas Ekavian accent is predominant in Podravina. There are enclaves of one accent in the territory of the other, as well as mixed Ekavian–Ikavian and Jekavian–Ikavian areas. In some villages in Hungary, the original ''yat'' is preserved. Local variants can widely differ in the degree of Neo-Shtokavian influences. In two villages in Posavina, Siče and Magića Male, the ''l'', as in the verb ''nosil'', has been retained in place of the modern ''nosio''. In some villages in the Podravina, ''čr'' is preserved instead of the usual ''cr'', for example in ''črn'' instead of ''crn''. Both forms are usual in Kajkavian but very rare in Shtokavian.

East Bosnian

Also called ''Jekavian-Šćakavian'', it is a base for the Bosnian language. It has Jekavian pronunciations in the vast majority of local forms and it is spoken by the majority of Bosniaks living in that area, which includes the bigger Bosnian cities Sarajevo, Tuzla, and Zenica, and by most of Croats and Serbs that live in that area (Vareš, Usora, etc.). Together with basic Jekavian pronunciation, mixed pronunciations exist in Tešanj and Maglaj ''dete–djeteta'' (Ekavian–Jekavian) and around Žepče and Jablanica ''djete–diteta'' (Jekavian–ikavian). In the central area of the subdialect, the diphthong ''uo'' exists in some words instead of the archaic ''l'' and more common ''u'' like ''vuok'' or , instead of the standard modern ''vuk'' and ''stup''.

Zeta–Raška

Also known as ''Đekavian-Ijekavian'', it is spoken in eastern Montenegro, in Podgorica and Cetinje, around the city of Novi Pazar in eastern Raška in Serbia, and by descendants of Montenegrin settlers in the single village of Peroj in Istria. The majority of its speakers are Serbs and Montenegrins and Muslims from Serbia and Montenegro. Together with the dominant Jekavian pronunciation, mixed pronunciations like ''djete–deteta'' (Jekavian–Ekavian) around Novi Pazar and Bijelo Polje, ''dite–đeteta'' (Ikavian–Jekavian) around Podgorica and ''dete–đeteta'' (Ekavian–Jekavian) in the village of Mrkojevići in southern Montenegro. Mrkojevići are also characterised by retention of ''čr'' instead of ''cr'' as in the previously mentioned villages in Podravina.

Some vernaculars have a very open /ɛ/ or /æ/ as their reflex of ь/ъ, very rare in other Shtokavian vernaculars (''sæn'' and ''dæn'' instead of ''san'' and ''dan''). Other phonetic features include sounds like in ''iʑesti'' instead of ''izjesti'', as in ''ɕekira'' instead of ''sjekira''. However these sounds are known also to many in East Herzegovina like those in Konavle, and are not Zeta–Raška specific . There is a loss of the /v/ sound apparent, seen in ''čo'ek'' or ''đa'ola''. The loss of distinction between /ʎ/ and /l/ in some vernaculars is based on a substratum. The word is a hypercorrection (instead of ) because many vernaculars have changed lj to j.

All verbs in infinitive finish with "t" (example: 'sing'). This feature is also present in most vernaculars of East Herzegovinian, and actually almost all Serbian and Croatian vernaculars.

The group ''a + o'' gave ''ā'' /aː/ (''kā'' instead of ''kao'', ''rekā'' for ''rekao''), like in other seaside vernaculars. Elsewhere, more common is ''ao'' > ''ō''.

Kosovo–Resava

Also called ''Older Ekavian'', is spoken by Serbs, mostly in western and northeastern Kosovo ( Kosovo Valley with Kosovska Mitrovica and also around Peć), in Ibar Valley with Kraljevo, around Kruševac, Trstenik and in Župa, in the part of Toplica Valley (Kuršumlija) in the Morava Valley (Jagodina, Ćuprija, Paraćin, Lapovo), in Resava Valley (Svilajnac, Despotovac) and northeastern Serbia (Smederevo, Požarevac, Bor, Majdanpek, Negotin, Velika Plana) with one part of Banat (around Kovin, Bela Crkva and Vršac). This dialect can be also found in parts of Banatska Klisura (Clisura Dunării) in Romania, in places where Romanian Serbs live (left bank of the Danube).

Substitution of ''jat'' is predominantly Ekavian accent even on the end of datives (''žene'' instead of ''ženi''), in pronouns (''teh'' instead of ''tih''), in comparatives (''dobrej'' instead of ) in the negative of biti (''nesam'' instead of ''nisam''); in Smederevo–Vršac dialects, Ikavian forms can be found (''di si'' instead of ''gde si?''). Smederevo–Vršac dialect (spoken in northeastern Šumadija, Lower Great Morava Valley and Banat) is sometimes classified as a subdialect of the Kosovo-Resava dialect but is also considered to be a separate dialect as it the represents mixed speech of Šumadija–Vojvodina and Kosovo–Resava dialects.

Neo-Shtokavian dialects

Bosnian–Dalmatian

Also called ''Bosnian–Dalmatian'' or ''Younger Ikavian''. The majority of its speakers are Croats who live in Lika, Kvarner, Dalmatia, Herzegovina, and of north Bačka