Sculpture in South Asia

Sculpture in the Indian subcontinent, partly because of the climate of the Indian subcontinent makes the long-term survival of organic materials difficult, essentially consists of sculpture of stone, metal or terracotta. It is clear there was a great deal of painting, and sculpture in wood and ivory, during these periods, but there are only a few survivals. The main Indian religions had all, after hesitant starts, developed the use of religious sculpture by around the start of the Common Era, and the use of stone was becoming increasingly widespread.

The first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the Indus Valley civilization, and a more widespread tradition of small terracotta figures, mostly either of women or animals, which predates it. After the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization there is little record of larger sculpture until the Buddhist era, apart from a hoard of copper figures of (somewhat controversially) c. 1500 BCE from Daimabad. Thus the great tradition of Indian monumental sculpture in stone appears to begin relatively late, with the reign of Asoka from 270 to 232 BCE, and the Pillars of Ashoka he erected around India, carrying his edicts and topped by famous sculptures of animals, mostly lions, of which six survive. Large amounts of figurative sculpture, mostly in relief, survive from Early Buddhist pilgrimage stupas, above all Sanchi; these probably developed out of a tradition using wood that also embraced Hinduism.Harle, 26–38

During the 2nd to 1st century BCE in far northern India, in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara from what is now southern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, sculptures became more explicit, representing episodes of the Buddha's life and teachings.

The pink sandstone Hindu, Jain and Buddhist sculptures of Mathura from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE reflected both native Indian traditions and the Western influences received through the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, and effectively established the basis for subsequent Indian religious sculpture. The style was developed and diffused through most of India under the Gupta Empire (c. 320–550) which remains a "classical" period for Indian sculpture, covering the earlier Ellora Caves, though the Elephanta Caves are probably slightly later. Later large scale sculpture remains almost exclusively religious, and generally rather conservative, often reverting to simple frontal standing poses for deities, though the attendant spirits such as apsaras and yakshi often have sensuously curving poses. Carving is often highly detailed, with an intricate backing behind the main figure in high relief. The celebrated bronzes of the Chola dynasty (c. 850–1250) from south India, many designed to be carried in processions, include the iconic form of Shiva as Nataraja, with the massive granite carvings of Mahabalipuram dating from the previous Pallava dynasty.

Bronze age sculpture

The first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the Indus Valley civilization (3300–1700 BCE). These include the famous small bronze ''Dancing Girl''. However such figures in bronze and stone are rare and greatly outnumbered by pottery figurines and stone seals, often of animals or deities very finely depicted.

File:Mohenjo-daro Priesterkönig.jpeg, The '' Priest-King'', Mohenjo-daro
Dancing girl of Mohenjo-daro.jpg, ''Dancing Girl'' , Mohenjo-daro
File:Harappa male torso.jpg, Harappan jasper torso
File:Mohenje-daro_statuette,_Mackay.jpg, The second ''Dancing Girl'' bronze figure
File:Coach driver Indus 01.jpg, Daimabad Chariot
File:MET DP702288.jpg, Woman riding two bulls (bronze), from Kausambi, c. 2000-1750 BCE

Pre-Mauryan art

Some very early depictions of deities seem to appear in the art of the Indus Valley civilisation (3300 BCE - 1700 BCE), but the following millennium, coinciding with the Vedic period, is devoid of such remains. It has been suggested that the early Vedic religion focused exclusively on the worship of purely "elementary forces of nature by means of elaborate sacrifices", which did not lend themselves easily to anthropomorphological representations.

Various artefacts may belong to the Copper Hoard culture (2nd millennium BCE), some of them suggesting anthropomorphological characteristics. Interpretations vary as to the exact signification of these artifacts, or even the culture and the periodization to which they belonged. Some examples of artistic expression also appear in abstract pottery designs during the Black and red ware culture (1450-1200 BCE) or the Painted Grey Ware culture (1200-600 BCE), with finds in a wide area.

Most of the early finds following this period correspond to what is called the "second period of urbanization" in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, after a gap about a thousand years following the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization. The anthropomorphic depiction of various deities apparently started in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, possibly as a consequence of the influx of foreign stimuli initiated with the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley, and the rise of alternative local faiths challenging Vedism, such as Buddhism and Jainism and local popular cults. Some rudimentary terracotta artifacts may date to this period, just before the Mauryan era.

Art of the Mauryan period

The surviving art of the Mauryan Empire which ruled, at least in theory, over most of the Indian subcontinent between 322 and 185 BCE is mostly sculpture. There was an imperial court-sponsored art patronized by the emperors, especially Ashoka, and then a "popular" style produced by all others.

The most significant remains of monumental Mauryan art include the remains of the royal palace and the city of Pataliputra, a monolithic rail at Sarnath, the ''Bodhimandala'' or the altar resting on four pillars at Bodhgaya, the rock-cut chaitya-halls in the Barabar Caves near Gaya, the non-edict bearing and edict bearing pillars, the animal sculptures crowning the pillars with animal and botanical reliefs decorating the abaci of the capitals and the front half of the representation of an elephant carved out in the round from a live rock at Dhauli.

This period marked the appearance of Indian stone sculpture; much previous sculpture was probably in wood and has not survived. The elaborately carved animal capitals surviving on from some Pillars of Ashoka are the best known works, and among the finest, above all the Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath that is now the National Emblem of India. Coomaraswamy distinguishes between court art and a more popular art during the Mauryan period. Court art is represented by the pillars and their capitals,Thapar, Romila (2001). '' and the Decline of the Mauryas'', New Delhi: Oxford University Press, , pp.267-70 and surviving popular art by some stone pieces, and many smaller works in terracotta.

The highly polished surface of court sculpture is often called Mauryan polish. However this seems not to be entirely reliable as a diagnostic tool for a Mauryan date, as some works from considerably later periods also have it. The Didarganj Yakshi, now most often thought to be from the 2nd century CE, is an example.

File:Pataliputra capital, Bihar Museum, Patna, 3rd century BCE.jpg, The Pataliputra capital, showing both Achaemenid and Greek influence, with volute, bead and reel, meander and honeysuckle designs. Early Mauryan period, 4th-3rd century BC.
File:Masarh lion sculpture.jpg, Masarh lion sculpture
File:MauryanStatuette2ndCenturyBCE.jpg, Mauryan statue 3rd-2nd century BCE
File:Lohanipur torso.jpg, Lohanipur torso
File:Patna Yashas photos drawings and inscriptions.jpg, Yaksha statue
File:Didarganj Yakshi statue in the Bihar Museum.jpg, Didarganj Yakshi with fly-whisk (chauri) is held in the right hand whereas the left hand is broken, in the Bihar Museum

Art of the Shunga period (180-80 BCE)

Terracotta arts executed during pre-Mauryan and Mauryan periods are further refined during Shunga periods and Chandraketugarh emerge as an important center for the terracotta arts of Shunga period. Mathura which has its basis in the pre-Mauryan period also emerges as an important center for Jain, Hindu and Buddhist art.

File:Sunga horseman Bharhut.jpg, Bharhut stupa, Shunga horseman
File:SungaYakshi2-1CenturyBCE.jpg, Shunga Yakshi
File:SungaYaksa.JPG, Chandraketugarh figurine
File:Male figure, Chandraketugarh, India, 2nd-1st century BC, terracotta - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01682.JPG, Male figure, Chandraketugarh, India, 2nd-1st century BCE
File:Bharhut Stupa Yavana.jpg, Bharhut Yavana(Greek) Warrior

Satavahana art

The Satavahana dynasty ruled much of the Deccan and sometimes other areas, including Maharashtra, between about the 2nd-century BCE and 2nd century CE. They were a Buddhist dynasty, and the most significant remains of their sculptural patronage are the Sanchi and Amaravati Stupas, along with a number of rock-cut complexes.

Sanchi stupas were constructed by Emperor Ashoka and later expanded by Shungas and Satavahanas. Major work on decorating the site with Torana gateway and railing was done by Satavahana Empire.

File:Four Lions - East Pillar Top - South Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4356.JPG, Sanchi gateway
File:Ornate Pillar of the Sanchi Stupa Gate.jpg, Carved reliefs of Sanchi gateway
File:City of Kusinagara in the War over the Buddha's Relics, South Gate, Stupa no. 1, Sanchi.jpg, Satavahana relief regarding the city of Kusinagara in the war over the Buddha's relics, South Gate, Stupa no. 1, Sanchi
File:Bimbisara with his royal cortege issuing from the city of Rajagriha to visit the Buddha.jpg, Bimbisara with his royal cortege issuing from the city of Rajagriha to visit the Buddha.
File:Foreigners making a dedication to Stupa 1at the Northern Gateway of Stupa 1 Sanchi.jpg, Foreigners making a dedication to the Great Stupa at Sanchi.

Cave temples

Between the 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE under Satavahanas, several Buddhist caves propped up along the coastal areas of Maharashtra and these cave temples were decorated with Satavahana era sculptures and hence not only some of the earliest art depictions, but evidence of ancient Indian architecture.

File:Mumbai 03-2016 94 Kanheri Caves.jpg, Kanheri caves Buddha statue
File:Kaneri Cave, Mumbai, Maharashtra(1).jpg, Kanheri caves statue

Amaravathi art

The Amaravati school of Buddhist art was one of the three major Buddhist sculpture centres along with Mathura and Gandhara and flourished under Satavahanas, many limestone sculptures and tablets which once were plastered Buddhist stupas provide a fascinating insight into major early Buddhist school of arts.

File:BrMus Amravati.jpg, Amaravati Marbles, fragments of Buddhist stupa
File:Head of a lion, from gateway pillar at the Amaravati Stupa, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, India, Satavahana dynasty, 2nd century AD, limestone - Freer Gallery of Art - DSC05130.JPG, Head of a lion, from Gateway pillar at the Amaravati Stupa
File:AmaravatiScroll.JPG, Scroll supported by Indian Yaksha, Amaravati, 2nd–3rd century CE
File:MaraAssault.jpg, Mara's assault on the Buddha, 2nd century CE, Amaravati

Early South India

Stone sculpture was much later to arrive in South India than the north, and the earliest period is only represented by the Gudimallam Lingam with a standing figure of Shiva, from the southern tip of Andhra Pradesh. The "mysteriousness" of this "lies in the total absence so far of any object in an even remotely similar manner within many hundreds of miles, and indeed anywhere in South India".Harle, 271 It is some 5 ft in height and one foot thick; the penis is relatively naturalistic, with the glans shown clearly. The stone is local, and the style described by Harle as " Satavahana-related". It is dated to the 3rd century BCE, or 2nd/1st century BCE.

Though the hardness of local granites, the relatively limited penetration of Buddhism and Jainism in the deep south, and a presumed persistent preference for wood have all been proposed as factors in the late development of stone architecture and sculpture in the south, "the mystery remains". The form of the Gudimallam Lingam, for example, would be a natural one to evolve in wood, using a straight tree trunk very efficiently, but to say that it did so is pure speculation in our present state of knowledge. Wooden sculpture, and architecture, has remained common in Kerala, where stone is hard to come by, but this means survivals are very largely limited to the last few centuries.

Kushana art

Kushan art is highlighted by the appearance of extensive Buddhist arts in the form of Mathuras, Gandharan and Amaravathi schools of art.

Mathura art

Mathura art flourished in the ancient city of Mathura and predominantly red sandstone has been used in making Buddhist and Jain sculptures.

File:Spotted red sandstone Bodhisattwa, Mathura Art, Kusha 2nd Cent CE at National Museum New Delhi.jpg, Spotted red sandstone Bodhisattwa, Mathura Art, Kushan Empire, 2nd century CE
File:Yakshi Mathura.jpg, Yakshi Mathura
File:2.24.Back side- Sibijataka and other Buddhist legends- Mathura School of art- Kushana period- 2nd century CE-Red sandstone- Bhuteswar, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh-M125a,b,C-.jpg, Sibijataka and other Buddhist legends, Mathura art, 2nd century CE
File:Bhutesvara Yakshis Mathura reliefs 2nd century CE front.jpg, Bhutesvara Yakshis, reliefs from Mathura, 2nd century CE
File:Uttar pradesh, epoca kusana, testa di tirthankara, 150-200 ca..JPG, Tirthankara Head, Kushan Period, Mathura
File:Vasantsena (cropped).jpg, Bacchanalian scene. Mathura

Gandharan art

Greco-Buddhist art is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism, a cultural syncretism between the Classical Greek culture and Buddhism, which developed over a period of close to 1000 years in Central Asia, between the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE, and the Islamic conquests of the 7th century CE. Greco-Buddhist art is characterized by the strong idealistic realism of Hellenistic art and the first representations of the Buddha in human form, which have helped define the artistic (and particularly, sculptural) canon for Buddhist art throughout the Asian continent up to the present. Though dating is uncertain, it appears that strongly Hellenistic styles lingered in the East for several centuries after they had declined around the Mediterranean, as late as the 5th century CE. Some aspects of Greek art were adopted while others did not spread beyond the Greco-Buddhist area; in particular the standing figure, often with a relaxed pose and one leg flexed, and the flying cupids or victories, who became popular across Asia as apsaras. Greek foliage decoration was also influential, with Indian versions of the Corinthian capital appearing.

Although India had a long sculptural tradition and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in human form before this time, but only through some of his symbols. This may be because Gandharan Buddhist sculpture in modern Afghanistan displays Greek and Persian artistic influence. Artistically, the Gandharan school of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes and sandals, acanthus leaf decorations, etc.

The origins of Greco-Buddhist art are to be found in the Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250 BCE – 130 BCE), located in today's Afghanistan, from which Hellenistic culture radiated into the Indian subcontinent with the establishment of the small Indo-Greek kingdom (180 BCE-10 BCE). Under the Indo-Greeks and then the Kushans, the interaction of Greek and Buddhist culture flourished in the area of Gandhara, in today's northern Pakistan, before spreading further into India, influencing the art of Mathura, and then the Hindu art of the Gupta empire, which was to extend to the rest of South-East Asia. The influence of Greco-Buddhist art also spread northward towards Central Asia, strongly affecting the art of the Tarim Basin and the Dunhuang Caves, and ultimately the sculpted figure in China, Korea, and Japan.

File:GandharaDonorFrieze2.JPG, Gandhara frieze with devotees, holding plantain leaves, in purely Hellenistic style, inside Corinthian columns, 1st–2nd century CE. Buner, Swat, Pakistan. Victoria and Albert Museum
File:WindGod2.JPG, Fragment of the wind god Boreas, Hadda, Afghanistan.
File:Bouddha Hadda Guimet 181171.jpg, Stucco Buddha head from Hadda, Afghanistan, 3rd–4th centuries. This was painted.
File:PoseidonGandhara.JPG, Gandhara Poseidon ( Ancient Orient Museum)
File:PharroAndArdoxsho.jpg, The Buddhist gods Pancika (left) and Hariti (right), 3rd century, Gandhara
File:Taller Buddha of Bamiyan before and after destruction.jpg, Taller Buddha of Bamiyan, c. 547 AD., in 1963 and in 2008 after they were dynamited and destroyed in March 2001 by the Taliban

Gupta period

Gupta art is the style of art, surviving almost entirely as sculpture, developed under the Gupta Empire, which ruled most of northern India, with its peak between about 300 and 480 CE, surviving in much reduced form until c. 550. The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak and golden age of North Indian art for all the major religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost all religious sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, while the production of the Buddha-figure and Jain '' tirthankara'' figures continued to expand, the latter often on a very large scale. The traditional main centre of sculpture was Mathura, which continued to flourish, with the art of Gandhara, the centre of Greco-Buddhist art just beyond the northern border of Gupta territory, continuing to exert influence. Other centres emerged during the period, especially at Sarnath. Both Mathura and Sarnath exported sculpture to other parts of northern India.

It is customary to include under "Gupta art" works from areas in north and central India that were not actually under Gupta control, in particular art produced under the Vakataka dynasty who ruled the Deccan c. 250–500. Their region contained very important sites such as the Ajanta Caves and Elephanta Caves, both mostly created in this period, and the Ellora Caves which were probably begun then. Also, although the empire lost its western territories by about 500, the artistic style continued to be used across most of northern India until about 550,Harle, 89 and arguably around 650. It was then followed by the "Post-Gupta" period, with (to a reducing extent over time) many similar characteristics; Harle ends this around 950.
Three main schools of Gupta sculpture are often recognised, based in Mathura, Varanasi/Sarnath and to a lesser extent Nalanda

HOME


Content is Copyleft
Website design, code, and AI is Copyrighted (c) 2014-2017 by Stephen Payne


Consider donating to Wikimedia



As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases