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''Sallekhana'' (
IAST The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that emerged during ...
: ), also known as ''samlehna'', ''santhara'', ''samadhi-marana'' or ''sanyasana-marana'', is a supplementary vow to the ethical code of conduct of
Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
. It is the religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by gradually reducing the intake of food and liquids. It is viewed in Jainism as the thinning of human passions and the body, and another means of destroying rebirth-influencing
karma Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...
by withdrawing all physical and mental activities. It is not considered as a suicide by Jain scholars because it is not an act of passion, nor does it employ poisons or weapons. After the ''sallekhana'' vow, the ritual preparation and practice can extend into years. ''Sallekhana'' is a vow available to both Jain ascetics and householders. Historic evidence such as ''nishidhi'' engravings suggest ''sallekhana'' was observed by both men and women, including queens, in Jain history. However, in the modern era, death through ''sallekhana'' has been a relatively uncommon event. There is debate about the practice from a right to life vs
right to die The right to die is a concept based on the opinion that human beings are entitled to end their life or undergo voluntary euthanasia. Possession of this right is often understood that a person with a terminal illness, incurable pain, or without t ...
and a
freedom of religion Freedom of religion or religious liberty is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance. It also includes the freedom ...
viewpoint. In 2015, the
Rajasthan High Court The Rajasthan High Court is the High Court of the state of Rajasthan. It was established on 29 August 1949 under the ''Rajasthan High Court Ordinance, 1949''. The seat of the court is at Jodhpur. The court has a sanctioned judge strength of 50. ...
banned the practice, considering it
suicide Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Mental disorders (including depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, personality disorders, anxiety disorders), physical disorders (such as chronic fatigue syndrome), and s ...
. In 2016, the
Supreme Court of India The Supreme Court of India ( IAST: ) is the supreme judicial authority of India and is the highest court of the Republic of India under the constitution. It is the most senior constitutional court, has the final decision in all legal matters ...
stayed the decision of the Rajasthan High Court and lifted the ban on ''sallekhana''.


Vow

There are Five Great vows prescribed to followers of Jainism; ''
Ahimsa Ahimsa (, IAST: ''ahiṃsā'', ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to all living beings. It is a key virtue in most Indian religions: Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.Bajpai, Shiva (2011). The History of India ...
'' (non-violence), '' Satya'' (not lying), '' Asteya'' (not stealing), ''
Brahmacharya ''Brahmacharya'' (; sa, ब्रह्मचर्य ) is a concept within Indian religions that literally means to stay in conduct within one's own Self. In Yoga, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism it generally refers to a lifestyle charac ...
'' (chastity), and '' Aparigraha'' (
non-possession Non-possession (aparigraha ( sa, अपरिग्रह)) is a philosophy that holds that no one or anything possesses anything. ln Jainism, aparigraha is the virtue of non-possessiveness, non-grasping or non-greediness.Arti Dhand (2002), The d ...
). A further seven supplementary vows are also prescribed, which include three ''Gunavratas'' (merit vows) and four ''Shiksha vratas'' (disciplinary vows). The three ''Gunavratas'' are: ''Digvrata'' (limited movements, limiting one's area of activity), ''Bhogopabhogaparimana'' (limiting use of consumable and non-consumable things), and ''Anartha-dandaviramana'' (abstain from purposeless sins). The ''Shikshavratas'' include: '' Samayika'' (vow to meditate and concentrate for limited periods), ''Desavrata'' (limiting movement and space of activity for limited periods), ''Prosadhopavāsa'' (fasting for limited periods), and ''Atithi-samvibhag'' (offering food to the ascetic). ''Sallekhana'' is treated as a supplementary to these twelve vows. However, some Jain teachers such as Kundakunda,
Devasena Devasena (, ) is a Hindu goddess of aspiration, and the consort of the war god Kartikeya (Murugan). She is also known as Devayanai, Deivanai, and Deivayanai in Tamil texts. Her name is also spelled as Teyvanai or Tevayanai (). Devasena is ...
, Padmanandin, and Vasunandin have included it under ''Shikshavratas''. ''Sallekhana'' ( sa, Sallikhita) means to properly 'thin out', 'scour out', or 'slender' the passions and the body through gradually abstaining from food and drink. ''Sallekhana'' is divided into two components: ''Kashaya Sallekhana'' (slendering of passions) or ''Abhayantra Sallekhana'' (internal slendering) and ''Kaya Sallekhana'' (slendering the body) or ''Bahya Sallekhana'' (external slendering). It is described as "facing death voluntarily through fasting". According to Jain texts, ''Sallekhana'' leads to ''Ahimsa'' (non-violence or non-injury), as a person observing ''Sallekhana'' subjugates the passions, which are the root cause of ''Himsa'' (injury or violence).


Conditions

While ''Sallekhana'' is prescribed for both '' householders'' and ascetics, Jain texts describe conditions when it is appropriate. It should not be observed by a householder without guidance of a Jain ascetic. Sallekhana is always voluntary, undertaken after public declaration, and never assisted with any chemicals or tools. The fasting causes thinning away of body by withdrawing by choice food and water to oneself. As death is imminent, the individual stops all food and water, with full knowledge of colleagues and spiritual counsellor. In some cases, Jains with terminal illness undertake ''sallekhana'', and in these cases they ask for permission from their spiritual counsellor. For a successful ''sallekhana'', the death must be with "pure means", voluntary, planned, undertaken with calmness, peace and joy where the person accepts to scour out the body and focuses his or her mind on spiritual matters. ''Sallekhana'' differs from other forms of ritual deaths recognized in Jainism as appropriate. The other situations consider ritual death to be better for a mendicant than breaking his or her Five Great vows (''Mahavrata''). For example, celibacy is one of the Five vows, and ritual death is considered better than being raped or seduced or if the mendicant community would be defamed. A ritual death under these circumstances by consuming poison is believed to be better and allows for an auspicious rebirth.


Procedure

The duration of the practice can vary from a few days to years. The sixth part of the ''Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra'' describes ''Sallekhana'' and its procedure as follows— Jain texts mention five transgressions (''Atichara'') of the vow: the desire to be reborn as a human, the desire to be reborn as a divinity, the desire to continue living, the desire to die quickly, and the desire to live a sensual life in the next life. Other transgressions include: recollection of affection for friends, recollection of the pleasures enjoyed, and longing for the enjoyment of pleasures in the future. The ancient Svetambara Jain text ''
Acharanga Sutra The Acharanga Sutra (; First book c. 5th–4th century BCE; Second book c. 2nd–1st century BCE) is the first of the twelve Angas, part of the agamas (religious texts) which were compiled based on the teachings of 24th Jina Mahavira. The exi ...
'', dated to about 3rd or 2nd century BCE, describes three forms of ''Sallekhana'': the ''Bhaktapratyakhyana'', the ''Ingita-marana,'' and the ''Padapopagamana''. In ''Bhaktapratyakhyana'', the person who wants to observe the vow selects an isolated place where he lies on a bed made of straw, does not move his limbs, and avoids food and drink until he dies. In ''Ingita-marana'', the person sleeps on bare ground. He can sit, stand, walk, or move, but avoids food until he dies. In ''Padapopagamana'', a person stands "like a tree" without food and drink until he dies. Another variation of ''Sallekhana'' is ''Itvara'' which consists of voluntarily restricting oneself in a limited space and then fasting to death.


History


Textual

The ''
Acharanga Sutra The Acharanga Sutra (; First book c. 5th–4th century BCE; Second book c. 2nd–1st century BCE) is the first of the twelve Angas, part of the agamas (religious texts) which were compiled based on the teachings of 24th Jina Mahavira. The exi ...
'' () describes three forms of the practice. Early Svetambara text ''Shravakaprajnapti'' notes that the practice is not limited to ascetics. The Bhagavati Sūtra (2.1) also describes ''Sallekhana'' in great detail, as it was observed by Skanda Katyayana, an ascetic of Mahavira. The 4th-century text ''
Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra is a Jain text composed by Aacharya Samantbhadra Swamy (second century CE), an ''acharya'' of the Digambara sect of Jainism. Aacharya Samantbhadra Swamy was originally from Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu. Ratnakaranda śr ...
'' and the Svetambara text ''Nava-pada-prakarana'' also provide detailed descriptions. The ''Nava-pada-prakarana'' mentions seventeen methods of "voluntarily chosen death", of which it approves only three as consistent with the teachings of Jainism. The practice is also mentioned in the 2nd century CE Sangam-era poem ''Sirupanchamoolam''. The ''Panchashaka'' makes only a cursory mention of the practice and it is not described in ''Dharmabindu'' – both texts by
Haribhadra Aacharya Haribhadra Suri was a Svetambara mendicant Jain leader, philosopher , doxographer, and author. There are multiple contradictory dates assigned to his birth. According to tradition, he lived c. 459–529 CE. However, in 1919, a Jain m ...
(). In the 9th century text "
Ādi purāṇa Ādi purāṇa is a 9th century Sanskrit poem composed by Jinasena, a Digambara monk. It deals with the life of Rishabhanatha, the first ''Tirthankara''. History Adi Purana was composed by Jinasena (a Digambara monk) as a Sanskrit poem praising ...
" by
Jinasena Jinasena (c. 9th century CE) was a monk and scholar in the ''Digambara'' tradition of Jainism. He was patronized by the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I. He was the author of ''Adipurana'' and '' Mahapurana''.three forms are described. ''Yashastilaka'' by
Somadeva Somadeva Bhatta was an 11th century writer from Kashmir, and author of the '' Kathasaritsagara''. Not much is known about him except that his father's name was Rama and he composed his work (probably during the years 1063–1081 CE) for the ente ...
(10th century) also describes the practice. Other writers like Vaddaradhane (10th century) and Lalitaghate also describe the ''Padapopagamana'', one of its forms. Hemchandra () describes it in a short passage despite his detailed coverage of the observances of householders (''Shravakachara''). According to ''
Tattvartha Sutra ''Tattvārthasūtra'', meaning "On the Nature '' ''artha">nowiki/>''artha''.html" ;"title="artha.html" ;"title="nowiki/>''artha">nowiki/>''artha''">artha.html" ;"title="nowiki/>''artha">nowiki/>''artha''of Reality 'tattva'' (also known as ...
'', "a householder willingly or voluntary adopts ''Sallekhana'' when death is very near." According to the medieval era Jain text, ''
Puruşārthasiddhyupāya Puruşārthasiddhyupāya (Purushartha Siddhyupaya) is a major Jain text authored by Acharya Amritchandra. Acharya Amritchandra was a Digambara Acharya who lived in the tenth century (Vikram Samvat). ''Puruşārthasiddhyupāya'' deals with the ...
'', both the ascetics and the householder should "court voluntarily death at the end of life", thinking that only sallekhana is a pious death. The ''Silappadikaram'' (Epic of the Anklet) by the Jain prince-turned-monk, Ilango Adigal, mentions ''Sallekhana'' by the Jain nun, Kaundi Adigal.


Archeological

In
South India South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territo ...
, especially
Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Karnat ...
, a
memorial stone A headstone, tombstone, or gravestone is a stele or marker, usually stone, that is placed over a grave. It is traditional for burials in the Christian, Jewish, and Muslim religions, among others. In most cases, it has the deceased's name, ...
or footprint is erected to commemorate the death of person who observed ''Sallekhana''. This is known as ''Nishidhi'', ''Nishidige'' or ''Nishadiga''. The term is derived from the Sanskrit root ''Sid'' or ''Sad'' which means "to attain" or "waste away". These ''Nishidhis'' detail the names, dates, the duration of the vow, and other austerities performed by the person who observed the vow. The earliest ''Nishidhis'' (6th to 8th century) mostly have an inscription on the rock without any symbols. This style continued until the 10th century when footprints were added alongside the inscription. After the 11th century, ''Nishidhis'' are inscribed on slabs or pillars with panels and symbols. These slabs or pillars were frequently erected in '' mandapa''s (pillared pavilions), near ''
basadi A Jain temple, Derasar (Gujarati: દેરાસર) or Basadi (Kannada: ಬಸದಿ) is the place of worship for Jains, the followers of Jainism. Jain architecture is essentially restricted to temples and monasteries, and Jain buildings g ...
'' (temples), or sometimes as an inscription on the door frame or pillars of the temple. In Shravanabelgola in Karnataka, ninety-three ''Nishidhis'' are found ranging from circa 6th century to the 19th century. Fifty-four of them belong to the period circa 6th to the 8th century. It is believed that a large number of ''Nishidhis'' at Shravanabelgola follow the earlier tradition. Several inscriptions after 600 CE record that
Chandragupta Maurya Chandragupta Maurya (350-295 BCE) was a ruler in Ancient India who expanded a geographically-extensive kingdom based in Magadha and founded the Maurya dynasty. He reigned from 320 BCE to 298 BCE. The Maurya kingdom expanded to become an empi ...
() and his teacher Bhadrabahu observed the vow atop
Chandragiri Hill Chandragiri ( kn, ಚಂದ್ರಗಿರಿ) is one of the two hills in Shravanabelagola in the Indian state of Karnataka, the other one being Vindhyagiri. It is also near Indragiri. History The recorded history surrounding the hill star ...
at Sharavnabelagola. Historians such as R. K. Mookerji consider the accounts unproven, but plausible. An undated
inscription Epigraphy () is the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the w ...
in old Kannada script is found on the ''Nishidhi'' from Doddahundi near
Tirumakudalu Narasipura Tirumakudalu Narasipura (''Tirumakūḍalu Narasīpura'') the temple city of Karnataka, commonly known as T. Narasipura or T.N. Pura, is a town in Mysore district in the Indian state of Karnataka. The first name refers to the land at the conf ...
in Karnataka. Historians such as
J. F. Fleet John Faithfull Fleet C.I.E (1847 – 21 February 1917) was an English civil servant with the Indian Civil Service and became known as a historian, epigraphist and linguist. His research in Indian epigraphy and history, conducted in India over ...
,
I. K. Sarma Inguva Kartikeya Sarma (15 October 1937 – 29 November 2013) was an Indian archaeologist and a director of the Salar Jung Museum. Education and career I. K. Sarma was born in the village of Pallipadu in the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh ...
, and E.P. Rice have dated it to 840 or 869 CE by its textual context. The memorial stone has a unique depiction in
frieze In architecture, the frieze is the wide central section part of an entablature and may be plain in the Ionic or Doric order, or decorated with bas-reliefs. Paterae are also usually used to decorate friezes. Even when neither columns nor ...
of the ritual death (''Sallekhana'') of King Ereganga Nitimarga I () of the
Western Ganga Dynasty Western Ganga was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India which lasted from about 350 to 1000 CE. They are known as "Western Gangas" to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over Kalinga (mo ...
. It was raised by the king's son Satyavakya. In Shravanabelgola, the Kuge Brahmadeva pillar has a ''Nishidhi'' commemorating Marasimha, another Western Ganga king. An inscription on the pillar in front of Gandhavarna Basadi commemorates Indraraja, the grandson of the Rashtrakuta King Krishna III, who died in 982 after observing the vow. The inscriptions in South India suggest ''sallekhana'' was originally an ascetic practice which later extended to Jain householders. Its importance as an ideal death in the spiritual life of householders ceased by about the 12th century. The practice was revived in 1955 by the Digambara monk Acharya Santisagara.


Modern

''Sallekhana'' is a respected practice in the
Jain community The Jains in India are the last direct representatives of the ancient Shramana tradition. People who practice Jainism, an ancient religion of the Indian subcontinent, are collectively referred to as Jains. Sangha Jainism has a fourfold orde ...
. It has not been a "practical or general goal" among Svetambara Jains for many years. It was revived among Digambara monks. In 1955, Acharya
Shantisagar Acharya Shri Shantisagar (1872–1955) was an Indian monk of the Digambara school of the Jain faith. He was the first Acharya (preceptor) and a leader of his sect in the 20th century. Shanti Sagar ji revived the teaching and practice of traditi ...
, a Digambara monk took the vow because of his inability to walk without help and his weak eye-sight. In 1999, Acharya Vidyanand, another Digambara monk, took a twelve-year-long vow. Between 1800 and 1992, at least 37 instances of ''Sallekhana'' are recorded in Jain literature. There were 260 and 90 recorded Sallekhana deaths among Svetambara and Digambara Jains respectively between 1993 and 2003. According to Jitendra Shah, the Director of L D Institute of Indology in
Ahmedabad Ahmedabad ( ; Gujarati: Amdavad ) is the most populous city in the Indian state of Gujarat. It is the administrative headquarters of the Ahmedabad district and the seat of the Gujarat High Court. Ahmedabad's population of 5,570,585 (per t ...
, an average of about 240 Jains practice ''Sallekhana'' each year in India. Most of them are not recorded or noticed. Statistically, ''Sallekhana'' is undertaken both by men and women of all economic classes and among the educationally forward Jains. It is observed more often by women than men.


Legality and comparison with suicide

Jain texts make a clear distinction between the ''Sallekhana'' and suicide. Its dualistic theology differentiates between soul and matter. Soul is reborn in the Jain belief based on accumulated karma, how one dies contributes to the karma accumulation, and a pious death reduces the negative karmic attachments. The preparation for ''sallekhana'' must begin early, much before the approach of death, and when death is imminent, the vow of ''Sallekhana'' is observed by progressively slenderising the body and the passions. The comparison of ''Sallekhana'' with suicide is debated since the early time of Jainism. The early Buddhist Tamil epic ''Kundalakesi'' compared it to suicide. It is refuted in the contemporary Tamil Jain literature such as in ''Neelakesi''. Professor S. A. Jain cites differences between the motivations behind suicide and those behind Sallekhana to distinguish them:
Champat Rai Jain Champat Rai Jain (6 August 1867–2 June 1942) was a Digambara Jain born in Delhi and who studied and practised law in England. He became an influential Jainism scholar and comparative religion writer between 1910s and 1930s who translated and ...
, a Jainist scholar, wrote in 1934: Modern era Indian activists have questioned this rationale, calling the voluntary choice of death as an evil similar to
sati Sati or SATI may refer to: Entertainment * ''Sati'' (film), a 1989 Bengali film by Aparna Sen and starring Shabana Azmi * ''Sati'' (novel), a 1990 novel by Christopher Pike *Sati (singer) (born 1976), Lithuanian singer *Sati, a character in ''Th ...
, and have attempted to legislate and judicially act against this religious custom. Article 21 of the
Constitution of India The Constitution of India ( IAST: ) is the supreme law of India. The document lays down the framework that demarcates fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental ...
, 1950, guarantees the right to life to all persons within the territory of India and its states. In ''Gian Kaur vs The State Of Punjab'', the state high court ruled, "... 'right to life' is a natural right embodied in Article 21 but suicide is an unnatural termination or extinction of life and, therefore, incompatible and inconsistent with the concept of right to life". ''Nikhil Soni vs Union of India'' (2006), a case filed in the
Rajasthan High Court The Rajasthan High Court is the High Court of the state of Rajasthan. It was established on 29 August 1949 under the ''Rajasthan High Court Ordinance, 1949''. The seat of the court is at Jodhpur. The court has a sanctioned judge strength of 50. ...
, citing the '' Aruna Ramchandra Shanbaug vs Union Of India'' case related to
euthanasia Euthanasia (from el, εὐθανασία 'good death': εὖ, ''eu'' 'well, good' + θάνατος, ''thanatos'' 'death') is the practice of intentionally ending life to eliminate pain and suffering. Different countries have different eut ...
, and the ''Gian Kaur'' case, argued, "No person has a right to take his own life consciously, as the right to life does not include the right to end the life voluntarily." So the petitioner cited ''Sallekhana'' as a suicide and thus punishable under Section 309 (attempt to commit suicide). The case also extended to those who helped facilitate the deaths of individuals observing ''Sallekhana,'' finding they were culpable under Section 306 (abetment of suicide) with aiding and abetting an act of suicide. It was also argued that ''Sallekhana'' "serves as a means of coercing widows and elderly relatives into taking their own lives". An attempt to commit suicide was a crime under Section 309 of the
Indian Penal Code The Indian Penal Code (IPC) is the official criminal code of India. It is a comprehensive code intended to cover all substantive aspects of criminal law. The code was drafted on the recommendations of first law commission of India established ...
. In response, the Jain community argued that prohibiting the practice is a violation of their
freedom of religion Freedom of religion or religious liberty is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance. It also includes the freedom ...
, a
fundamental right Fundamental rights are a group of rights that have been recognized by a high degree of protection from encroachment. These rights are specifically identified in a constitution, or have been found under due process of law. The United Nations' Sustai ...
guaranteed by Article 15 and Article 25 of the Constitution of India. The book ''Sallekhana Is Not Suicide'' by former Justice T. K. Tukol was widely cited in the court which opined that "''Sallekhana'' as propounded in the Jaina scriptures is not suicide." The
Rajasthan High Court The Rajasthan High Court is the High Court of the state of Rajasthan. It was established on 29 August 1949 under the ''Rajasthan High Court Ordinance, 1949''. The seat of the court is at Jodhpur. The court has a sanctioned judge strength of 50. ...
stated that "
he Constitution He or HE may refer to: Language * He (pronoun), an English pronoun * He (kana), the romanization of the Japanese kana へ * He (letter), the fifth letter of many Semitic alphabets * He (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic script called ''He'' ...
does not permit nor include under Article 21 the right to take one's own life, nor can it include the right to take life as an essential religious practice under Article 25 of the Constitution". It further added that it is not established that ''Sallekhana'' is an essential practise of Jainism and therefore not covered by Article 25 (1). So the High Court banned the practice in August 2015 making it punishable under Sections 306 (abetment of suicide) and 309 (attempt to commit suicide). Members of the Jain community held nationwide protest marches against the ban on ''Sallekhana''. Advocate Suhrith Parthasarathy criticised the judgement of the High Court and wrote, "''Sallekhana'' is not an exercise in trying to achieve an unnatural death, but is rather a practice intrinsic to a person's ethical choice to live with dignity until death." He also pointed out that the Supreme Court in the ''Gian Kaur'' case explicitly recognises the right to live with human dignity within the ambit of right to life. He further cited that the Supreme Court wrote in the said case, " he right to lifemay include the right of a dying man to also die with dignity when his life is ebbing out. But the right to die with dignity at the end of life is not to be confused or equated with the right to die an unnatural death curtailing the natural span of life." On 31 August 2015, the
Supreme Court A supreme court is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts in most legal jurisdictions. Other descriptions for such courts include court of last resort, apex court, and high (or final) court of appeal. Broadly speaking, the decisions of ...
admitted the petition by Akhil Bharat Varshiya Digambar Jain Parishad and granted leave. It stayed the decision of the High Court and lifted the ban on the practice. In April 2017, the Indian parliament decriminalised suicide by passing the
Mental Healthcare Act, 2017 In India, the Mental Health Care Act 2017 was passed on 7 April 2017 and came into force from 29 May 2018. The act effectively decriminalized attempted suicide which was punishable under Section 309 of the Indian Penal Code. The law was describe ...
.


In Hinduism and Buddhism

There are similar practices in other religions, like
Prayopavesa Prayopavesa ( sa, प्रायोपवेशनम्, IAST prāyopaveśanam, literally ''resolving to die through fasting'') is a practice in Hinduism that denotes the death by fasting of a person who has no desire or ambition left, and no r ...
in
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
and
Sokushinbutsu are a kind of Buddhist mummy. In Japan the term refers to the practice of Buddhist monks observing asceticism to the point of death and entering mummification while alive. Mummified monks are seen in a number of Buddhist countries. Only in Japa ...
in
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
. The ancient and medieval scholars of Indian religions discussed suicide, and a person's right to voluntarily choose death. Suicide is approved by Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina texts. For those who have renounced the world (
sannyasi ''Sannyasa'' (Sanskrit: संन्यास; IAST: ), sometimes spelled Sanyasa (सन्न्यास) or Sanyasi (for the person), is life of renunciation and the fourth stage within the Hindu system of four life stages known as '' A ...
, sadhu, yati, bhikshu), the Indian texts discuss when ritual choice of death is appropriate and what means of voluntarily ending one's life are appropriate. The '' Sannyasa Upanishads'', for example, discuss many methods of religious death, such as slowing then stopping consumption of foods and drinks to death (similar to ''sallekhana''), walking into a river and drowning, entering fire, path of the heroes, and the Great Journey. Scholars disagree whether "voluntary religious death" discussed in
Indian religions Indian religions, sometimes also termed Dharmic religions or Indic religions, are the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent. These religions, which include Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism,Adams, C. J."Classification of ...
is same as other forms of suicide.


See also

*
Jīva (Jainism) ''Jīva'' ( sa, जीव) or ''Atman'' (; sa, आत्मन्) is a philosophical term used within Jainism to identify the soul. As per Jain cosmology, ''jīva'' or soul is the principle of sentience and is one of the '' tattvas'' or one ...
* Death in Jainism *
Jain philosophy Jain philosophy refers to the ancient Indian philosophical system found in Jainism. One of the main features of Jain philosophy is its dualistic metaphysics, which holds that there are two distinct categories of existence, the living, consciou ...
*
Moksha (Jainism) Sanskrit ' or Prakrit ''mokkha'' refers to the liberation or salvation of a soul from ''saṃsāra'', the cycle of birth and death. It is a blissful state of existence of a soul, attained after the destruction of all karmic bonds. A liberate ...
* Catharist ''endura''


Notes


References


Citations


Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


External links


Sallekhana as a religious right
Whitny Braun, Claremont Graduate University (2014)
Sallekhana: fasting to death
Taboo Series, National Geographic Video
Fasting To The Death: Is It A Religious Rite Or Suicide?
National Public Radio (2015) {{Authority control Jain ethics Fasting Religion and suicide Suicides by starvation Suicide types Religion and euthanasia