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The Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism involved two entirely separate and independent French Royal Commissions, each appointed by
::"The rise of mesmerism assymptomatic of several philosophical and psychological conflicts: spirit/mind vs. body; science and philosophy vs. psychology and the imagination; rationalism and empiricism vs. the irrational and unknown; ndconsciousness vs. the unconscious" (Faflack, 2009, p. 53).
According to Armando & Belhoste (2018, pp. 6–8), the true history of Mesmer, of Mesmer's version of 'animal magnetism', and of the rationale, conduct, investigations, experimentation, and findings of the 1784 Royal Commissions has been seriously distorted by the modern (" cherry picking") concentration upon "the transformations of animal magnetism after 1820 n relation tohypnotism", and, especially, upon "the elements of continuity and analogy between mesmerism icand the various versions of psychoanalysis".
Consequently, to accurately understand the contemporary significance of the Commissions' work, and the matters that they severally and collectively examined (and, as well, those which they did not) it is important to identify the wide range of significant tensions, disputes, and circumstances ''prevailing at the time'', which prompted the need for an official investigation of the particular nature and type that was undertaken, and the sort of (implicit) issues – in addition to the more specific questions of medicine and of science – that their inquiries would, hopefully, address.
Moreover, in order to gain a balanced understanding of the contemporary significance of the Commissions – ''as stand-alone historical events'' – appointed at a specific time, in specific circumstances, with specific goals and, further, in order to apprehend the nature of their investigations, their findings, and the immediate consequences of their reports, a complex of different factors need to be examined (as has been suggested by Craver & Darnden, 2013):
::"From the perspective of a given phenomenon, one can ''look down'' to the entities and activities composing it. One can ''look up'' to the higher-level mechanisms of which it is a component. One can ''look back'' to the mechanisms that come before it or by which it developed. One can ''look forward'' to what comes after it. nd, finallyone can ''look around'' to see the wider context with which it operates." (p. 163)
The Commissions were appointed in early 1784 by the Baron de Breteuil, Secretary of State for the King's Household and Minister of the Department of Paris at the command of King Louis XVI.
::"At length he matter of Animal Magnetismwas thought to deserve the attention of government, and a committee, partly physicians, and partly members of the royal academy of Sciences, with doctor Benjamin Franklin at their head, were appointed to examine it. M. Mesmer refused to have any communication with these gentlemen; but M. Deslon, the most considerable of his pupils, consented to disclose to them his principles, and assist them in their enquiries." – William Godwin (1785).
The first of the two Royal Commissions, usually referred to as the "''Franklin Commission''", was appointed on 12 March 1784.
It was composed of four physicians from the Paris Faculty of Medicine – the physician and chemist Jean d'Arcet, the physician and close friend of Franklin,
Louis XVI
Louis XVI (''Louis-Auguste''; ; 23 August 175421 January 1793) was the last King of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. He was referred to as ''Citizen Louis Capet'' during the four months just before he was ...
in 1784, that were conducted simultaneously by a committee composed of four physicians from the Paris Faculty of Medicine (''Faculté de médecine de Paris'') and five scientists from the Royal Academy of Sciences (''Académie des sciences'') (i.e., the "Franklin Commission", named for Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin ( April 17, 1790) was an American polymath who was active as a writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher, and political philosopher. Encyclopædia Britannica, Wood, 2021 Among the leading inte ...
), and a second committee composed of five physicians from the Royal Society of Medicine (''Société Royale de Médecine'') (i.e., the "Society Commission").
Each Commission took five months to complete its investigations. The "Franklin" Report was presented to the King on 11 August 1784 – and was immediately published and very widely circulated throughout France and neighbouring countries – and the "Society" Report was presented to the King five days later on 16 August 1784.
The "Franklin Commission's" investigations are notable as a very early "classic
A classic is an outstanding example of a particular style; something of lasting worth or with a timeless quality; of the first or highest quality, class, or rank – something that exemplifies its class. The word can be an adjective (a ''c ...
" example of a systematic controlled trial, which not only applied "sham" and "genuine" procedures to patients with "sham" and "genuine" disorders, but, significantly, was the first to use the "blindfolding
A blindfold (from Middle English ') is a garment, usually of cloth, tied to one's head to cover the eyes to disable the wearer's sight. While a properly fitted blindfold prevents sight even if the eyes are open, a poorly tied or trick blindfo ...
" of both the investigators and their subjects.
::"The report of the Franklin"Royal Commission of 1784 . . . is a masterpiece of its genre, and enduring testimony to the power and beauty of reason. . . . Never in history has such an extraordinary and luminous group s the "Franklin Commission"been gathered together in the service of rational inquiry by the methods of experimental science. For this reason alone the eport of the "Franklin Commission". . . is a key document in the history of human reason. It should be rescued from obscurity, translated into all languages, and reprinted by organizations dedicated to the unmasking of quackery and the defense of rational thought." – Stephen Jay Gould (1989).
Both sets of Commissioners were specifically charged with investigating the claims made by Charles d’Eslon for the existence of a substantial (rather than metaphorical) " animal magnetism", "le magnétisme animal", and of a similarly (non-metaphorical) physical " magnetic fluid", "le fluide magnétique". Further, having completed their investigations into the claims of d'Eslon – that is, they did not examine Franz Mesmer, Mesmer's theories, Mesmer's principles, Mesmer's practices, Mesmer's techniques, Mesmer's apparatus, Mesmer's claims, Mesmer's "cures" or, even, "mesmerism" itself – they were each required to make "a separate and distinct report".
::"Before the Franklin" Commission'sinvestigations began, ntoine Lavoisierhad studied the writings of d'Eslon and addrawn up a plan for the conduct of the inquiry. He decided that the commissioners should not study any of the alleged cures, but hat
A hat is a head covering which is worn for various reasons, including protection against weather conditions, ceremonial reasons such as university graduation, religious reasons, safety, or as a fashion accessory. Hats which incorporate mecha ...
they should determine whether animal magnetism existed by trying to magnetize a person without his knowledge or making him think that he had been magnetized when in fact he had not. This plan was adopted by the commissioners, and the results came out as Lavoisier had predicted." – Frank A. Pattie (1994).
From their investigations both Commissions concluded (a) that there was no evidence of any kind to support d'Eslon's claim for the substantial physical existence of either his supposed "animal magnetism" or his supposed "magnetic fluid", and (b) that all of the effects that they had observed could be attributed to a physiological (rather than metaphysical) agency. Whilst each Commission implicitly accepted that there was no collusion, pretence, or extensive subject training involved on the part of d'Eslon, they both (independently) concluded that all of the phenomena they had observed during each of their investigations could be directly attributed to "contact", "imagination", and/or "imitation".
::"For clearness of reasoning and strict impartiality he "Franklin" Commissioners' reporthas never been surpassed. After detailing the various experiments made, and their results, they came to the conclusion that the only proof advanced in support of Animal Magnetism was the effects it produced on the human body – that those effects could be produced without passes or other magnetic manipulations – that all these manipulations, and passes, and ceremonies never produce any effect at all ''if employed without the patient's knowledge''; and that therefore imagination did, and animal magnetism did not, account for the phenomena." – Charles Mackay Charles (or Charlie) Mackay, McKay, or MacKay may refer to:
* Charles Mackay (author) (1814–1889), Scottish poet, journalist, author, anthologist, novelist, and songwriter
* Charles McKay (1855–1883), American naturalist and explorer
* Charles ...
(1841, emphasis added to original).
Reasons for the investigation
::"The rise of mesmerism assymptomatic of several philosophical and psychological conflicts: spirit/mind vs. body; science and philosophy vs. psychology and the imagination; rationalism and empiricism vs. the irrational and unknown; ndconsciousness vs. the unconscious" (Faflack, 2009, p. 53).
According to Armando & Belhoste (2018, pp. 6–8), the true history of Mesmer, of Mesmer's version of 'animal magnetism', and of the rationale, conduct, investigations, experimentation, and findings of the 1784 Royal Commissions has been seriously distorted by the modern (" cherry picking") concentration upon "the transformations of animal magnetism after 1820 n relation tohypnotism", and, especially, upon "the elements of continuity and analogy between mesmerism icand the various versions of psychoanalysis".
Consequently, to accurately understand the contemporary significance of the Commissions' work, and the matters that they severally and collectively examined (and, as well, those which they did not) it is important to identify the wide range of significant tensions, disputes, and circumstances ''prevailing at the time'', which prompted the need for an official investigation of the particular nature and type that was undertaken, and the sort of (implicit) issues – in addition to the more specific questions of medicine and of science – that their inquiries would, hopefully, address.
Moreover, in order to gain a balanced understanding of the contemporary significance of the Commissions – ''as stand-alone historical events'' – appointed at a specific time, in specific circumstances, with specific goals and, further, in order to apprehend the nature of their investigations, their findings, and the immediate consequences of their reports, a complex of different factors need to be examined (as has been suggested by Craver & Darnden, 2013):
::"From the perspective of a given phenomenon, one can ''look down'' to the entities and activities composing it. One can ''look up'' to the higher-level mechanisms of which it is a component. One can ''look back'' to the mechanisms that come before it or by which it developed. One can ''look forward'' to what comes after it. nd, finallyone can ''look around'' to see the wider context with which it operates." (p. 163)
Tensions within the Royal family
Prior to his arrival in Paris in 1777 – with a letter of recommendation from Chancellor von Kaunitz of the Habsburg monarchy to the Austrian Ambassador to France, the Comte de Mercy-Argenteau (who, in turn, introduced Mesmer to Jean-Baptiste Le Roy (1720–1800), the Director of the Academy of Sciences) – Mesmer was already known to Marie Antoinette. At the urging of her two closest friends, Marie-Paule Angelique d’Albert de Luynes (1744–1781), "the Duchesse de Chaulnes" and Marie Thérèse Louise de Savoie Carignan (1749–1792), "the Princess of Lambelle", both of whom "had benefited from Mesmer's treatment", Marie Antoinette had been able to arrange for both Mesmer and d'Eslon to be officially "interviewed" by (an otherwise unidentified) representative of the King on 14 March 1781 (Walmsley, 1967, p. 267). At the conclusion of the interview, Mesmer reluctantly agreed to the proposed conditions: that a number of his (previous and current) patients be examined by a team of "commissioners" – it was also stipulated that, as a "requirement" of the King, Mesmer was to "remain in France", until his "doctrines" and his "principles" had been thereby "established", and that he was "not oleave except by permission of the King" – and that, if the commissioners' reports were "favourable", the government would issue "a ministerial letter" to that effect (Pattie, 1994, p. 110). Within two weeks Mesmer had rescinded his agreement, on the grounds that it had been made under duress, and a new "interview" was conducted, involving Mesmer, d'Eslon, the unidentified bureaucrat, and the Minister of State, . :"The Minister . . . began by saying that the King, informed of Mesmer's dislike of being investigated by commissioners, wished to excuse him from that formality and would grant him a life annuity of 20,000French livre
The livre (abbreviation: £ or ₶., French for (pound)) was the currency of Kingdom of France and its predecessor state of West Francia from 781 to 1794. Several different livres existed, some concurrently. The livre was the name of coins a ...
s and pay 10,000 livres a year for the instruction of students, of whom three were to be selected by the government. "The rest of the benefits would be granted when the government's students recognize the utility of the discovery"." (Pattie, 1994, p. 111).
Once again, Mesmer rejected the offer made on behalf of the King; and, having been told that the King's decision was ''final'', and given that the impetus for the first interview had come from the Queen, Mesmer wrote an extraordinary letter (translated at Pattie, 1994, pp. 112–115), the nature of which would have meant imprisonment in the Bastille, if it had been written 20 years earlier.
:"Meditating n the Minister's use of the word "final",Mesmer returned to his clinic and put his name to what would surely be one of the most extraordinary letters ever written to a queen of France ho also shared his "native land"even if he had sent it privately. Instead, he had it printed, eating her in public about the offer hat had beenmade in her name and giving her an ultimatum."
So, there were many reasons for the 1784 Commission to satisfy the (French) interests of the King, rather than the (Austrian) interests of his queen.
Social impact
::It is already more than six years since Animal Magnetism was announced to Europe, particularly in France and in this Capital. But it is only over about the last two years that it has been of particular interested to a considerable number of citizens and that it has become the object of public discussion. ''Never had a more extraordinary question divided the opinions of an enlightened nation''. – The Franklin Commission's Report to the Royal Academy of Sciences (September 1784, emphasis added) Mesmer's overall stress on the quest for "harmony" as a therapeutic outcome and, especially, given the demonstrated fact that the effects of his 'animal magnetism' – predicated upon the presence of a force analogous to gravity – were equally demonstrated by all, regardless of age, gender, class, race, intellect, etc., was an important influence on many of the moves (and 'movers') within French society towards democracy and greater equality.Festering political issues
The increasingly unpopular "''Ancien Régime''" was under considerable pressure from many quarters; and, within five years of the Commissions' Reports, theFrench Revolution
The French Revolution ( ) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in coup of 18 Brumaire, November 1799. Many of its ...
had broken out. The storming of the Bastille
The Storming of the Bastille (french: Prise de la Bastille ) occurred in Paris, France, on 14 July 1789, when revolutionary insurgents stormed and seized control of the medieval armoury, fortress, and political prison known as the Bastille. At ...
took place on 14 July 1789; and four years later, King Louis XVI was executed on 21 January 1793, and his Queen, Marie Antoinette, the daughter of Empress Maria Theresa
Maria Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina (german: Maria Theresia; 13 May 1717 – 29 November 1780) was ruler of the Habsburg dominions from 1740 until her death in 1780, and the only woman to hold the position '' suo jure'' (in her own right) ...
, and the sister of Emperor Joseph II
Joseph II (German: Josef Benedikt Anton Michael Adam; English: ''Joseph Benedict Anthony Michael Adam''; 13 March 1741 – 20 February 1790) was Holy Roman Emperor from August 1765 and sole ruler of the Habsburg lands from November 29, 1780 un ...
, was executed on 16 October 1793.
Professional tensions
Apart from the wider issue of having to evaluate and decide how to deal with those within the medical profession "who saw animal magnetism as an interesting therapeutic resource" (Armando & Belmonte, 2018, p. 13) – namely, the boundary disputes between the conventional therapeutic practices of the sorts that Brockliss and Jones (1997) usefully identify as lying within the established "medical penumbra" (pp. 230–283) and the novel and innovative practices at the "frontier" that were (potentially) responsible for the "expansion of the medicable" (pp. 441–459) – there were also significant tensions, differences, and boundary disputes between the more theory- and principle-centred Paris Faculty of Medicine (formed some five centuries earlier), and the more practitioner-centred Royal Society of Medicine (formed just 5 years earlier), the "primary function" of which was "to evaluate patent medicines and, by extension, new forms of therapy" (Forrest, 1999, pp. 18–19).Scientific issues
In a prevailing atmosphere of "n overall
N, or n, is the fourteenth letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''en'' (pronounced ), plural ''ens''.
History
...
redefinition of frontiers in the legitimacy of knowledge" – and, in relation to Mesmer's claims, a redefinition "which did not necessarily match the public popularity that they attracted" (Zanetti, 2018), p. 59) – the issue of the existence (or not) of a substantial "magnetic fluid" and/or "animal magnetism" required resolution.
Medical issues
At a time when, in relation to "healers and healing", the conglomerate of "physicians, empirics, surgeons, apothecaries, folk healers, and religious personalities all vied with each other (as well as worked together) for medical legitimacy and patients" (Broomhall, 2004, p. 5), Mesmer was not only a "foreign national
A foreign national is any person (including an organization) who is not a national of a specific country. ("The term 'person' means an individual or an organization.") For example, in the United States and in its territories, a foreign national ...
", but also one that had no affiliation of any kind with any known professional medical association within France (or elsewhere in Europe); and, as a consequence, his professional conduct, his medical practice, his medico-commercial enterprises, and his therapeutic endeavours were not regulated in any way.
Moreover, the efficacy of Mesmer's interventions had never been objectively tested, neither the agency nor the (pre- and post-intervention) veracity of his supposed "cures" had ever been objectively verified, and, finally, in relation to the presenting conditions of those with (supposedly) 'real' ailments, the question of whether the pre-intervention conditions of each case were of "organic" or "psychogenic" origins had never been objectively determined.
Religious issues
As discussed at considerable length by Spanos and Gottlieb (1979) there were not only a wide range of controversial secular and religious issues relating to the similarities and differences between the induction, manifestations, and immediate and long-term consequences of the "''crises''" that were (sporadically) produced by the 'magnetic' interventions, and the exorcisms of the Roman Catholic Church, but, also, of greater significance, to the occasional (apparently veridical) reports of post-magnetic "clairvoyance
Clairvoyance (; ) is the magical ability to gain information about an object, person, location, or physical event through extrasensory perception. Any person who is claimed to have such ability is said to be a clairvoyant () ("one who sees cl ...
" – a condition that was one of the classic indications for an exorcism whenever it was considered to be "demonically inspired" (as distinct from those cases in which it was considered to be "divinely inspired" (Spanos and Gottlieb, 1979, p. 538)).
The two Commissions
The Commissions were appointed in early 1784 by the Baron de Breteuil, Secretary of State for the King's Household and Minister of the Department of Paris at the command of King Louis XVI.
::"At length he matter of Animal Magnetismwas thought to deserve the attention of government, and a committee, partly physicians, and partly members of the royal academy of Sciences, with doctor Benjamin Franklin at their head, were appointed to examine it. M. Mesmer refused to have any communication with these gentlemen; but M. Deslon, the most considerable of his pupils, consented to disclose to them his principles, and assist them in their enquiries." – William Godwin (1785).
"Franklin Commission"
The first of the two Royal Commissions, usually referred to as the "''Franklin Commission''", was appointed on 12 March 1784.
It was composed of four physicians from the Paris Faculty of Medicine – the physician and chemist Jean d'Arcet, the physician and close friend of Franklin, Joseph-Ignace Guillotin
Joseph-Ignace Guillotin (; 28 May 1738 – 26 March 1814) was a French physician, politician, and freemason who proposed on 10 October 1789 the use of a device to carry out death penalties in France, as a less painful method of execution than e ...
(1738–1814), the Hôtel-Dieu physician, Michel-Joseph Majault (1714–1790), and the Professor (of physiology and pathology) Charles Louis Sallin – and, at the request of those four physicians, five scientists from the Royal Academy of Sciences – the astronomer
An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. They observe astronomical objects such as stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies – in either ...
(and first mayor of Paris) Jean Sylvain Bailly
Jean Sylvain Bailly (; 15 September 1736 – 12 November 1793) was a French astronomer, mathematician, freemason, and political leader of the early part of the French Revolution. He presided over the Tennis Court Oath, served as the mayor of Pa ...
(1736–1793), the geographer
A geographer is a physical scientist, social scientist or humanist whose area of study is geography, the study of Earth's natural environment and human society, including how society and nature interacts. The Greek prefix "geo" means "earth" a ...
, cartographer, and former governor of St. Domingue, , Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin ( April 17, 1790) was an American polymath who was active as a writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher, and political philosopher. Encyclopædia Britannica, Wood, 2021 Among the leading inte ...
(1706–1790), the chemist and biologist Antoine Lavoisier
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier ( , ; ; 26 August 17438 May 1794),
CNRS (
CNRS (
'per medium'' ofa single conclusive experiment iz., une seule expérience concluante. . . those things that are related to physical causes iz., causes physiquesfrom those that are related to sychologicalcauses iz., causes morales hat is,the effects of a real agent iz, les effets d'un agent réelfrom those due to the imagination. . . .
By magnetising people without their knowledge and by persuading them that they are being magnetised when they are not . . . one will obtain separately the effects of magnetism and those of the imagination and, from this, one will be able to conclude what should be attributed to the one and what to the other." – Antoine Lavoisier (1784). It is important to note that, despite the contemporary and modern salience given to Benjamin Franklin – who, as the most eminent of the Commission's eleven members, was recognized as its
The second of the two Royal Commissions, usually referred to as the "''Society Commission''", was appointed on 5 April 1784.
It was composed of five eminent physicians from the Royal Society of Medicine – the physician and one of the first members of the Royal Society, , the physician Claude-Antoine Caille (1743-), the botanist Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748-1836), the physician,
It is significant that Mesmer, initially impressed by the therapeutic enterprises of the Jesuit astronomer, explorer, and healer Maximilian Hell (1720–1792) – which involved the application of steel magnets that had been specifically shaped either to fit particular body contours, or to match the actual dimensions of a specific organ (e.g., the liver) – and, immediately recognizing the "''prima facie plausiblity''" of Hell's approach, purchased a number of steel magnets from Hell in 1774 and began applying them to his patients; however, as Pattie reports (1994, p. 2), Mesmer "had ntirelyabandoned the use of magnets" by 1776, because his own clinical experimentation had proved them to be utterly useless.
By 1779, Mesmer (1779, pp. 34-35) was expressing his concern that many had "confused" – such as the " Berlin Academy" in 1775 – and were continuing to "confuse" the "properties" of his (abstract/theoretical) "''Magnétisime animal''" with those of an actual physical magnet (l'aimant): objects of which, he stressed, he had only ever spoken of as possible "conductors" of "animal magnetism".
And, he argued, from this "confusion" of his "animal magnetism" with " ''mineral magnetism", his use of magnets – which, although "useful", were always "imperfect', unless they had been applied according to "''la théorie du Magnétisime animal''" – was being consistently misrepresented and misunderstood.
The "baquet" (lit. 'a tub') was a device of Mesmer's design, that he had constructed by analogy with the newly invented "''Leyden Bottle''" – i.e., "the first electric condenser iz.,_capacitor.html" ;"title="capacitor.html" ;"title="iz., capacitor">iz., capacitor">capacitor.html" ;"title="iz., capacitor">iz., capacitorin history" (Morabito, 2019, p. 90) – which was "supposed by analogy to 'store' animal magnetism" (Forrest, 1999, p. 20).
In its initial conception, Mesmer's "baquet" was "a vat containing bottles of magnetized water from which steel bars escaped through which the 'magnetization’ took place in the [subjects or patients], who were arranged around the tub holding their hands" (Morabito, loc.cit.). According to Mesmer's own description, in the (undated) "Catechism" that he had delivered exclusively to his followers,
::" he ''baquet''is a vat about six to seven feet, more or less, in diameter by eighteen inches in height. There is a double bottom in the interior of this vat, in which fragments of broken bottles, gravel, stones, and sticks of pounded sulfur and iron filings are placed. All of this is filled with water and covered up with a floor nailed into the vat. On the surface of the lid, six inches in from the rim, one makes various holes in order to allow the passage of iron rods which are arranged so that one end penetrates the bottom of the vat and the other is directed, by means of a curve, over the pit of the stomach of the patient or other affected parts of the body."
Mesmer specifically stressed the primary importance of the patients' hand-holding as a factor in the "augmentation" of the force/quality of the power of the "animal magnetism".
Moreover, and significantly, Mesmer (separately) acknowledged that, if it was ever to come to pass that he had a suitable "establishment" – i.e., one with sufficient space available for all the assembled patients to hold hands – he would "abolish the use of baquets" (je supprimerois les baquets) and, as well, also significantly remarking (loc. cit.) that, "In general, I only use these little devices c. "baquets"when I am forced to do so" (En general, je n'use des petits moyes que lorsque j'y suis forcé).
Mesmeric Crisis-(Franklin Commission)-(1).tif, (first part).
Mesmeric Crisis-(Franklin Commission)-(2).tif, (second part).
Mesmeric Crisis-(Franklin Commission)-(3).tif, (third part).
Final section of the 1784 Report of the (Franklin) Royal Commission-(1).tif, (first part).
Final section of the 1784 Report of the (Franklin) Royal Commission-(2).tif, (second part).
Final section of the 1784 Report of the (Franklin) Royal Commission-(3).tif, (third part).
Final section of the 1784 Report of the (Franklin) Royal Commission-(4).tif, (fourth part).
Already, in his earlier (18 September 1780) interaction with the ''Paris Faculty of Medicine'', Mesmer had refused to have his therapeutic interventions on a set of entirely "new" patients directly scrutinized, claiming that his already-achieved "cures" were an objective matter of record. Mesmer justified his refusal as follows:
:"Here is what I said to M. de Lassonne; however bizarre t may seemat first sight it is nevertheless entirely serious and very much applicable to the question. When a thief is convicted of theft he is hanged: when a murderer is convicted of murder he is executed on the wheel. But to exact these terrible penalties the thief is not required to thieve again to prove that he is a thief, and the murderer is not required to murder a second time to prove that he is a murderer. One is content to establish by testimony and by material evidence that the theft or the murder was committed and then one hangs or executes on the wheel in good conscience.
Very well! It is the same with me. I ask, kindly, to be treated like a man to be executed on the wheel or hanged and that an effort should be made to establish that I have cured atientswithout asking me to perform new cures to prove that I am to be regarded as someone who cures."
What is the object of the efforts of the physician in this method? It is not to oppose and to subdue nature, it is to assist her in her operations. Nature, says the father of the medical science iz.,_Hippocrates.html" ;"title="Hippocrates.html" ;"title="iz., Hippocrates">iz., Hippocrates">Hippocrates.html" ;"title="iz., Hippocrates">iz., Hippocrates cures the diseased; but sometimes she encounters obstacles, which constrain her in her course, and uselessly consume her strength.
The physician is the minister of nature; an attentive observer, he studies the method in which she proceeds. If that method be firm, strong, regular and well directed, the physician looks on in silence, and [is careful of not] disturbing it by remedies which would at least be useless; if the method be [hindered], he facilitates it; if it be too slow or too rapid, he accelerates or retards it.
Sometimes, to accomplish his object, he confines himself to the regulation of the diet: sometimes he employs medicines.
The action of a medicine, introduced into the human body, is a new force, combined with the principal force by which our life is maintained: if the remedy follow the same route, which this force has already opened for the expulsion of diseases, it is useful, it is salutary iz., conducive to health if it tend to open different routes, and to turn aside this interior action, it is pernicious.
In the mean time it must be confessed that this salutary or pernicious influence, real as it is, may frequently escape common observation.
The natural history of man presents us in this respect with very singular phenomena.
It may be there seen that
If it iz., "the vital principle"have this power of resisting the action of medicine, by a still stronger reason it must have the power of operating without medicine.
The experience of the efficacy of remedies is always therefore attended with some uncertainty; in the case of the magnetism the uncertainty has this addition, the uncertainty of its existence.
How then can we decide upon the action of an agent, whose existence is contested, from the treatment of diseases; when the effect of medicines is doubtful, whose existence is not at all problematical? – Bailly (1784a, pp. 11-13).
The "Franklin" Commission's investigations were conducted at a number of different locations, including d’Eslon's clinic (which they visited once a week), Lavoisier's home, and the gardens of Franklin's Passy residence. The intricate structure and detailed procedures of the investigations were designed by Lavoisier; and great care was taken to eliminate what James Braid would later identify as " sources of fallacy".
In the process of examining d'Eslon's claims, the "Franklin Commissioners" not only tested the influence of a wide range of situations, circumstances, variables, but also, from time-to-time, individually presented themselves as experimental subjects, because, they reported, "they were very curious to experience through their own senses the reported effects of this agent".
When they visited d’Eslon's establishment, the Commissioners discovered that, not only did d’Eslon's standard therapeutics involve (his version of) Mesmer's "''baquet''", but also a musical (and, from time to time, vocal) accompaniment as a standard part of his treatment:
::"They saw in the centre of a large apartment a circular box, made of oak, and about a foot or a foot and an ichalf deep, which is called the bucket iz., the "''baquet''" the lid of this box is pierced with a number of holes, in which are inserted branches of iron, elbowed and moveable. The patients are arranged in ranks about this ''baquet''" and each has his branch of iron, which by means of the elbow may be applied immediately to the part affected; a cord passed round their bodies connects them one with the other: sometimes a second means of communication is introduced, by the insertion of the thumb of each patient between the forefinger and thumb of the patient next him; the thumb thus inserted is pressed by the person holding it; the impression received by the left hand of the patient, communicates through his right, and thus passes through the whole circle.
A piano forté is placed in one corner of the apartment, and different airs are played with various degrees of rapidity; vocal music is sometimes added to the instrumental.
The persons who superintend the process, have each of them an iron rod in his hand, from ten to twelve inches in length." – "Franklin" Report (pp. 3-4.) And, moreover, given that the overarching metaphorical "principle" of Mesmer had been (inappropriately) ''reified'' ("''substantified''") by d'Eslon – and, also, given that "the existence of 'Eslon'salleged magnetic fluid was only based on the effects on the patients: in other words, the existence of a ubstantialphysical entity as beinginferred not from instrumental measurements and/or quantitative considerations, but by the psychophysical reaction of a living body" (Bersani, 2011, p. 61) – it is significant that, ::"the commissioners in the progress of their examination discovered, by means of an
Mesmer's 1779 "Principles"-(as quoted by the 1784 Franklin Commission)-(1).tif, (first part).Anon (1911/1912), p. 79; translation of Bailly (1784a), pp. 1-3.
Mesmer's 1779 "Principles"-(as quoted by the 1784 Franklin Commission)-(2).tif, (second part).
They clearly state (p. 3) that, on the basis of a presentation given to the Commissioners, by d'Eslon (at his residence), on 9 May 1784 – at which d'Eslon had not only described his version of the "theories" of "animal magnetism", but also described and demonstrated his therapeutic procedures – the Commissioners were more than satisfied that d'Eslon's theories, principles, methods, and practices were consistent with those that Mesmer had made known through his publications; and, moreover, having acquired this thorough understanding of the "theory and practice of animal magnetism", the Commissioners then concentrated their efforts on determining the effects of its ''application'' – and, in order to do so, they visited d'Eslon's establishment on several occasions.
In an extended footnote to the last paragraph of their principal report, the Commissioners justified their investigative approach, and the appropriateness of their conclusions, in some detail.
1784 Report of the Royal Commission--final footnote(a).tif, (first part).
1784 Report of the Royal Commission--final footnote(b).tif, (second part).
The first (66 page) report was presented to the King on 11 August 1784.
::"Knowing that their report would be published and that the task of convincing the public lay wholly in their hands, the authors produced an account that was both scientifically sound and accessible, making for compelling reading. Chronology was unimportant; few dates were specified. The rationale for every decision and the details of every experiment, however, were explained in terms that anyone could understand.''Founders Online'' (n.d.).
::"The uniformly critical tone of this private document was in stark contrast to the scrupulously evenhanded voice of the official report; . . . nd itsmessage was blunt: the practice of animal magnetism was a threat not only to health . . . but also to morality, especially in the case of weak, virtuous women. . . . tprovided an explicit description of a certain kind of prolonged "convulsion" that resulted not from the alleged healing power of animal magnetism but rather from the close physical contact and mutual arousal of male magnetizers and female patients who did not fully understand what was being done to them. Deslon ichimself had admitted, under interrogation by he Chief of Paris Police Lenoir ho was present at a number of the Commission's investigations how easy it would be to abuse a woman in such a state. Many women had been in treatment for years without being cured. Most of them were not ill to begin with, but had been drawn to the clinic for the amusement it provided, attending regularly as a relief from boredom. Around the tub, the ease with which symptoms spread from person to person was striking. The commissioners reiterated the health risks of inducing full-blown crises, a dangerous practice that any responsible physician would shun. They lsoimplied n this secret reportthe possibility that magnetic seances were a deliberate fraud."
In concluding their report, they stress that they had not observed any "real cures" (guérisons réelles) from d'Eslon's treatments – which were, they noted, both "very long" and "unfruitful" – and, also, stress that, among d'Eslon's patients, those who had been under his treatment for 18 months to 2 years, without any benefit, ceased to present for any further treatment, having exhausted their patience (p. 152).
Finally, they noted (pp. 153-155) that, although charged with investigating d'Eslon's claims and d'Eslon's methods alone, they were satisfied that – offering essentially the same explanation as that in their for-public-consumption report (see "''The Report's final footnote''" in the Gallery above) – although they had not examined any of Mesmer's methods, etc., their findings applied equally to Mesmer and his methods, especially in relation to the attribution of all observed phenomena to "contact", "imagination", and/or "imitation" (p. 154).
On 4 September 1784, Bailly presented a third, brief (15 page) courtesy report to the Royal Academy of Sciences (Bailly, 1784b) on behalf of himself, Franklin, Le Roy, de Bory, and Lavoisier (i.e., those Commissioners who were also Academy members), which provided their Academy colleagues with a brief account of the Commission's proceedings, the rationale behind its investigations, and the results. Noting that all of their investigations were jointly conducted with the four members of the Paris Faculty, and that all nine shared the same "interest in iscoveringthe truth", they stressed that ''all'' the findings of their combined efforts were "''unanimous''" (p. 2).
The second of the two reports, made by de Jussieu alone (of 51 pages) was independently published on 17 September 1784.
In de Jussieu's dissenting view, " nddespite d’Eslon's "magnetic fluid" claims having been debunked e felt thatthere were sufficient “effects” (such as, for instance, ‘post-magnetic amnesia’) unattributable to "imagination" that still required further investigation into their exact nature; and, therefore, he argued, the continued use of animal magnetism was justified" (Yeates, 2018, p. 50).
Noting that, in his view, "a longer use of this agent will make its real action and degree of usefulness to be better understood", de Jussieu concluded:
::The theory of magnetism cannot be admitted so long as it will not be developed and supported by solid facts. The experiments instituted to ascertain the existence of the magnetic fluid prove only that man produces on his like a sensible action by friction, by contact, and more rarely by simple approximation at some distance. This action, attributed to a universal fluid not demonstrated, certainly appertains to animal heat 'la chaleur animale''existing in bodies, which constantly emanates from them, is carried to a considerable distance, and is capable of passing from one body into another. Animal heat is developed, increased, or diminished in a body by moral as well as by physical causes. Judged by its effects, it participates in the property of tonic remedies, and like them produces salutary or injurious effects according to the quantity communicated, and according to the circumstances in which it is employed. – de Jussieu, 1784, pp. 50-51.
::A measure of the influence of . . . the claims investigated, the methods employed, and the conclusions reached . . . ythe Franklin Report is seen in the changing fortunes of Mesmer during the months of 1784. Prior to the submission of the Report, Mesmer had been the toast of Paris, dealing with many wealthy patrons . . . Following publication of the Report, Mesmer was a focus of public scorn and ridicule . . . – McConkey & Barnier (1991, pp. 77-78)
The release of the reports generated a proliferation of publications, many of which were simply addressing issues relating to either "mesmerism" or "animal magnetism" in general – such as, for instance, those of
In his own responses to the Commissions' Reports, Mesmer stressed that – simply because he had not been involved in any of their investigations – the Commissioners' conclusions had nothing whatsoever to do with ''his'' (metaphorical) "animal magnetism"; and, because their conclusions only applied to d'Eslon's theories and practices, any responses to those conclusions were entirely the concern of d'Eslon alone.
Further, and immediately following the publication of the Reports of the two Commissions, both Nicolas Bergasse (1750-1832) (Bergasse, 1784) and Antoine Esmonin, Marquis de Dampierre (Esmonin, 1784) wrote strong criticisms of the Commissions' orientation, investigations, and findings; and, separately, a number of Mesmer's followers published a composite volume (i.e., Mesmer, et al., 1784) of 478 pages, which included a number of previously published items written by Mesmer, as well as a number of shorter and up-to-date contributions from a range of various authors describing their continued success with animal magnetism.
The "classic" structure of the investigations undertaken by the "Franklin" Commission inspired – among many others over the ensuing years – the (1799) investigations of Chester physician John Haygarth (1740-1827) into the efficacy of Perkins' "tractors".
In the process of discussing the experiments he had conducted (with medical colleagues as witnesses) with (dummy) "wooden tractors" on 7 January 1799, and with Perkins' "true metallick tractors" on 8 January 1799, Haygarth emphasized his considerable debt to the (earlier) "Franklin Commission" enterprise:
::"It need not be remarked, how completely the trial illustrates the nature of this popular illusion, which has so wonderfully prevailed, and spread so rapidly; it resembles, in a striking manner, that of Animal Magnetism, which merited the attention of Dr. Franklin, when ambassador from America, and of other philosophers at Paris. If any person would repeat these experiments, they should be performed with due solemnity. During the process, the wonderful cures which this remedy is said to have performed ought to be particularly related. Without these indispensable aids, other trials will not prove as successful as those which are above reported. The whole effect undoubtedly depends upon the impression which can be made upon the patient's Imagination.
This method of discovering the truth, distinctly proves to what a surprising degree mere fancy deceives the patient himself; and if the experiment had been tried with the metallick Tractors only, they might and most probably would have deceived even medical observers. Yet this test of truth was perfectly candid. A fair opportunity was offered to discover whether the metallick Tractors possessed any efficacy superior to the ligneous Tractors, or wooden pegs." – John Haygarth (1801).
Around 1885, the neurologist Albert Pitres – the
The noted
Anon (1837), ''Animal Magnetism: Report of Dr. Franklin and other Commissioners, charged by the King of France with the Examination of the Animal Magnetism as practised at Paris: Translated from the French, with an Historical Outline of the "Science", an Abstract of the report on Magnetic Experiments made by a committee of the Royal Academy of Medicine in 1831, and remarks on Col. Stone's pamphlet'', Philadelphia: H. Perkins
includes (at pp. 1-44), a reprint of Godwin (1785), pp. 1-108.
Anon (1843), "Recent Demonstrations of Animal Magnetism", ''Chambers's Edinburgh Journal'', Vol. 12, No. 598, (Saturday, 15 July 1843), pp. 205-207.
Anon (1844), "Conversazione on "Hypnotism" -- At the Royal Manchester Institution", ''The Medical Times'', Vol. 10, No. 243, (18 May 1844), pp. 137-139.
* Anon (1911/1912), "Nova et Vetera ('New and Old '): Modern Faith Healing: F. Anton Mesmer]", ''The British Medical Journal''
Vol. 2, No. 2658, (9 December 1911), pp. 1555-1559Vol. 1, No. 2663, (13 January 1912), pp. 79-84Vol. 1, No. 2664, (20 January 1912), pp. 133-137Vol. 1, No. 2665, (27 January 1912), pp. 199-201
an
Vol. 1, No. 2666, (3 February, 1912), pp. 249-252
includes (at pp. 79-84, 133-137) a translation of Bailly (1784a), and (at pp. 199-201) a translation of Bailly (1800).
Armando, D. (trans. J. Johnson) (2018), " Magnetic Crises, Political Convulsions: The Mesmerists in the Constituent Assembly", ''Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française'', Vol. 391, No. 1, (January-March 2018), pp. 129-152.
Armando, D. & Belhoste, B. (trans. J. Johnson) (2018), "Mesmerism Between the End of the Old Regime and the Revolution: Social Dynamics and Political Issues", ''Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française'', Vol. 391, No. 1, (January-March 2018), pp. 3-26.
* Atkinson, H.G.
Vol. 8, No. 202, (5 August 1843), pp. 294-296No. 203, (12 August 1843), pp. 308-311
Bailly, J.S. (ed.) (1784a), ''Rapport des Commissaires chargés par le Roi, de l’examen du magnétisme animal'', Imprimé par ordre du Roi. Paris: Imprimerie Royale.
Bailly, J.S. (ed.) (1784b), ''Exposé des experiences qui ont éte faites pour l'examen du magnetisme animal: lu à l'Académie des Sciences . . . le 4 Septembre 1784'' ('Exposition of the experiments that were carried out to examine Animal Magenetism: Read at the Academy of Sciences . . . on the 4th September 1784'), Paris: Chez Moutard.
Bailly, J.S. (1800). Rapport secret sur le mesmérisme. Le Conservateur, Vol. 1, pp. 146–155.
nbsp;
Bailly, J.-S., and Others (1963), "Secret Report on Mesmerism, or Animal Magnetism", pp. 3-7, in ''The Nature Of Hypnosis: Selected Basic Writings'', ed. Ronald E. Shor and Martin T. Orne, New York, NY: Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc.:
a translation of Bailly (1800). * Bailly, J.-S., Franklin, B., de Bory, G., Lavoisier, A., Majault, M.J., Sallin, C.L., d’Arcet, J., Guillotin, J.-I., & Le Roy, J.B., "Secret Report on Mesmerism or Animal Magnetism", ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', vol. 50, No. 4, (October 2002), pp. 364-368: a translation of Bailly (1800) -- a reprint of Bailly and Others (1963).
Barth, G. (1851), ''The Mesmerist's Manual of Phenomena and Practice: With Directions for Applying Mesmerism to the Cure of Diseases, and the Methods of Producing Mesmeric Phenomena: Intended for Domestic Use and the Instruction of Beginners (Second Edition)'', London: H. Baillière.
Bartha, Paul (2019), "Analogy and Analogical Reasoning", in Edward N. Zalta (ed.), ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2019 Edition).
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* Bergasse, N. (1784)
''Considérations sur le Magnétisme Animal, ou, sur la Théorie du Monde et des êtres organisés, d'après les principes de M. Mesmer'' ('Considerations on Animal Magnetism, or, on the Theory of the World and Organized Beings, according to the principles of M. Mesmer'), The Hague: n.p.
Bernheim, H. (1888), ''De la Suggestion et de son Application à la Thérapeutique'', Paris: Octave Doin.
Bernheim, H. (trans. Herter, C.A.) (1889), ''Suggestive Therapeutics: A Treatise on the Nature and Uses of Hypnotism'', New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons
an English translation of Bernheim (1888).
Bersani, F. (2011), "Mesmerism: From an Ambiguous Physical and Medical Canon to Psychology", pp. 59-72 in A. Calanchi, G. Castellani, G. Morisco, and G. Turchetti (eds.), ''Interfacing Science, Literature, and the Humanities: ACUME 2, Volume 7: The Case and the Canon: Anomalies, Discontinuities, Metaphors between Science and Literature'', Göttingen: V&R unipress.
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* Binet, Alfred & Féré, Charles (1888)
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* Bloch, George (1980), ''Mesmerism: A Translation of the Original Scientific and Medical writings of F.A. Mesmer'', Los Altos, CA: William Kaufman.
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* Braid, J. (1843a)
''Neurypnology or the Rationale of Nervous Sleep Considered in Relation with Animal Magnetism Illustrated by Numerous Cases of its Successful Application in the Relief and Cure of Disease'', London: John Churchill.
**N.B. Braid's ''Errata'', detailing a number of important corrections that need to be made to the foregoing text, is o
the un-numbered page following p. 265.
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* Bramwell, J.M. (1903)
''Hypnotism: Its History, Practice and Theory'', London: Grant Richards.
Brandeis, L.D. (1913), "What Publicity Can Do", ''Harper's Weekly'', Vol. 58, No. 2974, (20 December 1913), pp. 10-13.
* Brockliss, L.W.B. & Jones, C. (1997), ''The Medical World of Early Modern France'', Oxford: Clarendon Press. * Broomhall, S. (2004), ''Women's Medical Work in Early Modern France'', Manchester: Manchester University Press. * Brown, M.W. (1933), "Charles Deslon, Disciple of Mesmer", ''Medical Journal and Record'', Vol. 138, no. 11, pp. 232-233. * Browne, Thomas (1658)
''Pseudodoxia Epidemica: or, Enquiries into very many Received Tenents, and commonly Presumed Truths (Fourth Edition)'', London: Edward Dod
note that the book's title page has "Thomas Brown" (no final "e"). * Buranelli, V. (1975), ''The Wizard from Vienna: Franz Anton Mesmer'', New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan.
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* Cambry, J. (1784)
''Traces du magnétisme'' ('Traces of Magnetism'), The Hague: n.p.
Campbell, A., "Mesmer and Hahnemann: A Comparison", ''British Homoeopathic Journal'', Vol. 77, No. 1, (January 1988), pp. 34-37.
* Carpenter, W.B. (1877)
"Mesmerism, Odylism, Table-Turning and Spiritualism: I", The Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 11, No. 1, (May 1877), pp. 12-25; "Mesmerism, Odylism, Table-Turning and Spiritualism: II", No. 2, (June 1877), pp. 161–173.
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Caullet de Veaumorel, Louis (1785a), "(Letter to the Editors, dated 7 January 1785)", ''Journal de Paris'', Vol. 9, No. 9, (9 January 1785), pp. 38-39.
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Caullet de Veaumorel, Louis (1785c), ''Mesmer's Aphorisms and Instructions, by M. Caullet de Veaumorel, Physician to the Household of Monsieur, His Most Christian Majesty's Brother'', London.
* Charcot, J.M. (1893), "The Faith-Cure", ''The New Review'', Vol. 8, No. 44, (January 1893), pp. 18-31: a (simultaneously published) English translation of Charcot's 1892 ''Revue Hebdomaine'' article that was reprinted at Charcot (1897).
Charcot, J.-M., (1897), ''La Foi qui Guérit'' ('The Faith that Heals'), Paris: Bureaux du Progrès Médical
* Chertok, L. & de Saussure, R., (1979), ''The Therapeutic Revolution: From Mesmer to Freud'', New York: Brunner/Mazel.
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* Colquhoun, J.C. (1843), ''The Fallacy of Phreno-Magnetism Detected and Exposed'', Edinburgh: William Wilson.
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* Crabtree, A. (1993). ''From Mesmer to Freud: Magnetic Sleep and the Roots of Psychological Healing'', New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. * Crabtree, A. (2008), "The Transition to Secular Psychotherapy: Hypnosis and the Alternate-Consciousness Paradigm", pp. 555-586 in E. Wallace & J. Gach. (eds), ''History of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology: With an Epilogue on Psychiatry and the Mind-Body Relation'', New York, NY: Springer. * Craver, C.F. & Darnden, L. (2013), ''In Search of Mechanisms: Discoveries across the Life Sciences'', Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
d'Eslon, C. (1780), ''Observations sur le Magnétisme Animal'', London & Paris: P.Fr. Didot; C.M. Saugrain; Clousier.
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d'Eslon, C. (1784a), "(Letter to the Editors, dated 28 December 1783)", ''Journal de Paris'', Vol. 8, No. 6, Supplement, (10 January 1784), p. 45-48.
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d'Eslon, C. (1784c), ''Supplément aux deux Rapports de MM. les Commissaires de l'Académie & de la Faculté de Médecine, & de la Société Royale de Médecine'' (Supplement to the two Reports of MM. the Commissioners of the Academy & of the Faculty of Medicine, & of the Royal Society of Medicine'), The Hague: Chez Gueffier.
d'Eslon, C. (trans. by D. Chval, ed. and abridged by R.E. Shor) (1963), "Observations on the Two Reports of the Commissioners Named by the King to Investigate Animal Magnetism", pp. 8-20, in ''The Nature Of Hypnosis: Selected Basic Writings'', ed. Ronald E. Shor and Martin T. Orne, New York, NY: Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc.:
an (abridged) translation of d'Eslon (1784b).
Darnton, R. (1968), ''Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France'', Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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* * Deleuze, J.P.F. (1813)
''Histoire Critique du Magnétisme Animal (Première Partie) '' ('A Critical History of Animal Magnetism: Part One'), Paris: Mame.
Deleuze, J.P.F. (1814), "Sur l’analogie des phénomènes du Magnétisme avec les autres phénomènes de la nature; et conjectures sur le principe de l’action magnétique (‘On the analogy of magnetic phenomena with the other phenomena of nature; and conjectures on the principle of magnetic action’)", ''Annales du Magnétisme Animal'', Vol. 1, No. 5, (1814), pp. 225-240.
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* Devillers, C.J. (1784)
''Le Colosse aux pieds d'argille'' ('The Colossus with Feet of Clay'), Paris: n.p.
* Dingwall, E.J. (1967), ''Abnormal Hypnotic Phenomena: A Survey of Nineteenth Century Cases; Volume I: Ftance'', London: J. & A. Churchill.
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Donaldson, I.M.L. (2017), "Antoine de Lavoisier's Role in Designing a Single-Blind Trial to Assess whether ‘Animal Magnetism’ Exists", ''Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine'', Vol. 110, No. 4, (April 2017), pp. 163-167.
Donaldson, I.M.L. (2014), ''The Reports of the Royal Commission of 1784 on Mesmer's System of Animal Magnetism and Other Contemporary Documents: New English Translations and an Introduction by IML Donaldson'', Edinburgh: James Lind Library, Sibbald Library
at pp/18-38, a translation of Lavoisier (1865); at pp. 39-67, a translation of Bailly (1784a); at pp. 68-76, a translation of Bailly (1800); and at pp. 77-83, a translation of Bailly (1784b). * * Eden, Jerome (1974), ''Animal Magnetism and the Life Energy: the Natural Curative Force in Everyone: The Definitive Study of the Astounding Discoveries of Dr. Franz Anton Mesmer'', CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. * Ellenberger, H.F., (1970), ''The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry'', New York, NY: Basic Books.
Elliotson, J. (1845), "More painless Amputations and other Surgical Operations in the Mesmeric State", ''The Zoist: A Journal of Cerebral Physiology & Mesmerism, and Their Application to Human Welfare'', Vol. 3, No. 12, (January 1846), pp. 490–508.
(Includes (at pp. 498–508), "Mesmeric Facts, reported by James Esdaile, M.D., Civil Assistant-Surgeon, Hooghly", reprinted from the ''India Journal of Medical and Physical Science'', Vol. 3, No. 6 (June 1845).)
Elliotson, J. (1847a), "Report of the Calcutta Committee on Dr. Esdaile's Mesmeric Operations", ''The Zoist'', Vol. 5, No. 17, (April 1847), pp. 50-69.
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*_Herr,_H.W.,_"Franklin,_Lavoisier,_and_Mesmer:_Origin_of_the_Controlled_Clinical_Trial",_''Urologic_Oncology:_Seminars_and_Original_Investigations'',_Vol. 23,_No. 5,_(September_2005),_pp. 346-351._ *_Hesse,_M.B._(1961),_''Forces_and_Fields:_The_Concept_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_the_History_of_Physics'',_New_York,_NY:_Philosophical_Library. *_ "Herfner,_Irys"_[pseud._of_Henry_Ferris)._(1844),_"A_Few_More_Words_About_Mesmerism—The_State_of_Sleep-Waking",_''The_Dublin_University_Magazine:_A_Literary_and_Political_Journal'',_Vol. 24,_No. 139,_(July_1844),_pp. 78-90.
*_Herr,_H.W.,_"Franklin,_Lavoisier,_and_Mesmer:_Origin_of_the_Controlled_Clinical_Trial",_''Urologic_Oncology:_Seminars_and_Original_Investigations'',_Vol. 23,_No. 5,_(September_2005),_pp. 346-351._ *_Hesse,_M.B._(1961),_''Forces_and_Fields:_The_Concept_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_the_History_of_Physics'',_New_York,_NY:_Philosophical_Library. *_Ernest_Hilgard">Hilgard,_E.R._(1980),_"Introduction",_pp.xi-xxiii_in_George_Bloch,_''Mesmerism:_A_Translation_of_the_Original_Scientific_and_Medical_writings_of_F.A._Mesmer'',_Los_Altos,_CA:_William_Kaufman,_1980._
Huneman,_Phillippe_(2008),_"Montpellier_Vitalism_and_the_Emergence_of_Alienism_in_France_(1750–1800):_The_Case_of_the_Passions",_Science_in_Context",_Vol. 21,_No. 4,_(2008),_615-647.
*_Hyatt_King,_A._(1945),_"The_Musical_Glasses_and_Glass_Harmonica",_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Musical_Association'',_Vol. 72,_No. 1,_(1943),_pp. 97-122.._
James,_C.D._(1975),_"Mesmerism:_A_Prelude_to_Anaesthesia,_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 68,_No. 7,_(July_1975),_pp. 446-447.
Jensen,_M.B,_Janik,_E.L.,_and_Waclawik,_A._(2016),_"The_Early_Use_of_Blinding_in_Therapeutic_Clinical_Research_of_Neurological_Disorders",_''Journal_of_Neurological_Research_and_Therapy'',_Vol. 1,_No. 2,_(2016),_pp. 4-16.
*_ "Herfner,_Irys"_[pseud._of_Henry_Ferris)._(1844),_"A_Few_More_Words_About_Mesmerism—The_State_of_Sleep-Waking",_''The_Dublin_University_Magazine:_A_Literary_and_Political_Journal'',_Vol. 24,_No. 139,_(July_1844),_pp. 78-90.
*_Herr,_H.W.,_"Franklin,_Lavoisier,_and_Mesmer:_Origin_of_the_Controlled_Clinical_Trial",_''Urologic_Oncology:_Seminars_and_Original_Investigations'',_Vol. 23,_No. 5,_(September_2005),_pp. 346-351._ *_Hesse,_M.B._(1961),_''Forces_and_Fields:_The_Concept_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_the_History_of_Physics'',_New_York,_NY:_Philosophical_Library. *_Ernest_Hilgard">Hilgard,_E.R._(1980),_"Introduction",_pp.xi-xxiii_in_George_Bloch,_''Mesmerism:_A_Translation_of_the_Original_Scientific_and_Medical_writings_of_F.A._Mesmer'',_Los_Altos,_CA:_William_Kaufman,_1980._
Huneman,_Phillippe_(2008),_"Montpellier_Vitalism_and_the_Emergence_of_Alienism_in_France_(1750–1800):_The_Case_of_the_Passions",_Science_in_Context",_Vol. 21,_No. 4,_(2008),_615-647.
*_Hyatt_King,_A._(1945),_"The_Musical_Glasses_and_Glass_Harmonica",_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Musical_Association'',_Vol. 72,_No. 1,_(1943),_pp. 97-122.._
James,_C.D._(1975),_"Mesmerism:_A_Prelude_to_Anaesthesia,_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 68,_No. 7,_(July_1975),_pp. 446-447.
Jensen,_M.B,_Janik,_E.L.,_and_Waclawik,_A._(2016),_"The_Early_Use_of_Blinding_in_Therapeutic_Clinical_Research_of_Neurological_Disorders",_''Journal_of_Neurological_Research_and_Therapy'',_Vol. 1,_No. 2,_(2016),_pp. 4-16.
*_Ted_Kaptchuk">Kaptchuk,_T.J._(1998)
"Intentional_Ignorance:_A_History_of_Blind_Assessment_and_Placebo_Controls_in_Medicine",_''Bulletin_of_the_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 72,_No 3,_(Fall_1998),_pp. 389-433.
Kaptchuk,_T.J.,_Kerr,_C.E._&_Zanger,_A.__(2009),_"Placebo_Controls,_Exorcisms,_and_the_Devil",_''The_Lancet'',_Vol. 374,_No. 9697,_(10_October_2009),_pp. 1234-1235.
Kennaway,_J._(2010),_"From_Sensibility_to_Pathology:_The_Origins_of_the_Idea_of_Nervous_Music_around_1800",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',__Vol. 65,_No. 3,_(July_2010),_pp. 396-426.
*__Kennaway,_J._(2012),_"Musical_Hypnosis:_Sound_and_Selfhood_from_Mesmerism_to_Brainwashing",_''Social_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 25,_No. 2,_(May_2012),_pp. 271–289._ *_ "Herfner,_Irys"_[pseud._of_Henry_Ferris)._(1844),_"A_Few_More_Words_About_Mesmerism—The_State_of_Sleep-Waking",_''The_Dublin_University_Magazine:_A_Literary_and_Political_Journal'',_Vol. 24,_No. 139,_(July_1844),_pp. 78-90.
*_Herr,_H.W.,_"Franklin,_Lavoisier,_and_Mesmer:_Origin_of_the_Controlled_Clinical_Trial",_''Urologic_Oncology:_Seminars_and_Original_Investigations'',_Vol. 23,_No. 5,_(September_2005),_pp. 346-351._ *_Hesse,_M.B._(1961),_''Forces_and_Fields:_The_Concept_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_the_History_of_Physics'',_New_York,_NY:_Philosophical_Library. *_Ernest_Hilgard">Hilgard,_E.R._(1980),_"Introduction",_pp.xi-xxiii_in_George_Bloch,_''Mesmerism:_A_Translation_of_the_Original_Scientific_and_Medical_writings_of_F.A._Mesmer'',_Los_Altos,_CA:_William_Kaufman,_1980._
Huneman,_Phillippe_(2008),_"Montpellier_Vitalism_and_the_Emergence_of_Alienism_in_France_(1750–1800):_The_Case_of_the_Passions",_Science_in_Context",_Vol. 21,_No. 4,_(2008),_615-647.
*_Hyatt_King,_A._(1945),_"The_Musical_Glasses_and_Glass_Harmonica",_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Musical_Association'',_Vol. 72,_No. 1,_(1943),_pp. 97-122.._
James,_C.D._(1975),_"Mesmerism:_A_Prelude_to_Anaesthesia,_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 68,_No. 7,_(July_1975),_pp. 446-447.
Jensen,_M.B,_Janik,_E.L.,_and_Waclawik,_A._(2016),_"The_Early_Use_of_Blinding_in_Therapeutic_Clinical_Research_of_Neurological_Disorders",_''Journal_of_Neurological_Research_and_Therapy'',_Vol. 1,_No. 2,_(2016),_pp. 4-16.
*_Ted_Kaptchuk">Kaptchuk,_T.J._(1998)
"Intentional_Ignorance:_A_History_of_Blind_Assessment_and_Placebo_Controls_in_Medicine",_''Bulletin_of_the_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 72,_No 3,_(Fall_1998),_pp. 389-433.
Kaptchuk,_T.J.,_Kerr,_C.E._&_Zanger,_A.__(2009),_"Placebo_Controls,_Exorcisms,_and_the_Devil",_''The_Lancet'',_Vol. 374,_No. 9697,_(10_October_2009),_pp. 1234-1235.
Kennaway,_J._(2010),_"From_Sensibility_to_Pathology:_The_Origins_of_the_Idea_of_Nervous_Music_around_1800",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',__Vol. 65,_No. 3,_(July_2010),_pp. 396-426.
*__Kennaway,_J._(2012),_"Musical_Hypnosis:_Sound_and_Selfhood_from_Mesmerism_to_Brainwashing",_''Social_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 25,_No. 2,_(May_2012),_pp. 271–289._ *_Robert_Kerr_(writer)">_Kerr,_Robert_(1790)
''Elements_of_Chemistry,_etc.'',_Edinburgh:_William_Creech
_a_translation_of_Lavoisier_(1789). *_Kihlstrom,_J._F.,_"Mesmer,_the_Franklin_Commission,_and_Hypnosis:_A_Counterfactual_Essay",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 407-419._ *_ "Herfner,_Irys"_[pseud._of_Henry_Ferris)._(1844),_"A_Few_More_Words_About_Mesmerism—The_State_of_Sleep-Waking",_''The_Dublin_University_Magazine:_A_Literary_and_Political_Journal'',_Vol. 24,_No. 139,_(July_1844),_pp. 78-90.
*_Herr,_H.W.,_"Franklin,_Lavoisier,_and_Mesmer:_Origin_of_the_Controlled_Clinical_Trial",_''Urologic_Oncology:_Seminars_and_Original_Investigations'',_Vol. 23,_No. 5,_(September_2005),_pp. 346-351._ *_Hesse,_M.B._(1961),_''Forces_and_Fields:_The_Concept_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_the_History_of_Physics'',_New_York,_NY:_Philosophical_Library. *_Ernest_Hilgard">Hilgard,_E.R._(1980),_"Introduction",_pp.xi-xxiii_in_George_Bloch,_''Mesmerism:_A_Translation_of_the_Original_Scientific_and_Medical_writings_of_F.A._Mesmer'',_Los_Altos,_CA:_William_Kaufman,_1980._
Huneman,_Phillippe_(2008),_"Montpellier_Vitalism_and_the_Emergence_of_Alienism_in_France_(1750–1800):_The_Case_of_the_Passions",_Science_in_Context",_Vol. 21,_No. 4,_(2008),_615-647.
*_Hyatt_King,_A._(1945),_"The_Musical_Glasses_and_Glass_Harmonica",_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Musical_Association'',_Vol. 72,_No. 1,_(1943),_pp. 97-122.._
James,_C.D._(1975),_"Mesmerism:_A_Prelude_to_Anaesthesia,_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 68,_No. 7,_(July_1975),_pp. 446-447.
Jensen,_M.B,_Janik,_E.L.,_and_Waclawik,_A._(2016),_"The_Early_Use_of_Blinding_in_Therapeutic_Clinical_Research_of_Neurological_Disorders",_''Journal_of_Neurological_Research_and_Therapy'',_Vol. 1,_No. 2,_(2016),_pp. 4-16.
*_Ted_Kaptchuk">Kaptchuk,_T.J._(1998)
"Intentional_Ignorance:_A_History_of_Blind_Assessment_and_Placebo_Controls_in_Medicine",_''Bulletin_of_the_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 72,_No 3,_(Fall_1998),_pp. 389-433.
Kaptchuk,_T.J.,_Kerr,_C.E._&_Zanger,_A.__(2009),_"Placebo_Controls,_Exorcisms,_and_the_Devil",_''The_Lancet'',_Vol. 374,_No. 9697,_(10_October_2009),_pp. 1234-1235.
Kennaway,_J._(2010),_"From_Sensibility_to_Pathology:_The_Origins_of_the_Idea_of_Nervous_Music_around_1800",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',__Vol. 65,_No. 3,_(July_2010),_pp. 396-426.
*__Kennaway,_J._(2012),_"Musical_Hypnosis:_Sound_and_Selfhood_from_Mesmerism_to_Brainwashing",_''Social_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 25,_No. 2,_(May_2012),_pp. 271–289._ *_Robert_Kerr_(writer)">_Kerr,_Robert_(1790)
''Elements_of_Chemistry,_etc.'',_Edinburgh:_William_Creech
_a_translation_of_Lavoisier_(1789). *_Kihlstrom,_J._F.,_"Mesmer,_the_Franklin_Commission,_and_Hypnosis:_A_Counterfactual_Essay",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 407-419._ *_Irving_Kirsch">Kirsch,_I.,_"Response_Expectancy_Theory_and_Application:_A_Decennial_Review",_''Applied_and_Preventive_Psychology'',_Vol. 6.,_No. 2,_(1997),_pp. 69-79._ *_Kovach,_F.J.,_"The_Enduring_Question_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_Saint_Albert_the_Great",_''The_Southwestern_Journal_of_Philosophy'',_Vol. 10,_No. 3,_(November_1979),_pp. 161-235._ *_Landefeld,_Seth,_"LE_BACQUET_DE_Mṛ_MESMER:_Paris,_circa_1780",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',_Vol. 31,_No. 3,_(July_1976),_p. 368._ *_Lanska,_D.J._(2019),_"The_Assessment_of_Perkins'_Patent_Metallic_'Tractors':_Abandonment_of_an_18th-century_Therapeutic_Fad_following_Trials_using_Sham_Instruments",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_the_Neurosciences'',_Vol. 28,_No. 2,_(April-June_2019),_pp. 147–175._
Lanska,_D.J.,_&_Lanska,_J.T._(2007)._"Franz_Anton_Mesmer_and_the_Rise_and_Fall_of_Animal_Magnetism:_Dramatic_Cures,_Controversy,_and_Ultimately_a_Triumph_for_the_Scientific_Method",_pp. 301-320_in_H._Whitaker,_C.U.M._Smith,_and_Stanley_Finger_(Eds),_''Brain,_Mind_and_Medicine:_Essays_in_Eighteenth-Century_Neuroscience'',_Boston,_MA:_Springer.
*_Laurence,_J.-L._(2002),_"1784",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 309-319._
Lavoisier,_A._(1789),_''Traité_Élémentaire_de_Chimie,_&c._(Tome_Premiere)''_('Elementary_Treatise_on_Chemistry,_Volume_One'),_Paris:_Chez_Cuchet
_English_translation_at_Kerr_(1790).
Lavoisier,_A._(1865),_"Sur_le_Magnétisme_Animal",_pp. 499-527_in_A._Lavoisier,_''Oeuvres_de_Lavoisier_Publiées_par_les_Soins_de_S._Exc._le_Ministre_de_l’Instruction_Publique,_Tome_III'',_Paris:_J.-B._Dumas,_E._Grimauxm_and_F.A._Fouqué
_for_a_complete_English_translation,_see_Donaldson_(2014),_pp. 18-38. *_ *_Ludwig,_A.M._(1964),_"An_Historical_Survey_of_the_Early_Roots_of_Mesmerism",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 12,_No. 4,_(October_1964),_pp. 205-217._ *_[ "Herfner,_Irys"_[pseud._of_Henry_Ferris)._(1844),_"A_Few_More_Words_About_Mesmerism—The_State_of_Sleep-Waking",_''The_Dublin_University_Magazine:_A_Literary_and_Political_Journal'',_Vol. 24,_No. 139,_(July_1844),_pp. 78-90.
*_Herr,_H.W.,_"Franklin,_Lavoisier,_and_Mesmer:_Origin_of_the_Controlled_Clinical_Trial",_''Urologic_Oncology:_Seminars_and_Original_Investigations'',_Vol. 23,_No. 5,_(September_2005),_pp. 346-351._ *_Hesse,_M.B._(1961),_''Forces_and_Fields:_The_Concept_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_the_History_of_Physics'',_New_York,_NY:_Philosophical_Library. *_Ernest_Hilgard">Hilgard,_E.R._(1980),_"Introduction",_pp.xi-xxiii_in_George_Bloch,_''Mesmerism:_A_Translation_of_the_Original_Scientific_and_Medical_writings_of_F.A._Mesmer'',_Los_Altos,_CA:_William_Kaufman,_1980._
Huneman,_Phillippe_(2008),_"Montpellier_Vitalism_and_the_Emergence_of_Alienism_in_France_(1750–1800):_The_Case_of_the_Passions",_Science_in_Context",_Vol. 21,_No. 4,_(2008),_615-647.
*_Hyatt_King,_A._(1945),_"The_Musical_Glasses_and_Glass_Harmonica",_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Musical_Association'',_Vol. 72,_No. 1,_(1943),_pp. 97-122.._
James,_C.D._(1975),_"Mesmerism:_A_Prelude_to_Anaesthesia,_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 68,_No. 7,_(July_1975),_pp. 446-447.
Jensen,_M.B,_Janik,_E.L.,_and_Waclawik,_A._(2016),_"The_Early_Use_of_Blinding_in_Therapeutic_Clinical_Research_of_Neurological_Disorders",_''Journal_of_Neurological_Research_and_Therapy'',_Vol. 1,_No. 2,_(2016),_pp. 4-16.
*_Ted_Kaptchuk">Kaptchuk,_T.J._(1998)
"Intentional_Ignorance:_A_History_of_Blind_Assessment_and_Placebo_Controls_in_Medicine",_''Bulletin_of_the_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 72,_No 3,_(Fall_1998),_pp. 389-433.
Kaptchuk,_T.J.,_Kerr,_C.E._&_Zanger,_A.__(2009),_"Placebo_Controls,_Exorcisms,_and_the_Devil",_''The_Lancet'',_Vol. 374,_No. 9697,_(10_October_2009),_pp. 1234-1235.
Kennaway,_J._(2010),_"From_Sensibility_to_Pathology:_The_Origins_of_the_Idea_of_Nervous_Music_around_1800",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',__Vol. 65,_No. 3,_(July_2010),_pp. 396-426.
*__Kennaway,_J._(2012),_"Musical_Hypnosis:_Sound_and_Selfhood_from_Mesmerism_to_Brainwashing",_''Social_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 25,_No. 2,_(May_2012),_pp. 271–289._ *_Robert_Kerr_(writer)">_Kerr,_Robert_(1790)
''Elements_of_Chemistry,_etc.'',_Edinburgh:_William_Creech
_a_translation_of_Lavoisier_(1789). *_Kihlstrom,_J._F.,_"Mesmer,_the_Franklin_Commission,_and_Hypnosis:_A_Counterfactual_Essay",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 407-419._ *_Irving_Kirsch">Kirsch,_I.,_"Response_Expectancy_Theory_and_Application:_A_Decennial_Review",_''Applied_and_Preventive_Psychology'',_Vol. 6.,_No. 2,_(1997),_pp. 69-79._ *_Kovach,_F.J.,_"The_Enduring_Question_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_Saint_Albert_the_Great",_''The_Southwestern_Journal_of_Philosophy'',_Vol. 10,_No. 3,_(November_1979),_pp. 161-235._ *_Landefeld,_Seth,_"LE_BACQUET_DE_Mṛ_MESMER:_Paris,_circa_1780",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',_Vol. 31,_No. 3,_(July_1976),_p. 368._ *_Lanska,_D.J._(2019),_"The_Assessment_of_Perkins'_Patent_Metallic_'Tractors':_Abandonment_of_an_18th-century_Therapeutic_Fad_following_Trials_using_Sham_Instruments",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_the_Neurosciences'',_Vol. 28,_No. 2,_(April-June_2019),_pp. 147–175._
Lanska,_D.J.,_&_Lanska,_J.T._(2007)._"Franz_Anton_Mesmer_and_the_Rise_and_Fall_of_Animal_Magnetism:_Dramatic_Cures,_Controversy,_and_Ultimately_a_Triumph_for_the_Scientific_Method",_pp. 301-320_in_H._Whitaker,_C.U.M._Smith,_and_Stanley_Finger_(Eds),_''Brain,_Mind_and_Medicine:_Essays_in_Eighteenth-Century_Neuroscience'',_Boston,_MA:_Springer.
*_Laurence,_J.-L._(2002),_"1784",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 309-319._
Lavoisier,_A._(1789),_''Traité_Élémentaire_de_Chimie,_&c._(Tome_Premiere)''_('Elementary_Treatise_on_Chemistry,_Volume_One'),_Paris:_Chez_Cuchet
_English_translation_at_Kerr_(1790).
Lavoisier,_A._(1865),_"Sur_le_Magnétisme_Animal",_pp. 499-527_in_A._Lavoisier,_''Oeuvres_de_Lavoisier_Publiées_par_les_Soins_de_S._Exc._le_Ministre_de_l’Instruction_Publique,_Tome_III'',_Paris:_J.-B._Dumas,_E._Grimauxm_and_F.A._Fouqué
_for_a_complete_English_translation,_see_Donaldson_(2014),_pp. 18-38. *_ *_Ludwig,_A.M._(1964),_"An_Historical_Survey_of_the_Early_Roots_of_Mesmerism",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 12,_No. 4,_(October_1964),_pp. 205-217._ *_Charles_Mackay_(author)">Mackay,_Charles_(1841)
"The_Magnetisers",_pp. 283-404_in_Charles_Mackay,_''Memoirs_of_Extraordinary_Popular_Delusions_and_the_Madness_of_Crowds,_Volume_III:_Philosophical_Delusions'',_London:_Richard_Bentley.
McConkey,_K.M._&_Barnier,_A.J._(1991),_"The_Benjamin_Franklin_Report_on_Animal_Magnetism:_A_Summary_Comment",_''Australian_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 19,_No. 2,_(November_1991),_pp. 77-86.
*_McConkey,_K.M._&_Perry,_C._(1985),_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_Mesmerism",_''The_International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 33,_No. 2,_(April_1985),_pp. 122-130._ *_McConkey,_K.M._&_Perry,_C._(2002),_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_Mesmerism,_Revisited",_''The_International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 320-331._ *_Melton,_J.G._(2001a)_(ed),_''Encyclopedia_of_Occultism_and_Parapsychology_(Fifth_Edition),_Volume_1_(A-L)'',_Farmington_Hills,_MI:_Thomson_Gale._ *_Melton,_J.G._(2001b)_(ed),_''Encyclopedia_of_Occultism_and_Parapsychology_(Fifth_Edition),_Volume_2_(M-Z)'',_Farmington_Hills,_MI:_Thomson_Gale._ *_ "Herfner,_Irys"_[pseud._of_Henry_Ferris)._(1844),_"A_Few_More_Words_About_Mesmerism—The_State_of_Sleep-Waking",_''The_Dublin_University_Magazine:_A_Literary_and_Political_Journal'',_Vol. 24,_No. 139,_(July_1844),_pp. 78-90.
*_Herr,_H.W.,_"Franklin,_Lavoisier,_and_Mesmer:_Origin_of_the_Controlled_Clinical_Trial",_''Urologic_Oncology:_Seminars_and_Original_Investigations'',_Vol. 23,_No. 5,_(September_2005),_pp. 346-351._ *_Hesse,_M.B._(1961),_''Forces_and_Fields:_The_Concept_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_the_History_of_Physics'',_New_York,_NY:_Philosophical_Library. *_Ernest_Hilgard">Hilgard,_E.R._(1980),_"Introduction",_pp.xi-xxiii_in_George_Bloch,_''Mesmerism:_A_Translation_of_the_Original_Scientific_and_Medical_writings_of_F.A._Mesmer'',_Los_Altos,_CA:_William_Kaufman,_1980._
Huneman,_Phillippe_(2008),_"Montpellier_Vitalism_and_the_Emergence_of_Alienism_in_France_(1750–1800):_The_Case_of_the_Passions",_Science_in_Context",_Vol. 21,_No. 4,_(2008),_615-647.
*_Hyatt_King,_A._(1945),_"The_Musical_Glasses_and_Glass_Harmonica",_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Musical_Association'',_Vol. 72,_No. 1,_(1943),_pp. 97-122.._
James,_C.D._(1975),_"Mesmerism:_A_Prelude_to_Anaesthesia,_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 68,_No. 7,_(July_1975),_pp. 446-447.
Jensen,_M.B,_Janik,_E.L.,_and_Waclawik,_A._(2016),_"The_Early_Use_of_Blinding_in_Therapeutic_Clinical_Research_of_Neurological_Disorders",_''Journal_of_Neurological_Research_and_Therapy'',_Vol. 1,_No. 2,_(2016),_pp. 4-16.
*_Ted_Kaptchuk">Kaptchuk,_T.J._(1998)
"Intentional_Ignorance:_A_History_of_Blind_Assessment_and_Placebo_Controls_in_Medicine",_''Bulletin_of_the_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 72,_No 3,_(Fall_1998),_pp. 389-433.
Kaptchuk,_T.J.,_Kerr,_C.E._&_Zanger,_A.__(2009),_"Placebo_Controls,_Exorcisms,_and_the_Devil",_''The_Lancet'',_Vol. 374,_No. 9697,_(10_October_2009),_pp. 1234-1235.
Kennaway,_J._(2010),_"From_Sensibility_to_Pathology:_The_Origins_of_the_Idea_of_Nervous_Music_around_1800",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',__Vol. 65,_No. 3,_(July_2010),_pp. 396-426.
*__Kennaway,_J._(2012),_"Musical_Hypnosis:_Sound_and_Selfhood_from_Mesmerism_to_Brainwashing",_''Social_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 25,_No. 2,_(May_2012),_pp. 271–289._ *_Robert_Kerr_(writer)">_Kerr,_Robert_(1790)
''Elements_of_Chemistry,_etc.'',_Edinburgh:_William_Creech
_a_translation_of_Lavoisier_(1789). *_Kihlstrom,_J._F.,_"Mesmer,_the_Franklin_Commission,_and_Hypnosis:_A_Counterfactual_Essay",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 407-419._ *_Irving_Kirsch">Kirsch,_I.,_"Response_Expectancy_Theory_and_Application:_A_Decennial_Review",_''Applied_and_Preventive_Psychology'',_Vol. 6.,_No. 2,_(1997),_pp. 69-79._ *_Kovach,_F.J.,_"The_Enduring_Question_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_Saint_Albert_the_Great",_''The_Southwestern_Journal_of_Philosophy'',_Vol. 10,_No. 3,_(November_1979),_pp. 161-235._ *_Landefeld,_Seth,_"LE_BACQUET_DE_Mṛ_MESMER:_Paris,_circa_1780",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',_Vol. 31,_No. 3,_(July_1976),_p. 368._ *_Lanska,_D.J._(2019),_"The_Assessment_of_Perkins'_Patent_Metallic_'Tractors':_Abandonment_of_an_18th-century_Therapeutic_Fad_following_Trials_using_Sham_Instruments",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_the_Neurosciences'',_Vol. 28,_No. 2,_(April-June_2019),_pp. 147–175._
Lanska,_D.J.,_&_Lanska,_J.T._(2007)._"Franz_Anton_Mesmer_and_the_Rise_and_Fall_of_Animal_Magnetism:_Dramatic_Cures,_Controversy,_and_Ultimately_a_Triumph_for_the_Scientific_Method",_pp. 301-320_in_H._Whitaker,_C.U.M._Smith,_and_Stanley_Finger_(Eds),_''Brain,_Mind_and_Medicine:_Essays_in_Eighteenth-Century_Neuroscience'',_Boston,_MA:_Springer.
*_Laurence,_J.-L._(2002),_"1784",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 309-319._
Lavoisier,_A._(1789),_''Traité_Élémentaire_de_Chimie,_&c._(Tome_Premiere)''_('Elementary_Treatise_on_Chemistry,_Volume_One'),_Paris:_Chez_Cuchet
_English_translation_at_Kerr_(1790).
Lavoisier,_A._(1865),_"Sur_le_Magnétisme_Animal",_pp. 499-527_in_A._Lavoisier,_''Oeuvres_de_Lavoisier_Publiées_par_les_Soins_de_S._Exc._le_Ministre_de_l’Instruction_Publique,_Tome_III'',_Paris:_J.-B._Dumas,_E._Grimauxm_and_F.A._Fouqué
_for_a_complete_English_translation,_see_Donaldson_(2014),_pp. 18-38. *_ *_Ludwig,_A.M._(1964),_"An_Historical_Survey_of_the_Early_Roots_of_Mesmerism",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 12,_No. 4,_(October_1964),_pp. 205-217._ *_Charles_Mackay_(author)">Mackay,_Charles_(1841)
"The_Magnetisers",_pp. 283-404_in_Charles_Mackay,_''Memoirs_of_Extraordinary_Popular_Delusions_and_the_Madness_of_Crowds,_Volume_III:_Philosophical_Delusions'',_London:_Richard_Bentley.
McConkey,_K.M._&_Barnier,_A.J._(1991),_"The_Benjamin_Franklin_Report_on_Animal_Magnetism:_A_Summary_Comment",_''Australian_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 19,_No. 2,_(November_1991),_pp. 77-86.
*_McConkey,_K.M._&_Perry,_C._(1985),_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_Mesmerism",_''The_International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 33,_No. 2,_(April_1985),_pp. 122-130._ *_McConkey,_K.M._&_Perry,_C._(2002),_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_Mesmerism,_Revisited",_''The_International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 320-331._ *_Melton,_J.G._(2001a)_(ed),_''Encyclopedia_of_Occultism_and_Parapsychology_(Fifth_Edition),_Volume_1_(A-L)'',_Farmington_Hills,_MI:_Thomson_Gale._ *_Melton,_J.G._(2001b)_(ed),_''Encyclopedia_of_Occultism_and_Parapsychology_(Fifth_Edition),_Volume_2_(M-Z)'',_Farmington_Hills,_MI:_Thomson_Gale._ *_Franz_Mesmer">Mesmer,_F.A._(1766)
''Dissertatio_Physico-Medica_de_Planetarum_Influxu'',_Vienna:_Ghelen
_summary_at_Pattie_(1994),_pp. 13-27;_for_an_English_translation_of_a_modern_(1971)_French_version_of_the_original_Latin,_see_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 1-22.
Mesmer,_F.A._(1779),_''Mémoire_sur_la_découverte_du_magnetisme_animal''_('Memoir_on_the_Discovery_of_Animal_Magnetism'),_Geneva_and_Paris:_P._Fr._Didot
_includes_Mesmer's_"27_Propositions",_as_an_appendix_(pp. 74-85);_complete_translation_(including_"Propositions")_at_Tinterow_(1970),_pp. 32-57,_and_at_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 41-79;_translation_of_"Propositions"_(only)_at_Binet_&_Féré_(1888),_pp. 5-8,_Anon_(1911/1912),_pp. 1557-1558_Goldsmith_(1934),_p. 117-121,_Buranelli_(1975),_pp. 101-103,_Wyckoff_(1975),_pp. 76-78,_and_Pattie_(1994),_pp. 87-89..
Mesmer,_F.A._(1781),_''Précis_historique_des_faits_relatifs_au_magnétisme_animal_jusques_en_avril_1781._Par_M._Mesmer,_Docteur_en_Médecine_de_la_Faculté´_de_Vienne._Ouvrage_traduit_de_l’Allemand''_('Historical_Summary_of_the_facts_relating_to_animal_magnetism_until_April_1781._By_Monsieur_Mesmer,_Doctor_of_Medicine_of_the_Faculty_of_Vienna._Book_translated_from_German'),_London.
*_Mesmer,_F.A._(n.d.),_"Catéchism_du_Magnétisme_Animal"_('Catechism_on_Animal_Magnetism'),_reprinted_at_pp. 113-120,_Jean-Jacques_Paulet_(1784)
''L'antimagnétisme,_ou_origine,_progrès,_décadence,_renouvellement_et_réfutation_du_magnétisme_animal''_('Antimagnetism,_or_the_origin,_progress,_decadence,_renewal_and_refutation_of_animal_magnetism'),_London:_n.p.
_translation_at_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 81-86.
Mesmer,_F.A._(1784a),_''Lettres_de_M._Mesmer,_à_Messieurs_les_auteurs_du_Journal_de_Paris,_et_à_M._Franklin_(20_Août_1784)''._(Paris).
Mesmer,_F.A._(1784b),_''Lettre_de_M._Mesmer_à_M._le_Comte_de_C***_(31_Août_1784)''._(Paris).
Mesmer,_F.A._(1785),_"(Letter_to_the_Editors,_dated_4_January_1785)",_''Journal_de_Paris'',_Vol. 9,_No. 6,_(6_January_1785),_p. 22.
Mesmer,_F.A._(1799),_''Mémoire_de_F._A._Mesmer,_Docteur_en_Médecine,_sur_ses_Découvertes"_('Dissertation_by_F.A._Mesmer,_Doctor_of_Medicne,_on_his_Discoveries')'',_Paris:_Fuchs
_for_an_English_translation,_see_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 87-132.
Mesmer,_F.A.,_et_al._(1784),_''Recueil_des_Pièces_les_plus_intéressantes_sur_le_Magnétisme_Animal''_('A_collection_of_the_most_interesting_pieces_on_Animal_Magnetism'),_Paris:_Gastelier.
*_Meyer,_Vera_&_Allen,_Kathleen_J.,_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_the_Glass_Armonica",_''Endeavour'',_Vol. 12,_No. 4,_(January_1988),_pp. 185-188._
Moll,_A._(1890a),_''Der_Hypnotismus_(Zweite_vermehrte_und_umgearbeitete_Auflage)'',_Berlin:_Fischer.
Moll,_A._(1890b),_''Hypnotism_(Second_Edition)'',_London:_Walter_Scott.
Morabito,_Carmela,_"Rethinking_Mesmerism_and_its_Dissemination_in_the_19th_Century:_at_the_Intersection_between_Philosophy,_Medicine_and_Psychology",_''Medicina_nei_Secoli—Arte_e_Scienza'',_Vol. 31,_No. 1,_(June_2019),_pp. 71-92.
*_Mulford,_Carla_J._(2018),_"Benjamin_Franklin_in_Passy,_1784",_''Reviews_in_American_History'',_Vol. 46,_No. 4,_(December_2018),_pp. 573-578._ *_William_Newnham_(physician).html" ;"title="Franz_Mesmer.html" ;"title="harles_Mackay_(author).html" ;"title="Irving_Kirsch.html" ;"title="Robert_Kerr_(writer).html" ;"title="Ted_Kaptchuk.html" ;"title="Ernest_Hilgard.html" ;"title="seud. of Henry Ferris). (1844), "A Few More Words About Mesmerism—The State of Sleep-Waking", ''The Dublin University Magazine: A Literary and Political Journal'', Vol. 24, No. 139, (July 1844), pp. 78-90.">"Herfner, Irys"
*_Herr,_H.W.,_"Franklin,_Lavoisier,_and_Mesmer:_Origin_of_the_Controlled_Clinical_Trial",_''Urologic_Oncology:_Seminars_and_Original_Investigations'',_Vol. 23,_No. 5,_(September_2005),_pp. 346-351._ *_Hesse,_M.B._(1961),_''Forces_and_Fields:_The_Concept_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_the_History_of_Physics'',_New_York,_NY:_Philosophical_Library. *_Ernest_Hilgard">Hilgard,_E.R._(1980),_"Introduction",_pp.xi-xxiii_in_George_Bloch,_''Mesmerism:_A_Translation_of_the_Original_Scientific_and_Medical_writings_of_F.A._Mesmer'',_Los_Altos,_CA:_William_Kaufman,_1980._
Huneman,_Phillippe_(2008),_"Montpellier_Vitalism_and_the_Emergence_of_Alienism_in_France_(1750–1800):_The_Case_of_the_Passions",_Science_in_Context",_Vol. 21,_No. 4,_(2008),_615-647.
*_Hyatt_King,_A._(1945),_"The_Musical_Glasses_and_Glass_Harmonica",_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Musical_Association'',_Vol. 72,_No. 1,_(1943),_pp. 97-122.._
James,_C.D._(1975),_"Mesmerism:_A_Prelude_to_Anaesthesia,_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 68,_No. 7,_(July_1975),_pp. 446-447.
Jensen,_M.B,_Janik,_E.L.,_and_Waclawik,_A._(2016),_"The_Early_Use_of_Blinding_in_Therapeutic_Clinical_Research_of_Neurological_Disorders",_''Journal_of_Neurological_Research_and_Therapy'',_Vol. 1,_No. 2,_(2016),_pp. 4-16.
*_Ted_Kaptchuk">Kaptchuk,_T.J._(1998)
"Intentional_Ignorance:_A_History_of_Blind_Assessment_and_Placebo_Controls_in_Medicine",_''Bulletin_of_the_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 72,_No 3,_(Fall_1998),_pp. 389-433.
Kaptchuk,_T.J.,_Kerr,_C.E._&_Zanger,_A.__(2009),_"Placebo_Controls,_Exorcisms,_and_the_Devil",_''The_Lancet'',_Vol. 374,_No. 9697,_(10_October_2009),_pp. 1234-1235.
Kennaway,_J._(2010),_"From_Sensibility_to_Pathology:_The_Origins_of_the_Idea_of_Nervous_Music_around_1800",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',__Vol. 65,_No. 3,_(July_2010),_pp. 396-426.
*__Kennaway,_J._(2012),_"Musical_Hypnosis:_Sound_and_Selfhood_from_Mesmerism_to_Brainwashing",_''Social_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 25,_No. 2,_(May_2012),_pp. 271–289._ *_Robert_Kerr_(writer)">_Kerr,_Robert_(1790)
''Elements_of_Chemistry,_etc.'',_Edinburgh:_William_Creech
_a_translation_of_Lavoisier_(1789). *_Kihlstrom,_J._F.,_"Mesmer,_the_Franklin_Commission,_and_Hypnosis:_A_Counterfactual_Essay",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 407-419._ *_Irving_Kirsch">Kirsch,_I.,_"Response_Expectancy_Theory_and_Application:_A_Decennial_Review",_''Applied_and_Preventive_Psychology'',_Vol. 6.,_No. 2,_(1997),_pp. 69-79._ *_Kovach,_F.J.,_"The_Enduring_Question_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_Saint_Albert_the_Great",_''The_Southwestern_Journal_of_Philosophy'',_Vol. 10,_No. 3,_(November_1979),_pp. 161-235._ *_Landefeld,_Seth,_"LE_BACQUET_DE_Mṛ_MESMER:_Paris,_circa_1780",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',_Vol. 31,_No. 3,_(July_1976),_p. 368._ *_Lanska,_D.J._(2019),_"The_Assessment_of_Perkins'_Patent_Metallic_'Tractors':_Abandonment_of_an_18th-century_Therapeutic_Fad_following_Trials_using_Sham_Instruments",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_the_Neurosciences'',_Vol. 28,_No. 2,_(April-June_2019),_pp. 147–175._
Lanska,_D.J.,_&_Lanska,_J.T._(2007)._"Franz_Anton_Mesmer_and_the_Rise_and_Fall_of_Animal_Magnetism:_Dramatic_Cures,_Controversy,_and_Ultimately_a_Triumph_for_the_Scientific_Method",_pp. 301-320_in_H._Whitaker,_C.U.M._Smith,_and_Stanley_Finger_(Eds),_''Brain,_Mind_and_Medicine:_Essays_in_Eighteenth-Century_Neuroscience'',_Boston,_MA:_Springer.
*_Laurence,_J.-L._(2002),_"1784",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 309-319._
Lavoisier,_A._(1789),_''Traité_Élémentaire_de_Chimie,_&c._(Tome_Premiere)''_('Elementary_Treatise_on_Chemistry,_Volume_One'),_Paris:_Chez_Cuchet
_English_translation_at_Kerr_(1790).
Lavoisier,_A._(1865),_"Sur_le_Magnétisme_Animal",_pp. 499-527_in_A._Lavoisier,_''Oeuvres_de_Lavoisier_Publiées_par_les_Soins_de_S._Exc._le_Ministre_de_l’Instruction_Publique,_Tome_III'',_Paris:_J.-B._Dumas,_E._Grimauxm_and_F.A._Fouqué
_for_a_complete_English_translation,_see_Donaldson_(2014),_pp. 18-38. *_ *_Ludwig,_A.M._(1964),_"An_Historical_Survey_of_the_Early_Roots_of_Mesmerism",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 12,_No. 4,_(October_1964),_pp. 205-217._ *_Charles_Mackay_(author)">Mackay,_Charles_(1841)
"The_Magnetisers",_pp. 283-404_in_Charles_Mackay,_''Memoirs_of_Extraordinary_Popular_Delusions_and_the_Madness_of_Crowds,_Volume_III:_Philosophical_Delusions'',_London:_Richard_Bentley.
McConkey,_K.M._&_Barnier,_A.J._(1991),_"The_Benjamin_Franklin_Report_on_Animal_Magnetism:_A_Summary_Comment",_''Australian_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 19,_No. 2,_(November_1991),_pp. 77-86.
*_McConkey,_K.M._&_Perry,_C._(1985),_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_Mesmerism",_''The_International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 33,_No. 2,_(April_1985),_pp. 122-130._ *_McConkey,_K.M._&_Perry,_C._(2002),_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_Mesmerism,_Revisited",_''The_International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 320-331._ *_Melton,_J.G._(2001a)_(ed),_''Encyclopedia_of_Occultism_and_Parapsychology_(Fifth_Edition),_Volume_1_(A-L)'',_Farmington_Hills,_MI:_Thomson_Gale._ *_Melton,_J.G._(2001b)_(ed),_''Encyclopedia_of_Occultism_and_Parapsychology_(Fifth_Edition),_Volume_2_(M-Z)'',_Farmington_Hills,_MI:_Thomson_Gale._ *_Franz_Mesmer">Mesmer,_F.A._(1766)
''Dissertatio_Physico-Medica_de_Planetarum_Influxu'',_Vienna:_Ghelen
_summary_at_Pattie_(1994),_pp. 13-27;_for_an_English_translation_of_a_modern_(1971)_French_version_of_the_original_Latin,_see_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 1-22.
Mesmer,_F.A._(1779),_''Mémoire_sur_la_découverte_du_magnetisme_animal''_('Memoir_on_the_Discovery_of_Animal_Magnetism'),_Geneva_and_Paris:_P._Fr._Didot
_includes_Mesmer's_"27_Propositions",_as_an_appendix_(pp. 74-85);_complete_translation_(including_"Propositions")_at_Tinterow_(1970),_pp. 32-57,_and_at_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 41-79;_translation_of_"Propositions"_(only)_at_Binet_&_Féré_(1888),_pp. 5-8,_Anon_(1911/1912),_pp. 1557-1558_Goldsmith_(1934),_p. 117-121,_Buranelli_(1975),_pp. 101-103,_Wyckoff_(1975),_pp. 76-78,_and_Pattie_(1994),_pp. 87-89..
Mesmer,_F.A._(1781),_''Précis_historique_des_faits_relatifs_au_magnétisme_animal_jusques_en_avril_1781._Par_M._Mesmer,_Docteur_en_Médecine_de_la_Faculté´_de_Vienne._Ouvrage_traduit_de_l’Allemand''_('Historical_Summary_of_the_facts_relating_to_animal_magnetism_until_April_1781._By_Monsieur_Mesmer,_Doctor_of_Medicine_of_the_Faculty_of_Vienna._Book_translated_from_German'),_London.
*_Mesmer,_F.A._(n.d.),_"Catéchism_du_Magnétisme_Animal"_('Catechism_on_Animal_Magnetism'),_reprinted_at_pp. 113-120,_Jean-Jacques_Paulet_(1784)
''L'antimagnétisme,_ou_origine,_progrès,_décadence,_renouvellement_et_réfutation_du_magnétisme_animal''_('Antimagnetism,_or_the_origin,_progress,_decadence,_renewal_and_refutation_of_animal_magnetism'),_London:_n.p.
_translation_at_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 81-86.
Mesmer,_F.A._(1784a),_''Lettres_de_M._Mesmer,_à_Messieurs_les_auteurs_du_Journal_de_Paris,_et_à_M._Franklin_(20_Août_1784)''._(Paris).
Mesmer,_F.A._(1784b),_''Lettre_de_M._Mesmer_à_M._le_Comte_de_C***_(31_Août_1784)''._(Paris).
Mesmer,_F.A._(1785),_"(Letter_to_the_Editors,_dated_4_January_1785)",_''Journal_de_Paris'',_Vol. 9,_No. 6,_(6_January_1785),_p. 22.
Mesmer,_F.A._(1799),_''Mémoire_de_F._A._Mesmer,_Docteur_en_Médecine,_sur_ses_Découvertes"_('Dissertation_by_F.A._Mesmer,_Doctor_of_Medicne,_on_his_Discoveries')'',_Paris:_Fuchs
_for_an_English_translation,_see_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 87-132.
Mesmer,_F.A.,_et_al._(1784),_''Recueil_des_Pièces_les_plus_intéressantes_sur_le_Magnétisme_Animal''_('A_collection_of_the_most_interesting_pieces_on_Animal_Magnetism'),_Paris:_Gastelier.
*_Meyer,_Vera_&_Allen,_Kathleen_J.,_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_the_Glass_Armonica",_''Endeavour'',_Vol. 12,_No. 4,_(January_1988),_pp. 185-188._
Moll,_A._(1890a),_''Der_Hypnotismus_(Zweite_vermehrte_und_umgearbeitete_Auflage)'',_Berlin:_Fischer.
Moll,_A._(1890b),_''Hypnotism_(Second_Edition)'',_London:_Walter_Scott.
Morabito,_Carmela,_"Rethinking_Mesmerism_and_its_Dissemination_in_the_19th_Century:_at_the_Intersection_between_Philosophy,_Medicine_and_Psychology",_''Medicina_nei_Secoli—Arte_e_Scienza'',_Vol. 31,_No. 1,_(June_2019),_pp. 71-92.
*_Mulford,_Carla_J._(2018),_"Benjamin_Franklin_in_Passy,_1784",_''Reviews_in_American_History'',_Vol. 46,_No. 4,_(December_2018),_pp. 573-578._ *_William_Newnham_(physician)">Newnham,_W._(1845)
"Of_Phreno-Magnetism",_pp. 374-411_in_W._Newnham,_''Human_Magnetism;_Its_Claims_to_Dispassionate_Inquiry:_Being_an_Attempt_to_Show_the_Utility_of_Its_Application_for_the_Relief_of_Human_Suffering'',_London:_John_Churchill.
*_Ogden,_Emily_(2012),_"Mesmer's_Demon:_Fiction,_Falsehood,_and_the_Mechanical_Imagination",_''Early_American_Literature'',_Vol. 47,_No. 1,_(2012),_pp. 143–170._ *_Pattie,_F.A._(1956),_"Mesmer's_Medical_Dissertation_and_Its_Debt_to_Mead's_''De_Imperio_Solis_ac_Lunae''",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',_Vol. 11,_No. 3,_(July,_1956),_pp. 275-287._ *_Pattie,_F.A._(1994),_''Mesmer_and_Animal_Magnetism:_A_Chapter_in_the_History_of_Medicine'',_Hamilton,_NY:_Edmonston_Publishing._ *_Jean-Jacques_Paulet.html" ;"title="seud. of Henry Ferris). (1844), "A Few More Words About Mesmerism—The State of Sleep-Waking", ''The Dublin University Magazine: A Literary and Political Journal'', Vol. 24, No. 139, (July 1844), pp. 78-90.
* Herr, H.W., "Franklin, Lavoisier, and Mesmer: Origin of the Controlled Clinical Trial", ''Urologic Oncology: Seminars and Original Investigations'', Vol. 23, No. 5, (September 2005), pp. 346-351. * Hesse, M.B. (1961), ''Forces and Fields: The Concept of Action at a Distance in the History of Physics'', New York, NY: Philosophical Library. * Hilgard,_E.R._(1980),_"Introduction",_pp.xi-xxiii_in_George_Bloch,_''Mesmerism:_A_Translation_of_the_Original_Scientific_and_Medical_writings_of_F.A._Mesmer'',_Los_Altos,_CA:_William_Kaufman,_1980._
Huneman,_Phillippe_(2008),_"Montpellier_Vitalism_and_the_Emergence_of_Alienism_in_France_(1750–1800):_The_Case_of_the_Passions",_Science_in_Context",_Vol. 21,_No. 4,_(2008),_615-647.
*_Hyatt_King,_A._(1945),_"The_Musical_Glasses_and_Glass_Harmonica",_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Musical_Association'',_Vol. 72,_No. 1,_(1943),_pp. 97-122.._
James,_C.D._(1975),_"Mesmerism:_A_Prelude_to_Anaesthesia,_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 68,_No. 7,_(July_1975),_pp. 446-447.
Jensen,_M.B,_Janik,_E.L.,_and_Waclawik,_A._(2016),_"The_Early_Use_of_Blinding_in_Therapeutic_Clinical_Research_of_Neurological_Disorders",_''Journal_of_Neurological_Research_and_Therapy'',_Vol. 1,_No. 2,_(2016),_pp. 4-16.
*_Ted_Kaptchuk">Kaptchuk,_T.J._(1998)
"Intentional_Ignorance:_A_History_of_Blind_Assessment_and_Placebo_Controls_in_Medicine",_''Bulletin_of_the_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 72,_No 3,_(Fall_1998),_pp. 389-433.
Kaptchuk,_T.J.,_Kerr,_C.E._&_Zanger,_A.__(2009),_"Placebo_Controls,_Exorcisms,_and_the_Devil",_''The_Lancet'',_Vol. 374,_No. 9697,_(10_October_2009),_pp. 1234-1235.
Kennaway,_J._(2010),_"From_Sensibility_to_Pathology:_The_Origins_of_the_Idea_of_Nervous_Music_around_1800",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',__Vol. 65,_No. 3,_(July_2010),_pp. 396-426.
*__Kennaway,_J._(2012),_"Musical_Hypnosis:_Sound_and_Selfhood_from_Mesmerism_to_Brainwashing",_''Social_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 25,_No. 2,_(May_2012),_pp. 271–289._ *_Robert_Kerr_(writer)">_Kerr,_Robert_(1790)
''Elements_of_Chemistry,_etc.'',_Edinburgh:_William_Creech
_a_translation_of_Lavoisier_(1789). *_Kihlstrom,_J._F.,_"Mesmer,_the_Franklin_Commission,_and_Hypnosis:_A_Counterfactual_Essay",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 407-419._ *_Irving_Kirsch">Kirsch,_I.,_"Response_Expectancy_Theory_and_Application:_A_Decennial_Review",_''Applied_and_Preventive_Psychology'',_Vol. 6.,_No. 2,_(1997),_pp. 69-79._ *_Kovach,_F.J.,_"The_Enduring_Question_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_Saint_Albert_the_Great",_''The_Southwestern_Journal_of_Philosophy'',_Vol. 10,_No. 3,_(November_1979),_pp. 161-235._ *_Landefeld,_Seth,_"LE_BACQUET_DE_Mṛ_MESMER:_Paris,_circa_1780",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',_Vol. 31,_No. 3,_(July_1976),_p. 368._ *_Lanska,_D.J._(2019),_"The_Assessment_of_Perkins'_Patent_Metallic_'Tractors':_Abandonment_of_an_18th-century_Therapeutic_Fad_following_Trials_using_Sham_Instruments",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_the_Neurosciences'',_Vol. 28,_No. 2,_(April-June_2019),_pp. 147–175._
Lanska,_D.J.,_&_Lanska,_J.T._(2007)._"Franz_Anton_Mesmer_and_the_Rise_and_Fall_of_Animal_Magnetism:_Dramatic_Cures,_Controversy,_and_Ultimately_a_Triumph_for_the_Scientific_Method",_pp. 301-320_in_H._Whitaker,_C.U.M._Smith,_and_Stanley_Finger_(Eds),_''Brain,_Mind_and_Medicine:_Essays_in_Eighteenth-Century_Neuroscience'',_Boston,_MA:_Springer.
*_Laurence,_J.-L._(2002),_"1784",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 309-319._
Lavoisier,_A._(1789),_''Traité_Élémentaire_de_Chimie,_&c._(Tome_Premiere)''_('Elementary_Treatise_on_Chemistry,_Volume_One'),_Paris:_Chez_Cuchet
_English_translation_at_Kerr_(1790).
Lavoisier,_A._(1865),_"Sur_le_Magnétisme_Animal",_pp. 499-527_in_A._Lavoisier,_''Oeuvres_de_Lavoisier_Publiées_par_les_Soins_de_S._Exc._le_Ministre_de_l’Instruction_Publique,_Tome_III'',_Paris:_J.-B._Dumas,_E._Grimauxm_and_F.A._Fouqué
_for_a_complete_English_translation,_see_Donaldson_(2014),_pp. 18-38. *_ *_Ludwig,_A.M._(1964),_"An_Historical_Survey_of_the_Early_Roots_of_Mesmerism",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 12,_No. 4,_(October_1964),_pp. 205-217._ *_Charles_Mackay_(author)">Mackay,_Charles_(1841)
"The_Magnetisers",_pp. 283-404_in_Charles_Mackay,_''Memoirs_of_Extraordinary_Popular_Delusions_and_the_Madness_of_Crowds,_Volume_III:_Philosophical_Delusions'',_London:_Richard_Bentley.
McConkey,_K.M._&_Barnier,_A.J._(1991),_"The_Benjamin_Franklin_Report_on_Animal_Magnetism:_A_Summary_Comment",_''Australian_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 19,_No. 2,_(November_1991),_pp. 77-86.
*_McConkey,_K.M._&_Perry,_C._(1985),_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_Mesmerism",_''The_International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 33,_No. 2,_(April_1985),_pp. 122-130._ *_McConkey,_K.M._&_Perry,_C._(2002),_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_Mesmerism,_Revisited",_''The_International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 320-331._ *_Melton,_J.G._(2001a)_(ed),_''Encyclopedia_of_Occultism_and_Parapsychology_(Fifth_Edition),_Volume_1_(A-L)'',_Farmington_Hills,_MI:_Thomson_Gale._ *_Melton,_J.G._(2001b)_(ed),_''Encyclopedia_of_Occultism_and_Parapsychology_(Fifth_Edition),_Volume_2_(M-Z)'',_Farmington_Hills,_MI:_Thomson_Gale._ *_Franz_Mesmer">Mesmer,_F.A._(1766)
''Dissertatio_Physico-Medica_de_Planetarum_Influxu'',_Vienna:_Ghelen
_summary_at_Pattie_(1994),_pp. 13-27;_for_an_English_translation_of_a_modern_(1971)_French_version_of_the_original_Latin,_see_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 1-22.
Mesmer,_F.A._(1779),_''Mémoire_sur_la_découverte_du_magnetisme_animal''_('Memoir_on_the_Discovery_of_Animal_Magnetism'),_Geneva_and_Paris:_P._Fr._Didot
_includes_Mesmer's_"27_Propositions",_as_an_appendix_(pp. 74-85);_complete_translation_(including_"Propositions")_at_Tinterow_(1970),_pp. 32-57,_and_at_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 41-79;_translation_of_"Propositions"_(only)_at_Binet_&_Féré_(1888),_pp. 5-8,_Anon_(1911/1912),_pp. 1557-1558_Goldsmith_(1934),_p. 117-121,_Buranelli_(1975),_pp. 101-103,_Wyckoff_(1975),_pp. 76-78,_and_Pattie_(1994),_pp. 87-89..
Mesmer,_F.A._(1781),_''Précis_historique_des_faits_relatifs_au_magnétisme_animal_jusques_en_avril_1781._Par_M._Mesmer,_Docteur_en_Médecine_de_la_Faculté´_de_Vienne._Ouvrage_traduit_de_l’Allemand''_('Historical_Summary_of_the_facts_relating_to_animal_magnetism_until_April_1781._By_Monsieur_Mesmer,_Doctor_of_Medicine_of_the_Faculty_of_Vienna._Book_translated_from_German'),_London.
*_Mesmer,_F.A._(n.d.),_"Catéchism_du_Magnétisme_Animal"_('Catechism_on_Animal_Magnetism'),_reprinted_at_pp. 113-120,_Jean-Jacques_Paulet_(1784)
''L'antimagnétisme,_ou_origine,_progrès,_décadence,_renouvellement_et_réfutation_du_magnétisme_animal''_('Antimagnetism,_or_the_origin,_progress,_decadence,_renewal_and_refutation_of_animal_magnetism'),_London:_n.p.
_translation_at_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 81-86.
Mesmer,_F.A._(1784a),_''Lettres_de_M._Mesmer,_à_Messieurs_les_auteurs_du_Journal_de_Paris,_et_à_M._Franklin_(20_Août_1784)''._(Paris).
Mesmer,_F.A._(1784b),_''Lettre_de_M._Mesmer_à_M._le_Comte_de_C***_(31_Août_1784)''._(Paris).
Mesmer,_F.A._(1785),_"(Letter_to_the_Editors,_dated_4_January_1785)",_''Journal_de_Paris'',_Vol. 9,_No. 6,_(6_January_1785),_p. 22.
Mesmer,_F.A._(1799),_''Mémoire_de_F._A._Mesmer,_Docteur_en_Médecine,_sur_ses_Découvertes"_('Dissertation_by_F.A._Mesmer,_Doctor_of_Medicne,_on_his_Discoveries')'',_Paris:_Fuchs
_for_an_English_translation,_see_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 87-132.
Mesmer,_F.A.,_et_al._(1784),_''Recueil_des_Pièces_les_plus_intéressantes_sur_le_Magnétisme_Animal''_('A_collection_of_the_most_interesting_pieces_on_Animal_Magnetism'),_Paris:_Gastelier.
*_Meyer,_Vera_&_Allen,_Kathleen_J.,_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_the_Glass_Armonica",_''Endeavour'',_Vol. 12,_No. 4,_(January_1988),_pp. 185-188._
Moll,_A._(1890a),_''Der_Hypnotismus_(Zweite_vermehrte_und_umgearbeitete_Auflage)'',_Berlin:_Fischer.
Moll,_A._(1890b),_''Hypnotism_(Second_Edition)'',_London:_Walter_Scott.
Morabito,_Carmela,_"Rethinking_Mesmerism_and_its_Dissemination_in_the_19th_Century:_at_the_Intersection_between_Philosophy,_Medicine_and_Psychology",_''Medicina_nei_Secoli—Arte_e_Scienza'',_Vol. 31,_No. 1,_(June_2019),_pp. 71-92.
*_Mulford,_Carla_J._(2018),_"Benjamin_Franklin_in_Passy,_1784",_''Reviews_in_American_History'',_Vol. 46,_No. 4,_(December_2018),_pp. 573-578._ *_William_Newnham_(physician)">Newnham,_W._(1845)
"Of_Phreno-Magnetism",_pp. 374-411_in_W._Newnham,_''Human_Magnetism;_Its_Claims_to_Dispassionate_Inquiry:_Being_an_Attempt_to_Show_the_Utility_of_Its_Application_for_the_Relief_of_Human_Suffering'',_London:_John_Churchill.
*_Ogden,_Emily_(2012),_"Mesmer's_Demon:_Fiction,_Falsehood,_and_the_Mechanical_Imagination",_''Early_American_Literature'',_Vol. 47,_No. 1,_(2012),_pp. 143–170._ *_Pattie,_F.A._(1956),_"Mesmer's_Medical_Dissertation_and_Its_Debt_to_Mead's_''De_Imperio_Solis_ac_Lunae''",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',_Vol. 11,_No. 3,_(July,_1956),_pp. 275-287._ *_Pattie,_F.A._(1994),_''Mesmer_and_Animal_Magnetism:_A_Chapter_in_the_History_of_Medicine'',_Hamilton,_NY:_Edmonston_Publishing._ *_Jean-Jacques_Paulet">Paulet,_Jean-Jacques_(1784)
''L'antimagnétisme,_ou_origine,_progrès,_décadence,_renouvellement_et_réfutation_du_magnétisme_animal''_('Antimagnetism,_or_the_origin,_progress,_decadence,_renewal_and_refutation_of_animal_magnetism'),_London:_n.p.
*_Peter,_B._(2005),_"Gassner’s_Exorcism_—_not_Mesmer’s_magnetism_—_is_the_real_Predecessor_of_modern_Hypnosis",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol.53,_No.1,_(February_2005),_pp.1-12._ *_Pick,_D._(2000),_''Svengali's_Web:_The_Alien_Enchanter_in_Modern_Culture'',_New_Haven,_CT:_Yale_University_Press._
Pitres,_A.,_Leçons_Cliniques_sur_l'Hystérie_et_l'Hypnotisme:_Faites_à_l'Hôpital_Saint-André_de_Bordeaux:_Tome_2_(Ouvrage_précédé_D'une_Lettre-Préface_de_M._le_Professeur_J.-M._Charcot),_Octave_Doin_(Paris),_1891.
*_Frank_Podmore.html" ;"title="Ernest Hilgard">Hilgard, E.R. (1980), "Introduction", pp.xi-xxiii in George Bloch, ''Mesmerism: A Translation of the Original Scientific and Medical writings of F.A. Mesmer'', Los Altos, CA: William Kaufman, 1980.
Huneman, Phillippe (2008), "Montpellier Vitalism and the Emergence of Alienism in France (1750–1800): The Case of the Passions", Science in Context", Vol. 21, No. 4, (2008), 615-647.
* Hyatt King, A. (1945), "The Musical Glasses and Glass Harmonica", ''Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association'', Vol. 72, No. 1, (1943), pp. 97-122..
James, C.D. (1975), "Mesmerism: A Prelude to Anaesthesia, ''Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine'', Vol. 68, No. 7, (July 1975), pp. 446-447.
Jensen, M.B, Janik, E.L., and Waclawik, A. (2016), "The Early Use of Blinding in Therapeutic Clinical Research of Neurological Disorders", ''Journal of Neurological Research and Therapy'', Vol. 1, No. 2, (2016), pp. 4-16.
* Ted Kaptchuk">Kaptchuk, T.J. (1998)
"Intentional Ignorance: A History of Blind Assessment and Placebo Controls in Medicine", ''Bulletin of the History of Medicine'', Vol. 72, No 3, (Fall 1998), pp. 389-433.
Kaptchuk, T.J., Kerr, C.E. & Zanger, A. (2009), "Placebo Controls, Exorcisms, and the Devil", ''The Lancet'', Vol. 374, No. 9697, (10 October 2009), pp. 1234-1235.
Kennaway, J. (2010), "From Sensibility to Pathology: The Origins of the Idea of Nervous Music around 1800", ''Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences'', Vol. 65, No. 3, (July 2010), pp. 396-426.
* Kennaway, J. (2012), "Musical Hypnosis: Sound and Selfhood from Mesmerism to Brainwashing", ''Social History of Medicine'', Vol. 25, No. 2, (May 2012), pp. 271–289. * Robert Kerr (writer)"> Kerr, Robert (1790)
''Elements of Chemistry, etc.'', Edinburgh: William Creech
a translation of Lavoisier (1789). * Kihlstrom, J. F., "Mesmer, the Franklin Commission, and Hypnosis: A Counterfactual Essay", ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', Vol. 50, No. 4, (October 2002), pp. 407-419. * Irving Kirsch">Kirsch, I., "Response Expectancy Theory and Application: A Decennial Review", ''Applied and Preventive Psychology'', Vol. 6., No. 2, (1997), pp. 69-79. * Kovach, F.J., "The Enduring Question of Action at a Distance in Saint Albert the Great", ''The Southwestern Journal of Philosophy'', Vol. 10, No. 3, (November 1979), pp. 161-235. * Landefeld, Seth, "LE BACQUET DE Mṛ MESMER: Paris, circa 1780", ''Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences'', Vol. 31, No. 3, (July 1976), p. 368. * Lanska, D.J. (2019), "The Assessment of Perkins' Patent Metallic 'Tractors': Abandonment of an 18th-century Therapeutic Fad following Trials using Sham Instruments", ''Journal of the History of the Neurosciences'', Vol. 28, No. 2, (April-June 2019), pp. 147–175.
Lanska, D.J., & Lanska, J.T. (2007). "Franz Anton Mesmer and the Rise and Fall of Animal Magnetism: Dramatic Cures, Controversy, and Ultimately a Triumph for the Scientific Method", pp. 301-320 in H. Whitaker, C.U.M. Smith, and Stanley Finger (Eds), ''Brain, Mind and Medicine: Essays in Eighteenth-Century Neuroscience'', Boston, MA: Springer.
* Laurence, J.-L. (2002), "1784", ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', Vol. 50, No. 4, (October 2002), pp. 309-319.
Lavoisier, A. (1789), ''Traité Élémentaire de Chimie, &c. (Tome Premiere)'' ('Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, Volume One'), Paris: Chez Cuchet
English translation at Kerr (1790).
Lavoisier, A. (1865), "Sur le Magnétisme Animal", pp. 499-527 in A. Lavoisier, ''Oeuvres de Lavoisier Publiées par les Soins de S. Exc. le Ministre de l’Instruction Publique, Tome III'', Paris: J.-B. Dumas, E. Grimauxm and F.A. Fouqué
for a complete English translation, see Donaldson (2014), pp. 18-38. * * Ludwig, A.M. (1964), "An Historical Survey of the Early Roots of Mesmerism", ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', Vol. 12, No. 4, (October 1964), pp. 205-217. * Charles Mackay (author)">Mackay, Charles (1841)
"The Magnetisers", pp. 283-404 in Charles Mackay, ''Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds, Volume III: Philosophical Delusions'', London: Richard Bentley.
McConkey, K.M. & Barnier, A.J. (1991), "The Benjamin Franklin Report on Animal Magnetism: A Summary Comment", ''Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', Vol. 19, No. 2, (November 1991), pp. 77-86.
* McConkey, K.M. & Perry, C. (1985), "Benjamin Franklin and Mesmerism", ''The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', Vol. 33, No. 2, (April 1985), pp. 122-130. * McConkey, K.M. & Perry, C. (2002), "Benjamin Franklin and Mesmerism, Revisited", ''The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', Vol. 50, No. 4, (October 2002), pp. 320-331. * Melton, J.G. (2001a) (ed), ''Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology (Fifth Edition), Volume 1 (A-L)'', Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale. * Melton, J.G. (2001b) (ed), ''Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology (Fifth Edition), Volume 2 (M-Z)'', Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale. * Franz Mesmer">Mesmer, F.A. (1766)
''Dissertatio Physico-Medica de Planetarum Influxu'', Vienna: Ghelen
summary at Pattie (1994), pp. 13-27; for an English translation of a modern (1971) French version of the original Latin, see Bloch (1980), pp. 1-22.
Mesmer, F.A. (1779), ''Mémoire sur la découverte du magnetisme animal'' ('Memoir on the Discovery of Animal Magnetism'), Geneva and Paris: P. Fr. Didot
includes Mesmer's "27 Propositions", as an appendix (pp. 74-85); complete translation (including "Propositions") at Tinterow (1970), pp. 32-57, and at Bloch (1980), pp. 41-79; translation of "Propositions" (only) at Binet & Féré (1888), pp. 5-8, Anon (1911/1912), pp. 1557-1558 Goldsmith (1934), p. 117-121, Buranelli (1975), pp. 101-103, Wyckoff (1975), pp. 76-78, and Pattie (1994), pp. 87-89..
Mesmer, F.A. (1781), ''Précis historique des faits relatifs au magnétisme animal jusques en avril 1781. Par M. Mesmer, Docteur en Médecine de la Faculté´ de Vienne. Ouvrage traduit de l’Allemand'' ('Historical Summary of the facts relating to animal magnetism until April 1781. By Monsieur Mesmer, Doctor of Medicine of the Faculty of Vienna. Book translated from German'), London.
* Mesmer, F.A. (n.d.), "Catéchism du Magnétisme Animal" ('Catechism on Animal Magnetism'), reprinted at pp. 113-120, Jean-Jacques Paulet (1784)
''L'antimagnétisme, ou origine, progrès, décadence, renouvellement et réfutation du magnétisme animal'' ('Antimagnetism, or the origin, progress, decadence, renewal and refutation of animal magnetism'), London: n.p.
translation at Bloch (1980), pp. 81-86.
Mesmer, F.A. (1784a), ''Lettres de M. Mesmer, à Messieurs les auteurs du Journal de Paris, et à M. Franklin (20 Août 1784)''. (Paris).
Mesmer, F.A. (1784b), ''Lettre de M. Mesmer à M. le Comte de C*** (31 Août 1784)''. (Paris).
Mesmer, F.A. (1785), "(Letter to the Editors, dated 4 January 1785)", ''Journal de Paris'', Vol. 9, No. 6, (6 January 1785), p. 22.
Mesmer, F.A. (1799), ''Mémoire de F. A. Mesmer, Docteur en Médecine, sur ses Découvertes" ('Dissertation by F.A. Mesmer, Doctor of Medicne, on his Discoveries')'', Paris: Fuchs
for an English translation, see Bloch (1980), pp. 87-132.
Mesmer, F.A., et al. (1784), ''Recueil des Pièces les plus intéressantes sur le Magnétisme Animal'' ('A collection of the most interesting pieces on Animal Magnetism'), Paris: Gastelier.
* Meyer, Vera & Allen, Kathleen J., "Benjamin Franklin and the Glass Armonica", ''Endeavour'', Vol. 12, No. 4, (January 1988), pp. 185-188.
Moll, A. (1890a), ''Der Hypnotismus (Zweite vermehrte und umgearbeitete Auflage)'', Berlin: Fischer.
Moll, A. (1890b), ''Hypnotism (Second Edition)'', London: Walter Scott.
Morabito, Carmela, "Rethinking Mesmerism and its Dissemination in the 19th Century: at the Intersection between Philosophy, Medicine and Psychology", ''Medicina nei Secoli—Arte e Scienza'', Vol. 31, No. 1, (June 2019), pp. 71-92.
* Mulford, Carla J. (2018), "Benjamin Franklin in Passy, 1784", ''Reviews in American History'', Vol. 46, No. 4, (December 2018), pp. 573-578. * William Newnham (physician)">Newnham, W. (1845)
"Of Phreno-Magnetism", pp. 374-411 in W. Newnham, ''Human Magnetism; Its Claims to Dispassionate Inquiry: Being an Attempt to Show the Utility of Its Application for the Relief of Human Suffering'', London: John Churchill.
* Ogden, Emily (2012), "Mesmer's Demon: Fiction, Falsehood, and the Mechanical Imagination", ''Early American Literature'', Vol. 47, No. 1, (2012), pp. 143–170. * Pattie, F.A. (1956), "Mesmer's Medical Dissertation and Its Debt to Mead's ''De Imperio Solis ac Lunae''", ''Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences'', Vol. 11, No. 3, (July, 1956), pp. 275-287. * Pattie, F.A. (1994), ''Mesmer and Animal Magnetism: A Chapter in the History of Medicine'', Hamilton, NY: Edmonston Publishing. * Jean-Jacques Paulet">Paulet, Jean-Jacques (1784)
''L'antimagnétisme, ou origine, progrès, décadence, renouvellement et réfutation du magnétisme animal'' ('Antimagnetism, or the origin, progress, decadence, renewal and refutation of animal magnetism'), London: n.p.
* Peter, B. (2005), "Gassner’s Exorcism — not Mesmer’s magnetism — is the real Predecessor of modern Hypnosis", ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', Vol.53, No.1, (February 2005), pp.1-12. * Pick, D. (2000), ''Svengali's Web: The Alien Enchanter in Modern Culture'', New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Pitres, A., Leçons Cliniques sur l'Hystérie et l'Hypnotisme: Faites à l'Hôpital Saint-André de Bordeaux: Tome 2 (Ouvrage précédé D'une Lettre-Préface de M. le Professeur J.-M. Charcot), Octave Doin (Paris), 1891.
* Frank Podmore">Podmore, F. (1909)
''Mesmerism and Christian Science: A Short History of Mental Healing'', Philadelphia: G.W. Jacobs.
Poissonnier, P.-I., Caille, C.-A., Mauduyt de La Varenne, P.-J.-C., & Andry, C.-L.-F. (1784), ''Rapport des commissaires de la Société royale de médecine nommés par le Roi pour fair l’examen du magnétisme animal, Imprimé par ordre du Roi'', Paris: Imprimerie royale.
* Pollitt, Ben, (2019), "Sympathy, Magnetism, and Immoderate Laughter: The Feather in Cook's Last Voyage", ''The Art Bulletin'', Vol. 101, No. 4, (October 2019), pp. 70-94,
Rance, K. (trans. J. Johnson) (2018), "Between Enlightenment and Romanticism: A Counter-Revolutionary Mesmerism?", ''Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française'', Vol. 391, No. 1, (January-March 2018), pp. 177-196.
* Ridgway, E.S. (1993), "John Elliotson (1791-1868): A Bitter Enemy of Legitimate Medicine? Part I: Earlier Years and the Introduction to Mesmerism", ''Journal of Medical Biography'', Vol. 1, No. 4, (November 1993), pp. 191-198. * Ridgway, E.S. [1994], "John Elliotson (1791-1868): A Bitter Enemy of Legitimate Medicine? Part II: The Mesmeric Scandal and Later Years", ''Journal of Medical Biography'', Vol. 2, No. 1, (February 1994), pp. 1-7. * Rosen, G. (1946), "Mesmerism and Surgery: A Strange Chapter in the History of Anesthesia", ''Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences'', Vol. 1, No. 4, (October 1946), pp. 527–550. * Rosen, G. (1959), "History of Medical Hypnosis", in Schneck, J.M. (ed.), ''Hypnosis in Modern Medicine, (Second Edition)'', Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1959. * Rosen, G.M., Lilienfeld, S.O. & Glasgow, R.E. (2019), "Psychiatry's stance towards scientifically implausible therapies: Are we losing ground?", ''The Lancet Psychiatry'', Vol. 6, No. 10 (October 2019), pp. 802–803. * Salas D. & Salas, D. (trans.), "The First Scientific Investigation if the Paranormal Ever Conducted, Commissioned by King Louis XVI. Designed, Conducted, & Written by Benjamin Franklin, Antoine Lavoisier, & Others", ''Skeptic'', (Fall 1996), pp. 68-83: a translation of Bailly (1784a). * Schneck, J.M. (1959), "The History of Electrotherapy and its Correlation with Mesmer's Animal Magnetism", Vol. 116, No. 5, (November 1959), pp. 463–464.
Schwartz, S.A. (2004), "Franklin's Forgotten Triumph: Scientific Testing", ''American heritage'', Vol. 55, No. 5, (October 2004), pp. 65-69.
* Servan, J.M.A. (1784)
''Doutes d'un provincial, Proposés à MM. les Médecins-Commissaires chargés par le Roi de l'examen du Magnétisme animal'' ('Doubts of a Man from the Provinces, Proposed to MM. the Medical Commissioners Charged by the King with the Examination of Animal Magnetism'), Lyon: Prault.
* Shermer, M., "Testing the Claims of Mesmerism", ''Skeptic'', (Fall 1996), pp. 66-67. * Shor, R.E. (1972), "The Fundamental Problem in Hypnosis Research as Viewed from Historic Perspectives", pp. 14-40 in E. Fromm & R.E. Shor (eds.), ''Hypnosis: Developments in Research and New Perspectives'', New York: Aldine-Atherton. * Sibly, E. (1820)
"Of Animal Magnetism", pp. 256-277 in ''A Key to Physic, and the Occult Sciences, etc.'', London: G. Jones.
* Spanos, N.P. & Gottlieb, J. (1979), "Demonic Possession, Mesmerism, and Hysteria: A Social Psychological Perspective on their Historical Interrelations", ''Journal of Abnormal Psychology'', Vol. 88, No. 5, (October 1979), pp. 527-546. * Steinke, H. (2005), ''Irritating Experiments: Haller's Concept and the European Controversy on Irritability and Sensibility, 1750-90'', Amsterdam, Rodopi.
Stengers I., "The Doctor and the Charlatan", ''Cultural Studies Review'', Vol. 9, No. 2, (2003), pp. 11-36.
* Sutton, G., "Electric Medicine and Mesmerism ", ''Isis'', Vol. 72, No. 3, (September 1981), pp. 375-392. * Tatar, Maria M. (1978), ''Spellbound: Studies on Mesmerism and Literature'', Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. * Temkin, O. (1936), "A Dissertation on the Sensible and Irritable Parts of Animals, by Albrecht von Haller (English Translation of 1755)", ''Bulletin of the Institute of the History of Medicine'', Vol. 4, No. 8, (October 1936): 651-699. * Teste, Alphonse, trans. D. Spillan (1843)
''A Practical Manual of Animal Magnetism; Containing an Exposition of the Methods Employed in Producing the Magnetic Phenomena; with its Application to the Treatment and Cure of Diseases'', London : Hippolyte Bailliere.
Thomas d'Onglée, François Louis (1785), ''Rapport au Public, de quelques Abus Auxquels le Magnétisme animal a donné lieu'' ('Report to the public on some abuses occasioned by Animal Magnetism'), Paris : Widow of Hérissant.
Thouret, M. (1784), ''Recherches et Doutes sur le Magnétisme Animal'' ('Researches and Doubts about Animal Magnetism'), Paris : Chez Prault.
* Tinterow, M.M., ''Foundations of Hypnosis: From Mesmer to Freud'', Charles C. Thomas, (Springfield), 1970.
Topley, M. (1976), "Chinese Traditional Etiology and Methods of Cure in Hong Kong", pp. 243-265 in C. Leslie (Ed.), ''Asian Medical Systems: A Comparative Study'', Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Townshend, C.H. (1840), ''Facts in Mesmerism, With Reasons for a Dispassionate Inquiry into It'', London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, & Longmans.
Tsouyopoulos, N. (1988), "The Influence of John Brown's Ideas in Germany", ''Medical History'', Vol. 32, Supp. 8, (1988), pp. 63-74.
* von Haller, A. (1753a)
"De Partibus Corporis Humani Sensilibus et Irritabilibus", Die 22 April 1752, ''Commentarii Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis, Tomus II, pp. 114-134.
von Haller, A. (1753b), "De Partibus Corporis Humani Sensilibus et Irritabilibus", Die 6 Maii 1752, ''Commentarii Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis, Tomus II, pp. 114-134.
von Haller, A. (1755) (trans. M. Tissot), ''A Dissertation on the Sensible and Irritable Parts of Animals'', London: J. Nourse.
* Vinchon, J. (1936), ''Mesmer et son Secret'', Paris: A. Legrand. * Walmsley, D M. (1967), "Mesmer, Marie Antoinette and a Royal Commission", ''History Today'', Vol. 17, No. 4, (1 April 1967), pp. 264-270.
Winter, George (1801), ''Animal Magnetism: History of its Origin, Progress, and Present State: Its Principles and Secrets Displayed, as delivered by the late Dr. Demainauduc, etc.'', Bristol: George Routh.
Wolfart, K.C. (1814), ''Mesmerismus: Oder System der Wechselwirkungen, Theorie und Anwendung des thierischen Magnetismus als die allgemeine heilkunde zur Erhaltung des Menschen von Dr. Friedrich Anton Mesmer'' ('Memerism: or The System of Interactions, Theory and Application of Animal Magnetism as General Medicine for the Preservation of Man by Dr. Friedrich Anton Mesmer'), Berlin: Nikolaischen Buchhandlung.
* Wyckoff, J.
Yeates, L.B., ''James Braid: Surgeon, Gentleman Scientist, and Hypnotist'', Ph.D. Dissertation, School of History and Philosophy of Science, Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences, University of New South Wales, January 2013.
Yeates, L.B. (2018), "James Braid (II): Mesmerism, Braid's Crucial Experiment, and Braid's Discovery of Neuro-Hypnotism", ''Australian Journal of Clinical Hypnotherapy & Hypnosis'', Vol. 40, No. 1, (Autumn 2018), pp. 40–92.
Younger, D. (1887), ''The Magnetic and Botanic Family Physician, and Domestic Practice of Natural Medicine: With Illustrations Showing Various Phases of Mesmeric Treatment, including Full and Concise Instruction in Mesmerism, Curative Magnetism, Massage, and Medical Botany'', London: E.W. Allen.
* Zabell, S. (2016), "The Virtues of Being Blind, ''Chance'', Vol. 29, No. 1, (January 2016), pp. 32-36.
Zanetti, F. (trans. J. Johnson) (2018), "The Setbacks and Counterpoints of Mesmerism: Knowledge and Personalities on the Margins at the End of the Old Regime", ''Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française'', Vol. 391, No. 1, (January-March 2018), pp. 57-80.
''Museum of the History of Medicine and Pharmacy, at Lyon''.
''Museum of the History of Medicine and Pharmacy, at Lyon'': Mesmer's Baquet.
* Glass Armonica by Benjamin Franklin, ''The Bakken Museum Artifact Collection'', (catalog no. 81.064): {{cite web , last = The Bakken , title = Glass Armonica , url=http://www.thebakken.org/exhibits/mesmer/glass-armonica.htm , access-date = 2021-09-08 , archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070405115543/http://www.thebakken.org/exhibits/mesmer/glass-armonica.htm , archive-date = 2021-09-08 1784 in science History of science History of medicine History of medicine in France French medical research Scientific method Clinical trials Design of experiments Benjamin Franklin Louis XVI Concepts in metaphysics Obsolete scientific theories Obsolete medical theories Phrenology Animal magnetism Energy therapies Vitalism
By magnetising people without their knowledge and by persuading them that they are being magnetised when they are not . . . one will obtain separately the effects of magnetism and those of the imagination and, from this, one will be able to conclude what should be attributed to the one and what to the other." – Antoine Lavoisier (1784). It is important to note that, despite the contemporary and modern salience given to Benjamin Franklin – who, as the most eminent of the Commission's eleven members, was recognized as its
titular head
A titular ruler, or titular head, is a person in an official position of leadership who possesses few, if any, actual powers. Sometimes a person may inhabit a position of titular leadership and yet exercise more power than would normally be expecte ...
– it is a matter of record that Franklin, now aged 78, and otherwise engaged in his duties as the U.S. Ambassador to France, had little involvement in any of the Commission's investigations. In particular, this was because his own ill-health prevented him from leaving his residence in Passy and participating in the Paris-centred investigations – although the Commission's Report does note that several experiments were conducted at Franklin's Passy residence in Franklin's presence.
In addition to his general scientific interests in electricity and (terrestrial) magnetism, "Franklin had known Mesmer for some years prior to the investigation and was familiar with the practice of animal magnetism", and, on occasion, he and Mesmer had even "dined together" – and, also there was "no doubt hat
A hat is a head covering which is worn for various reasons, including protection against weather conditions, ceremonial reasons such as university graduation, religious reasons, safety, or as a fashion accessory. Hats which incorporate mecha ...
Franklin's curiosity was aroused by the mere connotation of the term animal magnetism, for it implied something in connexion with electricity, and ranklinhimself had already made 5 years earlier
5 (five) is a number, numeral and digit. It is the natural number, and cardinal number, following 4 and preceding 6, and is a prime number. It has attained significance throughout history in part because typical humans have five digits on eac ...
a number of experiments on the effect of electric discharges on paralytics, epileptics, etc." (Duveen & Klickstein, 1955, p. 287).
"Society Commission"
The second of the two Royal Commissions, usually referred to as the "''Society Commission''", was appointed on 5 April 1784.
It was composed of five eminent physicians from the Royal Society of Medicine – the physician and one of the first members of the Royal Society, , the physician Claude-Antoine Caille (1743-), the botanist Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748-1836), the physician, Collège de France
The Collège de France (), formerly known as the ''Collège Royal'' or as the ''Collège impérial'' founded in 1530 by François I, is a higher education and research establishment ('' grand établissement'') in France. It is located in Paris n ...
professor, one of the original directors of the Royal Society, and committed advocate of the therapeutic applications of electricity, , and the physician and Professor of chemistry in the Collège de France, – and, as Pattie remarks (1994, p. 156), "the impression given by heirreport is that the commissioners were busy practitioners who wanted to devote no more time to the project than was necessary".
Although the investigations of the "Society Commission" were less thorough and less detailed than those of the "Franklin Commission" they were essentially of the same nature, and it is a matter of fact that neither Commission examined Mesmer's practices – they only examined the practices of d'Eslon.
Franz Mesmer
Franz Anton Mesmer
Franz Anton Mesmer (; ; 23 May 1734 – 5 March 1815) was a German physician with an interest in astronomy. He theorised the existence of a natural energy transference occurring between all animated and inanimate objects; this he called "anim ...
(1734–1815), born in Swabia, having first studied law at Dillingen and Ingolstadt
Ingolstadt (, Austro-Bavarian: ) is an independent city on the Danube in Upper Bavaria with 139,553 inhabitants (as of June 30, 2022). Around half a million people live in the metropolitan area. Ingolstadt is the second largest city in Upper Ba ...
universities, transferred to the University of Vienna
The University of Vienna (german: Universität Wien) is a public research university located in Vienna, Austria. It was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365 and is the oldest university in the German-speaking world. With its long and rich hist ...
and began a study of medicine, graduating Medicinae Doctor (M.D.) at the age of 32, in 1766: his doctoral dissertation (Mesmer, 1766) had the official title ''A Physico-Medical Dissertation on the Influence of the Planets''.
Although he was made a member of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities in 1775, and, despite his M.D. qualification, there is no record of Mesmer ever having been accepted as a member of any medical "learned society
A learned society (; also learned academy, scholarly society, or academic association) is an organization that exists to promote an academic discipline, profession, or a group of related disciplines such as the arts and science. Membership m ...
" anywhere in Europe at any time.
Mesmer left Austria in 1777, in controversial circumstances, following his treatment of the young Austrian Pianist Maria Theresia von Paradis for her blindness, and established himself, in Paris, in February 1778. He spent several years in Paris itself – during which time he published his ''Précis Historique'' (i.e., Mesmer, 1781) – interspersed with time spent in various parts of France, a complete absence from France (1792–1798), a return to France in 1798, and his final departure from France in 1802.
While in France it was his habit to travel to the town of Spa, in Belgium to "take the waters"; and he was enjoying an extended stay at Spa when the reports of the two Royal Commissions were released. Mesmer lived for another 31 years after the Royal Commissions. He died at the age of 80, in Meersburg, in the Grand Duchy of Baden, on 5 March 1815.
Positioner of a concept
Rather than being the "inventor" of "a technique", as some (mis)represent the circumstances, it is clear that Mesmer's significance was in his " positioning" of an overarching "concept
Concepts are defined as abstract ideas. They are understood to be the fundamental building blocks of the concept behind principles, thoughts and beliefs.
They play an important role in all aspects of cognition. As such, concepts are studied by ...
" (or "'' construct''") through his creation and development – using analogies with gravity
In physics, gravity () is a fundamental interaction which causes mutual attraction between all things with mass or energy. Gravity is, by far, the weakest of the four fundamental interactions, approximately 1038 times weaker than the stro ...
, terrestrial magnetism
Earth's magnetic field, also known as the geomagnetic field, is the magnetic field that extends from Earth's interior out into space, where it interacts with the solar wind, a stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun. The magnetic fi ...
, and hydraulics
Hydraulics (from Greek: Υδραυλική) is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry, and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the liquid counte ...
(as they were understood at the time) – of "an explanatory model to represent the way that healers had been healing people for thousands of years" (Yeates, 2018, p. 48).
The (oft-forgotten) value and long-term significance of Mesmer's "positioning", according to Rosen
Rosen is a surname of Ashkenazi Jewish origin, the name deriving from the German word for roses. Notable people with this surname include:
People A–H
* Adam Rosen (born 1984), American-born British luger Olympian
* Al Rosen (1924–2015), Amer ...
(1959, pp. 7-8), is that "Mesmer's theory nitself . . . diverted attention from the phenomena produced by animal magnetism to the agent alleged to produce them"; yet, both 1784 Commissions side-stepped this issue, and "simply ascribed the magnetic cures to imagination, but never bothered to ask how imagination can produce a cure".
Mesmer's "protoscience", rather than "pseudoscience"
According to Tatar (1990, p. 49), rather than Mesmer's proposal being some sort of "occult theory", " esmeractually remained well within the bounds of eighteenth-century thought when he formulated his theories" and "the theories hat Mesmerinvoked to explain he agency of "animal magnetism"fit squarely into the frame of eighteenth-century cosmology": and, moreover, "to consider animal magnetism independently of the tradition out of which it emerged is to magnify its distinctively occult characteristics and to diminish in importance those features that mirror the scientific and philosophical temper of the age in which it flourished." Rosen (1959, pp. 4-5) noted that, it was clear that ::Mesmer's theory of animal magnetism . . . ithin whichhe employed the term magnetism to characterize a reciprocal relationship between the forces of nature and the human body, andhich
Ij ( fa, ايج, also Romanized as Īj; also known as Hich and Īch) is a village in Golabar Rural District, in the Central District of Ijrud County, Zanjan Province, Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also ...
conceived of nature as the harmony of these relations in action . . . contains a number of themes and theoretical concepts common to the medical world of the eighteenth century . . . hich
Ij ( fa, ايج, also Romanized as Īj; also known as Hich and Īch) is a village in Golabar Rural District, in the Central District of Ijrud County, Zanjan Province, Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also ...
is evident, for example, in his interpretation of disease as a disharmony attributable to a functional disturbance of the nervous fluid . . . hich is a
Ij ( fa, ايج, also Romanized as Īj; also known as Hich and Īch) is a village in Golabar Rural District, in the Central District of Ijrud County, Zanjan Province, Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also ...
concept . . . derived from the ancient humoral pathology with its doctrines of dyscrasia
In medicine, both ancient and modern, a dyscrasia is any of various disorders. The word has ancient Greek roots meaning "bad mixture". The concept of dyscrasia was developed by the Greek physician Galen (129–216 AD), who elaborated a model of h ...
and critical days, from the irritability theory of Albrecht von Haller (1708–1777), and from the excitation theory of John Brown (1735–1788).
In other words, as a product of its time, Mesmer's enterprise was one of ''protoscience
__NOTOC__
In the philosophy of science, there are several definitions of protoscience. Its simplest meaning (most closely reflecting its roots of '' proto-'' + ''science'') involves the earliest eras of the history of science, when the scientific m ...
'', rather than being one of ''pseudoscience
Pseudoscience consists of statements, beliefs, or practices that claim to be both scientific and factual but are incompatible with the scientific method. Pseudoscience is often characterized by contradictory, exaggerated or unfalsifiable clai ...
'' – or, even, one of ''fringe science
Fringe science refers to ideas whose attributes include being highly speculative or relying on premises already refuted. Fringe science theories are often advanced by persons who have no traditional academic science background, or by researchers ...
''.
A concept that must not be reified
It is clear from his ''Mémoire'' (1799) that Mesmer was very aware of the human propensity – in the normal, conventional use of language (la langue de convention) – to speak of "properties" or "qualities" (i.e., these "metaphysical abstractions", illusions de la méthaphysique), as if they were "substances": in Mesmer's words, "substantivise the properties", substantisia les propriétiés (Mesmer 1799, pp. 15–17). – in other words, "''reification''", in the manner of Whitehead's ''"fallacy of misplaced concreteness"''. Mesmer was also well aware of the extent to which, through the "distortion" caused by these "substantive words" (mot substantif) – which inappropriately "personified" (personnifia) these metaphysical abstractions (p. 16) – one is induced to believe in the actual physical existence of the "substance" itself. Given these observations, Mesmer was most emphatic in his continuous warnings that his abstract "principles" should not be "substantivised" It is significant that Mesmer (1799) describes how, once he had formulated the abstract, overarching (metaphorical) construct/concept of "animal magnetism" as the therapeutic agent (a quarter of a century earlier) – and with his hope that this newly described "principle of action" (principe de action), when considered as an agent, "could become a means of healing and, even, one of preserving/defending oneself against disease" (p. 7, Mesmer's emphasis) – the primary focus of his enterprise had become the threefold quest for the acquisition of an understanding of: * (a) how to rouse (and maintain) this agent, by every possible means – and acquire the knowledge of how, so-roused, it might be therapeutically harnessed in the most efficacious fashion (Mesmer, 1799, p. 48); * (b) (given that the agent's therapeutic effects were observed to be ''gradual'', rather than ''instantaneous'') the "obstacles" that typically divert, disturb, or impede the agent's capacity to attain the optimal treatment outcomes – and, once these "obstacles" had been identified, determine appropriate ways to "clear them away" ("de connoître et lever les obstacles qui peuvent troubler ou empêcher son action", p. 48); and * (c) the natural pathway along which the agent's therapeutic effects are realized, so that, in its application, these outcomes can be systematically anticipated – meaning that, with this knowledge, the (otherwise random) clinical applications can be controlled, regulated, and incrementally applied in a systematic way, until the target goal of a "cure" is attained (p. 49).Based on natural principles
Mesmer held the materialist position – that his therapies, which involved easily understood, systematic ''natural'' principles, were "physiological", rather than "psychological" interventions – in contrast to the ''supernatural'' positions of, say, the exorcist Johann Joseph Gassner (1727–1779), ::By contrast with many "faith healers", assnerhad a quasi-scientific method of diagnosis, according to which he separated diseases that should be treated by a physician from those that he should treat. He first admonished the patient that faith in the name of Jesus was essential. He then obtained consent to use the method of "trial" exorcism. He entreated the Devil to defy Jesus by producing the patient's symptoms. If the convulsions or other symptoms appeared, Gassner believed they were the work of the Devil; he proceeded to exorcise the responsible demon. If symptoms failed to appear, he could not attribute them to a demon and sent the patient to a physician. –Ernest Hilgard
Ernest Ropiequet "Jack" Hilgard (July 25, 1904 – October 22, 2001) was an American psychologist and professor at Stanford University. He became famous in the 1950s for his research on hypnosis, especially with regard to pain control. Along wit ...
, (1980).
the mystic José Custódio de Faria, a.k.a. "Abbé Faria" (1756-1819), and the magnetists, such as d'Eslon, and, later, Charles Lafontaine (1803-1892), whose demonstrations of "animal magnetism" were attended by James Braid in November 1841,
::"Mesmer's approach to healing and his healing theory were physically oriented. His explanation of the phenomena of animal magnetism was consistently formulated in terms of matter and motion, and he believed that every aspect of animal magnetism could sooner or later be verified through physical experimentation and research." (Crabtree, 1993, p. 51)
::"When Mesmer took a patient, his first concern was to determine whether the ailment was organic or functional. If it was organic, the result of physical damage to the tissue, he considered it, following isProposition 23, beyond the aid of animal magnetism. If it was functional, a physiological disorder affected by the nerves, it fell within the class of diseases he felt uniquely qualified to handle with his therapeutic technique." (Buranelli, 1975, pp. 107-108).
Charles d'Eslon
, "a disciple of the minent Frenchsurgeon J.L. Petit", was a ''docteur-régent'' of the Paris Faculty of Medicine, and the one-time personal physician to the King's brother, Charles Philippe, Comte d’Artoir – who, later (following theBourbon Restoration in France
The Bourbon Restoration was the period of French history during which the House of Bourbon returned to power after the first fall of Napoleon on 3 May 1814. Briefly interrupted by the Hundred Days War in 1815, the Restoration lasted until the J ...
) became King Charles X
Charles X (born Charles Philippe, Count of Artois; 9 October 1757 – 6 November 1836) was King of France from 16 September 1824 until 2 August 1830. An uncle of the uncrowned Louis XVII and younger brother to reigning kings Louis XVI and Loui ...
.
Association with Mesmer
d’Eslon, a one-time patient, pupil, and associate of Mesmer, published a work on Mesmer's version of animal magnetism (while still associated with Mesmer), ''Observations sur le Magnétisme Animal'' (1780), which presented details of 18 cases (10 male, 8 female) treated by Mesmer. In stressing the efficacy of Mesmer's "animal magnetism" interventions, d'Eslon defended (at p. 124) the absence of clear explanations (from Mesmer) of the mechanism through which "animal magnetism" effects its "cures" with an observation that, although thepurgative
Laxatives, purgatives, or aperients are substances that loosen stools and increase bowel movements. They are used to treat and prevent constipation.
Laxatives vary as to how they work and the side effects they may have. Certain stimulant, lubri ...
actions of '' rhubarb'' and ''Shir-Khesht manna'' (a.k.a. ''purgative manna'') are well known to the medical profession, the mechanisms involved are not; and, so, in these cases, "facts" and "experience" are "our only guides" – and, in a similar fashion, asserts d'Eslon, "in relation to Animal Magnetism, it is the same, I don't know how it works, but I do know that it does work".
d'Eslon also directly addressed the charge that Mesmer had "discovered" nothing, and that the "extraordinary things" (des choses extraordinaires) that Mesmer had demonstrably effected were due to his "captivation of the imagination" (en séduisant l’imagination), with the comment that,
::"If t were to be true thatMesmer had no other secret than that he has been able to make the imagination exert an influence upon health, would he not still be a wonderful doctor? If treatment by the use of the imagination is the best treatment, why do we not make use of it?" (1780, pp. 46-47).
Ostracism
On 7 October 1780 – still associated with Mesmer and still a member of the Paris Faculty of Medicine – d'Eslon made an official request "that an investigation of the authenticity and efficacy of Mesmer's claims and cures be made. The ''Faculté'' rejected his plea, and in refusing accused 'Eslonpersonally of misdemeanour". On 15 May 1782, d'Eslon presented the Faculty with his arguments in the form of a 144-page pamphlet; and then, "on 26 October 1782, 'Eslonwas finally struck from the aculty'sroster and forbidden to attend any meeting for a period of two years" (Duveen & Klickstein, 1955, p. 286).Post-Mesmer
In late 1782, and eighteen months before the Royal Commission, d'Eslon had (acrimoniously) parted ways with Mesmer; and, despite a brief reconciliation, the relationship was terminated in late 1783. On 28 December 1783, d'Eslon wrote a letter to the ''Journal de Paris'', which not only described the difficulties he had experienced with Mesmer, but also announced that he was opening his own (entirely independent) clinic. Following his break with Mesmer, d’Eslon not only launched his own clinical operation – on his break with Mesmer, d'Eslon took all of the patients he had brought to Mesmer with him – but also began teaching his own theories and practices (i.e., rather than those of Mesmer). According to d'Eslon's own account (d'Eslon, 1784b, pp. 25-26), Mesmer had taught 300 students, 160 of whom were medical men (Médecins), and d'Eslon himself had taught 160 medical men (this group included 21 members of the Paris Faculty of Medicine). Given that many of those who had privately paid Mesmer for details of "the secret" were greatly dissatisfied, and " ustifiablyaccused esmerof having enunciated a theory which was merely a collection of obscure principles" ( Binet & Féré, 1888, p. 13), it seems that d'Eslon's version was little better. Greatly confused by d'Eslon's version of "the secret", d'Eslon's student and associate, François Amédée Doppet, is said to have remarked that those to whom d'Eslon had revealed "the secret" doubted it even more than those to whom it had not been revealed. It was under these circumstances that a decision was made to investigate the work of d'Eslon – although he was already ostracized from the Paris Faculty of Medicine – when "d’Eslon, through influential friends, and tact, and other favourable circumstances, procured he commissions'establishment pecificallyto investigate animal magnetism ''as practised in his own clinic''" (Gauld, 1992, p. 7, emphasis added).Last days
Once d'Eslon had been expelled from the rank of ''docteur-régent'', his membership of the Faculty of Medicine was never reinstated; and unlike Mesmer, he remained in Paris following the publication of the reports of the two Commissions. Although apparently in good health in the preceding months, he died somewhat suddenly in Paris, on 21 August 1786, at the age of 47, from a complex of disorders including pneumonia, a malignant fever (une fièvre maligne), and renal colic.Aspects of Mesmer's evolving practices
Mesmer's early experiments with magnets
It is significant that Mesmer, initially impressed by the therapeutic enterprises of the Jesuit astronomer, explorer, and healer Maximilian Hell (1720–1792) – which involved the application of steel magnets that had been specifically shaped either to fit particular body contours, or to match the actual dimensions of a specific organ (e.g., the liver) – and, immediately recognizing the "''prima facie plausiblity''" of Hell's approach, purchased a number of steel magnets from Hell in 1774 and began applying them to his patients; however, as Pattie reports (1994, p. 2), Mesmer "had ntirelyabandoned the use of magnets" by 1776, because his own clinical experimentation had proved them to be utterly useless.
By 1779, Mesmer (1779, pp. 34-35) was expressing his concern that many had "confused" – such as the " Berlin Academy" in 1775 – and were continuing to "confuse" the "properties" of his (abstract/theoretical) "''Magnétisime animal''" with those of an actual physical magnet (l'aimant): objects of which, he stressed, he had only ever spoken of as possible "conductors" of "animal magnetism".
And, he argued, from this "confusion" of his "animal magnetism" with " ''mineral magnetism", his use of magnets – which, although "useful", were always "imperfect', unless they had been applied according to "''la théorie du Magnétisime animal''" – was being consistently misrepresented and misunderstood.
The glass armonica
Mesmer developed particular theatrical therapeutic rituals, often accompanied by the sounds of the Glass Armonica – an instrument invented by Benjamin Franklin himself – that were associated with a wide range of (figurative) magnetic connotations, such as the use of "magnetic wands", and the treatment tub known as "the baquet", which, in the view of Yeates (2018, p. 48), were "obviously, designed to amplify each subject's " response expectancy" (Kirsch, 1997, etc.) via impressive "''metonymical acts''" (Topley, 1976, p. 254)".The "baquet"
The "baquet" (lit. 'a tub') was a device of Mesmer's design, that he had constructed by analogy with the newly invented "''Leyden Bottle''" – i.e., "the first electric condenser iz.,_capacitor.html" ;"title="capacitor.html" ;"title="iz., capacitor">iz., capacitor">capacitor.html" ;"title="iz., capacitor">iz., capacitorin history" (Morabito, 2019, p. 90) – which was "supposed by analogy to 'store' animal magnetism" (Forrest, 1999, p. 20).
In its initial conception, Mesmer's "baquet" was "a vat containing bottles of magnetized water from which steel bars escaped through which the 'magnetization’ took place in the [subjects or patients], who were arranged around the tub holding their hands" (Morabito, loc.cit.). According to Mesmer's own description, in the (undated) "Catechism" that he had delivered exclusively to his followers,
::" he ''baquet''is a vat about six to seven feet, more or less, in diameter by eighteen inches in height. There is a double bottom in the interior of this vat, in which fragments of broken bottles, gravel, stones, and sticks of pounded sulfur and iron filings are placed. All of this is filled with water and covered up with a floor nailed into the vat. On the surface of the lid, six inches in from the rim, one makes various holes in order to allow the passage of iron rods which are arranged so that one end penetrates the bottom of the vat and the other is directed, by means of a curve, over the pit of the stomach of the patient or other affected parts of the body."
Mesmer specifically stressed the primary importance of the patients' hand-holding as a factor in the "augmentation" of the force/quality of the power of the "animal magnetism".
Moreover, and significantly, Mesmer (separately) acknowledged that, if it was ever to come to pass that he had a suitable "establishment" – i.e., one with sufficient space available for all the assembled patients to hold hands – he would "abolish the use of baquets" (je supprimerois les baquets) and, as well, also significantly remarking (loc. cit.) that, "In general, I only use these little devices c. "baquets"when I am forced to do so" (En general, je n'use des petits moyes que lorsque j'y suis forcé).
The "magnetic ''crisis''"
::"One feature of Mesmer's methods . . . was the "mesmeric crisis". Some patients, especially those suffering from more serious symptoms, experienced nervous trembling,nausea
Nausea is a diffuse sensation of unease and discomfort, sometimes perceived as an urge to vomit. While not painful, it can be a debilitating symptom if prolonged and has been described as placing discomfort on the chest, abdomen, or back of the ...
, occasionally delirium or convulsions
A convulsion is a medical condition where the body muscles contract and relax rapidly and repeatedly, resulting in uncontrolled shaking. Because epileptic seizures typically include convulsions, the term ''convulsion'' is sometimes used as a s ...
. Mesmer regarded these as an inevitable accompaniment of the process of normalization of the flow of animal magnetism, and had special padded "crisis rooms" ''salle de crisesin which patients could throw themselves about without hurting themselves, while Mesmer or his assistants gave them individual attention. The depth of the crisis naturally varied from case to case, but Mesmer insisted that ''some'' degree of crisis, no matter how slight or transient, would always be found if it was looked for carefully enough." — (Anthony Campbell, 1988, p. 36)
Given Mesmer's regular (analogical) references throughout his works to the efficient grinding activities of smoothly functioning mills – speaking of how the windmills
A windmill is a structure that converts wind power into rotational energy using vanes called sails or blades, specifically to mill grain (gristmills), but the term is also extended to windpumps, wind turbines, and other applications, in some par ...
are driven by the wind, and watermills
A watermill or water mill is a mill that uses hydropower. It is a structure that uses a water wheel or water turbine to drive a mechanical process such as milling (grinding), rolling, or hammering. Such processes are needed in the production of ...
by the flow of water. – he usefully extended those analogies to explain the circumstances in which "crises" occur, especially in relation to the magnitude of the "crises": i.e., the dramatic circumstances of the sudden restoration of the lost function of a watermill installation – a direct consequence of the magnitude of the force of the flow of water that has been applied (through the currently stationary waterwheel) to the milling mechanism, which is, in and of itself, directly related to the extent to which the (now-operative) milling mechanism was formerly stationary, out of order, or, even, jammed:
:"Mesmer states that magnetism is to the bodily organs as the wind is to the windmill . . . If the wind ceases to blow, the milling process comes to a halt, and should the cessation continue for long enough, the windmill may fall into disrepair or even ruin. The salvation of the miller comes when the wind begins to blow again, making the machinery of the windmill work again. . . . greater effort is required to start a windmill after it has stopped than to keep it going, especially if disrepair has set in. . . . n a similar fashion,when animal magnetism ceases to course freely through the nervous system, the organs begin to malfunction and the whole physiology slows down. Fluids become stagnant and viscous and begin to block the blood vessels and other canals of the body. . . . The symptoms become worse because the organs grow weaker as the obstructions grow larger and larger and vice versa. Mesmer thought the organs then must be galvanized into a greater effort than ever before to push the fluids through the natural channels, and it is animal magnetism that galvinizes them." – (Buranelli, 1975, p. 108)
The Commissions' observations and description of d'Eslon's "magnetic ''crises''"
The Commissions' remarks on d'Eslon's "magnetic ''crises''"
Noting that some of those who were "magnetized" by d'Eslon ''over an extended time'' "fell into the convulsive movements that have been called Crises" – and noting that these "convulsive movements" (mouvemens convulsifs) were "viewed y d'Eslonas evidence of the particular agent to whom they are attributed" – the "Society" Commissioners' Report, in its discussion of the "''Crises''", identified a number of common characteristics among the majority of those who displayed these "convulsive movements": :(a) Only "the most sensitive subjects" – i.e., who were "sensitive" either as a consequence of "their constitution" or of "their illness" – displayed these "convulsive movements". :(b) In the majority of cases, "convulsive movements" were only displayed after extended exposure to "magnetic procedures that involved direct physical contact" (procédés du Magnétisme animal, par contact immédiat) – there were, also, they noted, rare examples of "convulsive movements" due to the operator'saction at a distance
In physics, action at a distance is the concept that an object can be affected without being physically touched (as in mechanical contact) by another object. That is, it is the non-local interaction of objects that are separated in space.
Non- ...
, where no direct physical contact had been involved.
:(c) Even the "weakest" of patients very rarely displayed "convulsive movements" if they were "magnetized separately".
:(d) Compared with individual treatments, group treatments – ''when given to the same subjects'' – always produced a greater number of "convulsive movements", of greater magnitude, in a greater number of patients, with less treatment, and in a shorter time.
:(e) Female patients were far more likely to display "convulsive movements" than male patients.
:(f) Rich female patients (de femmes riches) were far more likely to display "convulsive movements" than poor female patients (de femmes indigentes).
:(g) The majority of those who displayed "convulsive movements" only did so after an extended exposure to group treatment at the one treatment location.
The Commissions' remarks on the perceived dangers of the "magnetic ''crises''"
In the last section of its Report, the "Franklin" Commission, in addition to its remarks on the impact of the phenomena associated with a "''crisis''", made a number of significant observations on the perceived dangers of experiencing, or simply observing, a "''crisis''" in a number of domains, including: :(a) the immediate and long-term physiological and psychological consequences of experiencing a "''crisis''" upon the "animal economy" of an already seriously ill person, :(b) the immediate and long-term physiological and psychological consequences of experiencing a "''crisis''" upon the "animal economy" of an otherwise completely healthy person, :(c) (given the considerable impact of the onlooker-consequences of issues such asbehavioral contagion
Behavioral contagion is a form of social contagion involving the spread of behavior through a group. It refers to the propensity for a person to copy a certain behavior of others who are either in the vicinity, or whom they have been exposed to. Th ...
, Vicarious trauma
Vicarious trauma (VT) was a term invented by McCann and Pearlman that is used to describe how working with traumatized clients affects trauma therapists. Previously, the phenomenon was referred to as secondary traumatic stress coined by Dr. Charle ...
, post-traumatic stress disorder
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental and behavioral disorder that can develop because of exposure to a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, warfare, traffic collisions, child abuse, domestic violence, or other threats o ...
. etc.), the immediate and long-term physiological and psychological consequences of observing another individual manifest a "''crisis''" upon the "animal economy" of an individual observer (regardless of whether the observer in question was healthy or not), and, on, a larger scale,
:(d) the detrimental effects of the "''crises''" on society as a whole.
Observations of the frequency of "crises"
One interesting aspect of a number of the pro-d'Eslon and pro-Mesmer responses to the Commissions' Reports, collectively, was that they provided figures on the level to which the author in question had observed individual patients manifest full-blown "magnetic crises" as a consequence of their exposure to an extended sequence of standard "magnetic" treatments. * In his response to the Reports (d'Eslon, 1784b, pp. 21-22), d'Eslon complained that the Commissioners' emphasis on "convulsions" was not justified: among those who received group treatment during the Commission's investigations (i.e., involving "50 to 60 individuals"), he wrote, there were never more than six or seven who displayed "convulsions" to any degree – and, further, of the more than 500 patients he had treated over the preceding three years, only 20 of those had manifested "convulsions" (and almost all of those had been suffering from "convulsions" before presenting for any treatment from d'Eslon). He also rejected the suggestions of any connection between the "convulsions" ofepilepsy
Epilepsy is a group of non-communicable neurological disorders characterized by recurrent epileptic seizures. Epileptic seizures can vary from brief and nearly undetectable periods to long periods of vigorous shaking due to abnormal electrica ...
and those of the "''crises''", citing the cases of two of his patients, who were epileptic and "frequently had seizures at home", who never had a single "attack" during their treatment at his clinic (p. 23).
* Joseph Michel Antoine Servan, the one time Advocate-General to the '' Parlement'' of Grenoble
lat, Gratianopolis
, commune status = Prefecture and commune
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, image size =
, caption = From upper left: Panorama of the city, Grenoble’s cable cars, place Saint- ...
, who reported (at Servan, 1784, p. 3) that, in "the Provinces" – where the various social classes were not kept apart around "the baquet", as they were in Paris – that, in relation to the concerns that the Commissioners expressed in relation to the "seizures" they had observed (and identified as one of the principal "dangers of magnetism"), he (Servan) had only observed "barely a few convulsions" ("not at all annoying in themselves") in only five or six individuals out of the fifty whose sequential treatments (and responses) he had observed in person.
* Jean-Baptiste Bonnefoy (1756–1789), a member of the Royal College of Surgeons at Lyon, and an associate of Mesmer, rejected the notion that Animal Magnetism was "the art of arousing convulsions" (l'art d'exciter des convulsions) (Bonnefoy, 1784, pp. 87-88); and, although he chose not to comment on d'Eslon's treatments, he stated that, from his own direct observation of Mesmer's treatment of more than 200 patients, he had only seen eight of them display "''crises''" – and, further, that only six of the more than 120 patients treated in his own clinic had displayed a "''crisis''".
"Mesmerism" vs. "Animal Magnetism"
In order to understand the significance of the two Commissions' concentration on their examination of d'Eslons' claims for the existence of "animal magnetism" (rather than, that is, conducting an examination of the clinical efficacy of Mesmer's actual therapeutic practices) – and, in order to clarify certain ambiguities, and correct particular errors that persist in the literature – a number of basic facts need to be addressed (see, for example, Yeates, 2018, pp. 48-52), it is useful to isolate what later, subsequent to the publication of Wolfart's ''Mesmerismus'' (1814), became known as "Mesmerism" from other "animal magnetism" practices in general. Similarities and differences
The materialist "mesmerists" and the metaphysical "animal magnetists" each held that all ''animate'' beings (i.e., "living" beings: humans, animals, plants, etc.), in virtue of being alive, possessed an invisible, natural "magnetic" or "gravitational force" – thus ''magnetismus animalis'', "animal magnetism", or ''gravitas animalis'', "animal gravity" – and the therapeutic interventions of each were directed at manipulating the ebb and flow of their subject's " energy field". ::That constant flux and reflux of the vital principles and corporeal humours in man (without which both motion and life are stopped) produce those effects of sympathy and antipathy which become more natural and less miraculous; the atmospherical particle to each individual receives from the general fluid the proper attraction and repulsion. In the divers crossings of those individual atmospheres, some emanations are more attractive between two beings, and others more repulsive; so again, when one body possesses more fluid than another, it will repel; and that body which is less will make an effort to restore itself into equilibrium or sympathy with the other body. — Ebenezer Sibly (1820). Despite these fundamental similarities, there were many (even more fundamental) differences between the two.The "mesmerists"
In order to foster and promote orthopraxia, the materialist "mesmerists" used qualitative (rather than quantitative) constructs – centred on Mesmer's abstract and metaphorical overarching analogies withgravity
In physics, gravity () is a fundamental interaction which causes mutual attraction between all things with mass or energy. Gravity is, by far, the weakest of the four fundamental interactions, approximately 1038 times weaker than the stro ...
, terrestrial magnetism
Earth's magnetic field, also known as the geomagnetic field, is the magnetic field that extends from Earth's interior out into space, where it interacts with the solar wind, a stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun. The magnetic fi ...
, and hydraulics
Hydraulics (from Greek: Υδραυλική) is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry, and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the liquid counte ...
– to explain the application of their techniques and to describe their therapeutic rationale.
::“When we call this principle magnetic fluid, vital fluid, we are using a figurative expression. We know that something emanates from the magnetizer: this something is not a solid, and we call it a fluid.” – Joseph-Philippe-François Deleuze (1814), p. 233.
The "animal magnetists"
In contrast to the mesmerists, the metaphysical "magnetists" – who (mistakenly) '' reified'' (i.e., "substantivised") the magnetic/fluidic metaphors of Mesmer – firmly believed that they were channeling a substantial "fluidium" and were manipulating a particular, substantial "force". ::What Thomas Brown(e), writing in the seventeenth century, deemed a vulgar error was the belief in sympathy as a unifying force working outside the human state, in this instance between two magnetically charged needles that of themselves are clearly incapable of having feelings, sensibilities, and affections. This alternative use of sympathy experienced a resurgence in the early 1780s, particularly in the field of animal magnetism, a practice that drew on the study of magnetism and electricity and fused these with the language of magic and the occult, blurring the boundaries between superstition and rational experimental philosophy.The "higher" and "lower" phenomena of the magnetists
By the time of James Braid's (1841) Manchester encounter with the "magnetic demonstrator" Charles Lafontaine, those who were still committed to the existence of a substantial 'magnetic fluid", etc., maintained that the phenomena produced by their acts of "magnetization" were of two general classes – ''lower phenomena'', and ''higher phenomena'' – the distinction being "that, while there might be natural explanations for 'lower' phenomena, 'higher' phenomena could only be explained in terms of a ''paranormal'' or ''metaphysical agency''" (Yeates, 2018, p. 52).The investigations
The substantial existence of "animal magnetism" and "magnetic fluid" were investigated
Rather than being concerned with the applications, utility, and clinical efficacy of d'Eslon's "animal magnetism", the primary concern of each Commission was the significant, crucial, and exclusive question of whether or not d'Eslon's (supposed) "animal magnetic fluid" actually existed in some substantial physical way – for the simple reason that, as the two sets of Commissioners each noted in their independent reports, "Animal magnetism may well exist without being useful but it cannot be useful if it does not exist."Mesmer's earlier refusal to have his "magnetic" interventions scrutinized
Already, in his earlier (18 September 1780) interaction with the ''Paris Faculty of Medicine'', Mesmer had refused to have his therapeutic interventions on a set of entirely "new" patients directly scrutinized, claiming that his already-achieved "cures" were an objective matter of record. Mesmer justified his refusal as follows:
:"Here is what I said to M. de Lassonne; however bizarre t may seemat first sight it is nevertheless entirely serious and very much applicable to the question. When a thief is convicted of theft he is hanged: when a murderer is convicted of murder he is executed on the wheel. But to exact these terrible penalties the thief is not required to thieve again to prove that he is a thief, and the murderer is not required to murder a second time to prove that he is a murderer. One is content to establish by testimony and by material evidence that the theft or the murder was committed and then one hangs or executes on the wheel in good conscience.Very well! It is the same with me. I ask, kindly, to be treated like a man to be executed on the wheel or hanged and that an effort should be made to establish that I have cured atientswithout asking me to perform new cures to prove that I am to be regarded as someone who cures."
Mesmer's "cures" were never investigated
In relation to the question of the agency/cause of Mesmer's supposed "cures" – and in the process of constructing the protocols for their investigations into d'Eslon's "animal magnetism" – both Commissions were well aware that "an effect's ''objective reality'' does not substantiate ny of theproffered explanations or its existence (Yeates, 2018, p. 61). Notwithstanding Mesmer's earlier refusal to co-operate, and aside from the fact that the two Commissions were specifically charged with investigating d’Eslon's claims for the existence of "animal magnetism", there were two additional, significant reasons for not investigating the veracity of the "cures" attributed to Mesmer. * (1) They had no persuasive evidence to suggest that the reports of Mesmer's "cured patients" were false. * (2) The Commissioner's took the entirely reasonable and non-controversial step of accepting the existence of Mesmer's "cured patients" as '' a given''.Salas & Salas (1996), p. 71; Franklin, et al. (2002), p. 338. In support of this decision, and noting that "observations over the centuries prove & Physicians themselves recognize, that Nature alone & without the help of medical treatment cures a great number of patients", the Commissioners agreed with the previously-expressed observations of Mesmer – namely, that, even if significant improvements in his patients' presenting conditions had been objectively verified, the existence of those "cures", in and of themselves, would not have provided conclusive evidence of (metaphorical) "animal magnetism" – and, in support of their decision, the Commissioners cited Mesmer's own statements: viz., that “nothing conclusively proves that the Physician or Medicine heals the sick”, and because of that, it was (in Mesmer's own words), "a mistake to believe that this kind of proof is irrefutable". Further, as Kihlstrom (2002) observed, even though the "Franklin Commission" had accepted that "Mesmer's cures were genuine", and that "he was able to succeed where conventional approaches had failed", ::"evidence of efficacy was not sufficient for academic approval. Thescientific revolution
The Scientific Revolution was a series of events that marked the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy) and chemistry transfo ...
had made physicians increasingly dissatisfied with purely ''empirical'' treatments, which were known to be effective but whose underlying mechanisms were unknown. In the emerging profession of scientific
Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.
Science may be as old as the human species, and some of the earliest archeological evidence for ...
medicine, theories of treatment, like theories of disease, had to conform to what was known about anatomy and physiology. Then, as now, this scientific basis distinguished medicine from quackery
Quackery, often synonymous with health fraud, is the promotion of fraudulent or ignorant medical practices. A quack is a "fraudulent or ignorant pretender to medical skill" or "a person who pretends, professionally or publicly, to have skill, ...
and so was an important source of the physician's professional authority. While Mesmer wanted approval for his technique, the academy wanted verification of his theory." (p. 414)
The efficacy of "magnetic" treatments and the agency of (supposed) "magnetic" cures were not investigated
The two Reports also (separately, and in some detail) explained why the nature of the "effects" of (supposedly efficacious) treatments were not being examined, and why the agency of the (supposed verified) "cures" were not being investigated. In noting that there were two different ways that "the action of magnetism on animate bodies" ("l’action du Magnétisme sur les corps animés") could be observed: ::(a) from the ''long-term'' curative effects of "magnetic" treatments on disease, or ::(b) from the changes produced by its ''temporary'' effects on the individual's "animal economy" (l’économie animale), and, despite d'Eslon's insistence that its investigations principally (and, almost, exclusively) concentrate on the "''prolonged''" effects of his (d'Eslon's) treatments on disease, the "Franklin Commission" firmly stated that its investigations would ''exclusively concentrate'' on the "''momentary''" effects of d'Eslon's procedures on the "animal economy".Problems with objectively determining the precise agency of any supposed "cure"
The Commissioners (Bailly, 1784, p. 15) stressed that, because they had been specifically charged with determining whether (or not) d'Eslon's "magnetic fluid" actually existed in some substantial form, and because it was obvious that, in order to unequivocally settle the "uncertain" and "misleading" issue of whether there were real "cures" of "real" diseases from d'Eslon's therapeutic interventions, and whether any such "cures" were entirely the "effects" of d'Eslon's treatment, ''and nothing else'' – and even if the Commissioners were able "to strip from these therapeutic effects all of the illusions which might be involved with them" – any such determination would require an "infinity of cures", supported by the "experience of several centuries". And, further, given the specified goal of the Commission, the significance of whatever its findings might be, and the obligation to produce its Report "promptly", the Commissioners considered that, ::"it was heirduty . . . to confine themselves to arguments purely physical, that is, to the momentaneous iceffects of the fluid upon the animal frame, excluding from these effects all the illusions which might mix with them, and assuring themselves that they could proceed from no other cause than the animal magnetism."Problems with objectively determining the precise therapeutic action of any supposed "efficacious remedy"
In support of its decision, the "Franklin Commission" produced a cogent, extended argument, consistent with the medical knowledge of the day, that is equally relevant to similar investigations in the present day: ::The majority of diseases have their seat in the interior part of our frame. The collective experience of a great number of centuries has made us acquainted with the symptoms, which indicate and discriminate them; the same experience has taught the method in which they are to be treated.What is the object of the efforts of the physician in this method? It is not to oppose and to subdue nature, it is to assist her in her operations. Nature, says the father of the medical science iz.,_Hippocrates.html" ;"title="Hippocrates.html" ;"title="iz., Hippocrates">iz., Hippocrates">Hippocrates.html" ;"title="iz., Hippocrates">iz., Hippocrates cures the diseased; but sometimes she encounters obstacles, which constrain her in her course, and uselessly consume her strength.
The physician is the minister of nature; an attentive observer, he studies the method in which she proceeds. If that method be firm, strong, regular and well directed, the physician looks on in silence, and [is careful of not] disturbing it by remedies which would at least be useless; if the method be [hindered], he facilitates it; if it be too slow or too rapid, he accelerates or retards it.
Sometimes, to accomplish his object, he confines himself to the regulation of the diet: sometimes he employs medicines.
The action of a medicine, introduced into the human body, is a new force, combined with the principal force by which our life is maintained: if the remedy follow the same route, which this force has already opened for the expulsion of diseases, it is useful, it is salutary iz., conducive to health if it tend to open different routes, and to turn aside this interior action, it is pernicious.
In the mean time it must be confessed that this salutary or pernicious influence, real as it is, may frequently escape common observation.
The natural history of man presents us in this respect with very singular phenomena.
It may be there seen that
regimen
A regimen is a plan, or course of action such as a Diet (nutrition), diet, exercise or medical treatment. A salt#Health effects, low-salt diet is a regimen. A course of penicillin is a regimen, and there are many chemotherapy regimens in the treat ...
s the most opposite, have not prevented the attainment of an advanced old age. We may there see men, attacked according to all appearance with the same disease, recovering in the pursuit of opposite regimens, and in the use of remedies totally different from each other; nature is in these instances sufficiently powerful to maintain the vital principle in spite of the improper regimen, and to triumph at once over oththe distemper and the remedy. If it iz., "the vital principle"have this power of resisting the action of medicine, by a still stronger reason it must have the power of operating without medicine.
The experience of the efficacy of remedies is always therefore attended with some uncertainty; in the case of the magnetism the uncertainty has this addition, the uncertainty of its existence.
How then can we decide upon the action of an agent, whose existence is contested, from the treatment of diseases; when the effect of medicines is doubtful, whose existence is not at all problematical? – Bailly (1784a, pp. 11-13).
Other highly significant, but unassociated "causative" factors
In addition to reflecting the position of the "Franklin Commission" in these matters, the "Society Commission" also noted that there were other equally significant ''causative'' factors, concomitant with, but unassociated with, the treatment delivered, in relation to the circumstances of the patients themselves; namely, ::"the hope f being curedthat they conceived, the exercise that they took every day, nd especially, whilst under the "magnetic" treatmentthe suspension of the remedies they were previously using – the quantity of which is often so harmful in such cases – these are, in themselves, multiple and sufficient causes for the results that have been said to have been observed in similar circumstances". – Poissonnier, et al. (1784, p. 36).Common misrepresentation of fact
The preceding facts expose the error – a classic example of equivocation due to lexical ambiguity – in the commonly expressed (in modern literature) and extremely misleading misrepresentation of affairs; namely, the (historically incorrect, and mistaken) implication that, rather than simply having, for convenience, accepted Mesmer's assertions at face value (and left it at that), both Commissions had ''objectively verified'' that: :(a) prior to Mesmer's intervention, all of those who had been supposedly "cured" by Mesmer had, indeed, been suffering from a "real" medical disorder, :(b) subsequent to Mesmer's intervention, all of those who had been supposedly "cured" by Mesmer had been genuinely "cured" of their "real" pre-intervention disorders; and :(c) it was Mesmer himself that had "cured" those patients. Consequently, ::"Although it is entirely correct to assert that both sets of Commissioners acceptedn a manner of speaking
N, or n, is the fourteenth letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''en'' (pronounced ), plural ''ens''.
History
...
that Mesmer's "cures" were, indeed, "cures", it is completely wrong to suggest that any of the Commissioners accepted that any of those "cured" individuals had been "cured" ''by Mesmer''.
Procedures
The "Franklin" Commission's investigations were conducted at a number of different locations, including d’Eslon's clinic (which they visited once a week), Lavoisier's home, and the gardens of Franklin's Passy residence. The intricate structure and detailed procedures of the investigations were designed by Lavoisier; and great care was taken to eliminate what James Braid would later identify as " sources of fallacy".
In the process of examining d'Eslon's claims, the "Franklin Commissioners" not only tested the influence of a wide range of situations, circumstances, variables, but also, from time-to-time, individually presented themselves as experimental subjects, because, they reported, "they were very curious to experience through their own senses the reported effects of this agent".
When they visited d’Eslon's establishment, the Commissioners discovered that, not only did d’Eslon's standard therapeutics involve (his version of) Mesmer's "''baquet''", but also a musical (and, from time to time, vocal) accompaniment as a standard part of his treatment:
::"They saw in the centre of a large apartment a circular box, made of oak, and about a foot or a foot and an ichalf deep, which is called the bucket iz., the "''baquet''" the lid of this box is pierced with a number of holes, in which are inserted branches of iron, elbowed and moveable. The patients are arranged in ranks about this ''baquet''" and each has his branch of iron, which by means of the elbow may be applied immediately to the part affected; a cord passed round their bodies connects them one with the other: sometimes a second means of communication is introduced, by the insertion of the thumb of each patient between the forefinger and thumb of the patient next him; the thumb thus inserted is pressed by the person holding it; the impression received by the left hand of the patient, communicates through his right, and thus passes through the whole circle.A piano forté is placed in one corner of the apartment, and different airs are played with various degrees of rapidity; vocal music is sometimes added to the instrumental.
The persons who superintend the process, have each of them an iron rod in his hand, from ten to twelve inches in length." – "Franklin" Report (pp. 3-4.) And, moreover, given that the overarching metaphorical "principle" of Mesmer had been (inappropriately) ''reified'' ("''substantified''") by d'Eslon – and, also, given that "the existence of 'Eslon'salleged magnetic fluid was only based on the effects on the patients: in other words, the existence of a ubstantialphysical entity as beinginferred not from instrumental measurements and/or quantitative considerations, but by the psychophysical reaction of a living body" (Bersani, 2011, p. 61) – it is significant that, ::"the commissioners in the progress of their examination discovered, by means of an
electrometer
An electrometer is an electrical instrument for measuring electric charge or electrical potential difference. There are many different types, ranging from historical handmade mechanical instruments to high-precision electronic devices. Modern ...
and a needle of iron not touched with the loadstone, that the ''baquet''"contained no substance either electric or magnetical; and from the detail that M. Deslon ichas made to them respecting the interior construction of the ''baquet''" they cannot infer any physical agent, capable of contributing to the imputed effects of the magnetism." – "Franklin" Report (p. 5.)
The conduct and rationale of the Commission's investigations is described in considerable detail in its Report.
In the process of their investigations they discovered that many non-"magnetised" subjects – wrongly believing themselves to have been "magnetised" – displayed a wide range of "magnetic" phenomena; and, by contrast, supposedly "magnetised" subjects, believing themselves to be non-"magnetised", displayed no "magnetic" phenomena at all. For instance, during the investigations conducted at Franklin's residence, d'Eslon "magnetized" one of five trees in Franklin's garden and, when a "sensitive" subject was brought to the trees, he fainted at the foot of one of the other four; and, on another occasion, during the investigations undertaken at Lavoisier's house, a normal cup of water swallowed by a subject (who believed the water to be "magnetized") immediately produced "magnetic" phenomena.
The Commission's procedures were, obviously, " pecifically designedto give unequivocal answers to clearly defined hypotheses" (Donaldson, 2017, p. 166):
::(1) "they tested subjects from all classes of society in both group and one-to-one treatment settings";Yeates (2018), p. 51.
::(2) "(given claims that "animal magnetism" affected 'the infirm' differently from 'the healthy'), they tested d’Eslon's procedures on genuine 'healthy', genuine 'infirm', and sham 'infirm' subjects";
::(3) "they observed and compared the responses of subjects when blindfolded and when not" – and, as Jensen, et al. (2016, pp. 13) observe, the Commissioner's use of blindfolding very strongly suggests that, rather than " einginterested in proving omething thatthey believed to be true", their investigations concentrated on "disproving, rather than proving, the efficacy of 'Eslon'streatments"; and
::(4) "they observed the responses of all varieties of subject to genuine and sham 'magnetisation'; and, as well, their responses to genuine and sham 'magnetised' locations, objects, apparatus, and equipment".
The Report(s) of the "Franklin Commission"
::''L'imagination fait tout, le Magnétism est nul'' ('Imagination is everything, magnetism nothing') – "Franklin Commission" Report. ::"Rather than introducing a problem – the Franklin report . . . provided a language for addressing one that already existed, forcefully articulating the suspicion that mechanical imagination could plague natural philosophers and religious "fanatics" alike" (Ogden, 2012, p. 149). The "Franklin Commission's" investigations produced three separate reports.The issue of d'Eslon vs. Mesmer
At the head of their principal report, the Commissioners directly summarize Mesmer's ''27 Propositions'', as expounded in Mesmer's 1779 ''Memoire'' (1779, pp. 74-83). They also quote Mesmer's own "characterization" of his principle – namely, that "In the influence of the magnetism, Nature holds out to us a sovereign instrument for securing the health and lengthening the existence of mankind".The Commission's report
The first (66 page) report was presented to the King on 11 August 1784.
::"Knowing that their report would be published and that the task of convincing the public lay wholly in their hands, the authors produced an account that was both scientifically sound and accessible, making for compelling reading. Chronology was unimportant; few dates were specified. The rationale for every decision and the details of every experiment, however, were explained in terms that anyone could understand.''Founders Online'' (n.d.).
Immediate publication and dissemination
The report was immediately published by the government printer; and at least 20,000 copies were rapidly and very widely circulated throughout France and neighbouring countries. Within four months (16 December 1784), the London publishing house of Joseph Johnson was announcing the publication of a complete English version, translated by William Godwin (i.e., Godwin, 1785), and, in between February and July 1785, four different "periodical abridgements of the Franklin report, each printed multiple times in the Atlantic coast publications" were published in the United States (Ogden, 2012, p. 167); and, in 1837, Godwin's complete translation was published, in Philadelphia, as part of a collected work.Touch, imagination, and imitation
Clearly "recogniz ngthat publicly endorsing the curative effects of a technique that had no demonstrable basis in the science of the late 18th century could lead to a proliferation of medical quackery" (McConkey & Perry, 2002, p. 328) and, based on their own "experiments" and "observations", the Commissioners concluded that "the true causes of the effects attributed to this new agent known by the name of ''animal magnetism'', ndto this fluid which is said to circulate in the body and to communicate itself from one individual to another" were "touch, imagination, ndimitation": ::... having demonstrated by decisive experiments, that the imagination without the magnetism produces convulsions, and that the magnetism, without the imagination produces nothing; he Commissionersconcluded with an icunanimous voice respecting the existence and the utility of the magnetism, that the existence of the fluid is absolutely destitude of proof, that the fluid having no existence can consequently have no use, that the violent symptoms observed in the public process are to be ascribed to the compression, to the imagination called into action, and to that propensity to mechanical imitation, which leads us in spite of ourselves to the repetition of what strikes our senses. – George Winter (1801).No evidence to support d'Eslon's claims
The Commission found no evidence of any kind to support d'Eslon's claim for the existence of a "magnetic fluid": ::"The most reliable way to ascertain the existence of Animal-magnetism fluid l’existence du fluide magnétique animal'would be to make its presence tangible; but it did not take long for the Commissioners to recognize that this fluid escapes detection by all the senses. Unlike electricity, it is neither luminescent nor visible. Its action does not manifest itself visibly as does the attraction of a magnet; it is without taste or smell; it spreads noiselessly & envelops or penetrates you without your sense of touch warning you of its presence. Therefore, if it exists in us & around us, it does so in an absolutely undetectable manner." – Bailly (1784a), p. 9.The Commission's secret report ("for the King's eyes only")
A second (brief) report – which had been presented privately to the King on 11 August 1784, but not made public until 1800 (i.e., in the time of The Consulate period of French First Republic) – specifically addressed the perceived moral dangers occasioned by the physical practices of the animal magnetists:
::"The uniformly critical tone of this private document was in stark contrast to the scrupulously evenhanded voice of the official report; . . . nd itsmessage was blunt: the practice of animal magnetism was a threat not only to health . . . but also to morality, especially in the case of weak, virtuous women. . . . tprovided an explicit description of a certain kind of prolonged "convulsion" that resulted not from the alleged healing power of animal magnetism but rather from the close physical contact and mutual arousal of male magnetizers and female patients who did not fully understand what was being done to them. Deslon ichimself had admitted, under interrogation by he Chief of Paris Police Lenoir ho was present at a number of the Commission's investigations how easy it would be to abuse a woman in such a state. Many women had been in treatment for years without being cured. Most of them were not ill to begin with, but had been drawn to the clinic for the amusement it provided, attending regularly as a relief from boredom. Around the tub, the ease with which symptoms spread from person to person was striking. The commissioners reiterated the health risks of inducing full-blown crises, a dangerous practice that any responsible physician would shun. They lsoimplied n this secret reportthe possibility that magnetic seances were a deliberate fraud."
In concluding their report, they stress that they had not observed any "real cures" (guérisons réelles) from d'Eslon's treatments – which were, they noted, both "very long" and "unfruitful" – and, also, stress that, among d'Eslon's patients, those who had been under his treatment for 18 months to 2 years, without any benefit, ceased to present for any further treatment, having exhausted their patience (p. 152).
Finally, they noted (pp. 153-155) that, although charged with investigating d'Eslon's claims and d'Eslon's methods alone, they were satisfied that – offering essentially the same explanation as that in their for-public-consumption report (see "''The Report's final footnote''" in the Gallery above) – although they had not examined any of Mesmer's methods, etc., their findings applied equally to Mesmer and his methods, especially in relation to the attribution of all observed phenomena to "contact", "imagination", and/or "imitation" (p. 154).
The Commission's brief "courtesy report" to the Royal Academy of Sciences
On 4 September 1784, Bailly presented a third, brief (15 page) courtesy report to the Royal Academy of Sciences (Bailly, 1784b) on behalf of himself, Franklin, Le Roy, de Bory, and Lavoisier (i.e., those Commissioners who were also Academy members), which provided their Academy colleagues with a brief account of the Commission's proceedings, the rationale behind its investigations, and the results. Noting that all of their investigations were jointly conducted with the four members of the Paris Faculty, and that all nine shared the same "interest in iscoveringthe truth", they stressed that ''all'' the findings of their combined efforts were "''unanimous''" (p. 2).
The importance of "the Sciences"
Further (p. 4), given that the understanding of ''the Sciences'' – "which ollectivelyare increased by stablishingthe truth" (qui s’accroissent par les vérités) – is increased by "the suppression of error": i.e., given that "error" is ''always'' "a badleaven
In cooking, a leavening agent () or raising agent, also called a leaven () or leavener, is any one of a number of substances used in doughs and batters that cause a foaming action (gas bubbles) that lightens and softens the mixture. An altern ...
that ferments and, in the long run, corrupts the mass into which it has been introduced". By contrast, however, in those cases wherein the "error" has been generated by "The Empire of Science", and has spread to "the multitude" – not only to divide and agitate minds, but also, ''in deceptively presenting a means of curing the sick, prevent them from seeking their cures elsewhere'' – "good Government has an interest in destroying it".
Moreover, anticipating the later remarks of Louis Brandeis ("Publicity is justly commended as a remedy for social and industrial diseases. Sunlight is said to be the best of disinfectants; electric light the best policeman": Brandeis, 1913, p. 10), the Commissioners (p. 4) remarked that, in terms of the "good Government" of an "Enlightened nation", "the distribution of light is a fine use of authority!" (C'est un bel emploi de l’autorité, que celui de distribuer la lumière!).
Not only did they endorse the Administration's decision to conduct an Inquiry, but they also "embraced the honour mplicit inits choice" of their own appointment as Commissioners.
Physics
Noting that the "greater" and "more extraordinary" a discovery, the more difficult it was to settle on suitable proof, they reported that, as ''physicists'', they were unable to detect the presence of d'Eslon's supposed (substantial) "fluid" (p. 6). From this absence of "physical evidence", they were forced, instead, to "examine the affections of the spirit and the ideas of those who had been exposed to the action of 'Magnetism'"; and, from this, ceased to be "physicists", and became nothing more than "philosophers" (p. 8).Chemistry
However, having been unable to operate as physicists, they had decided to follow the standard procedures of "chemists" – who, having "decomposed substances" and thereby discovered their "principles", assured themselves of the "exactness" of their findings by "recomposing" the same substances from their "reunited" constituents (p. 9).Imagination
Given their inability to detect any (substantial) 'magnetism' – and, from their observations that the "effects" (that were attributed by d'Eslon to the supposed 'magnetism' and the supposed 'fluid') were only manifested ''when the subjects believed'' they were 'magnetised' (and were not manifested ''when they were unaware that'' they had been 'magnetised') – the Commissioners concluded that the "principle" involved was the subject's "imagination"; and, therefore, as a consequence of their investigations, they were well satisfied that they had been "fully successful" in experimentally proving that the observed "effects" had been produced "by the power of the imagination alone" (p. 9). More than a century later, and entirely consistent with the Commissioners' findings, both Jean-Martin Charcot (of the '' "Hysteria School" of hypnosis'' at the Salpêtrière hospital), and his rival,Hippolyte Bernheim
Hippolyte Bernheim (17 April 1840, in Mulhouse – 2 February 1919, in Paris) was a French physician and neurologist. He is chiefly known for his theory of suggestibility in relation to hypnotism.
Life
Born into a Jewish family, Bernheim receiv ...
(of the '' "Suggestion School" of hypnosis'' at Nancy in Alsace-Lorraine), were united in their views that all of the supposed “miracle cures” at Lourdes
Lourdes (, also , ; oc, Lorda ) is a market town situated in the Pyrenees. It is part of the Hautes-Pyrénées department in the Occitanie region in southwestern France. Prior to the mid-19th century, the town was best known for the Châ ...
were due to "auto-suggestion".
The Report(s) of the "Society Commission"
The "Society Commission's" investigations produced two separate reports.The report of four of the five Commissioners
The first of the two reports, made by four of the five Commissioners (of 39 pages) – namely, Charles-Louis-François Andry, Claude-Antoine Caille, Pierre Jean Claude Mauduyt de La Varenne, and Pierre-Isaac Poissonnier – was presented to the King on 16 August 1784. Given that the "Society" Commissioners' investigations were far less complex than those conducted by the "Franklin Commission" – and, also, given that the (smaller number of) experiments that they described "duplicate similar ones in the Franklin Commission's"Report" (Pattie, ibid., p. 156) – the report itself is briefer (39 pages), far less complex, and, therefore, far less influential. The Report was divided into two sections: * Part One (pp. 2-21), discussing the theories of the practices known as "Animal Magnetism". It commences with d'Eslon's definition of "animal magnetism"; namely that it is "the action which one man exercises on another, either through immediate contact or at a certain distance by the mere pointing of a finger or any kind of conduct", and that "this action", according to d'Eslon, "is the effect of a fluid that is distributed throughout the universe" * Part Two (pp. 22-37), discussing the procedures and practices of "Animal Magnetism", as well as addressing the issues of their therapeutic efficacy (or not), and those of whether (or not) the procedures/practices should be admitted to conventional medical practice ("''doivent-ils être admis en Médecine!''": p. 22). The conclusions drawn (pp. 37-39) were, in brief, that they had found no evidence of d'Eslon's "magnetic fluid", that there were "no grounds for any belief in animal magnetism", that "the effects attributed to it are due to known causes", including not only the influence of "contact", "imagination", and/or "imitation", but also the influence of "the environment of the treatment room with its closed windows, fetid air, dim light, and the sight of other patients nd their responses to their treatments – and, as Laurence notes, that "the bservedresults . . . were not due to animal magnetism but to the patients‘ rest, exercise, abstinence from medication, and hopes for a cure!" (2002, p,316) – and that, from this, there was no reason for "the procedures to which the name "animal magnetism" has been given o beintroduced into the practice of medicine" (Pattie, 1994, p. 157).The (later) representations of Burdin and Dubois
Although the "Society" Commission did not directly investigate the clinical efficacy of d'Eslon's therapeutic interventions, and did not examine the circumstances of any earlier (i.e., pre-Commission) "cures" claimed by d"Eslon, two members of the Royal Academy of Medicine, Charles Burdin (1778-1856) and , writing in 1841, drew attention to the fact that, in the process of their (1784) investigations, the "Society" Commissioners identified three categories of patient treated by d'Eslon – (a) those with an "obvious ailment" with "a known cause", (b) those with "mild" and "vague" ailments with no known cause, and, finally, (c) ''the melancholics'' ("Les mélancoliques") – and, significantly, having followed the collective progress of d'Eslon's patients over a period of four months, the Commissioners found no evidence of any kind that any members of the '(a) group' (many of whom had been receiving d'Eslon's treatment "for more than a year") had been "cured" (guéris), or, even, "noticeably relieved" (notablement soulagés) of their ailment.de Jussieu's "dissenting" report
The second of the two reports, made by de Jussieu alone (of 51 pages) was independently published on 17 September 1784.
In de Jussieu's dissenting view, " nddespite d’Eslon's "magnetic fluid" claims having been debunked e felt thatthere were sufficient “effects” (such as, for instance, ‘post-magnetic amnesia’) unattributable to "imagination" that still required further investigation into their exact nature; and, therefore, he argued, the continued use of animal magnetism was justified" (Yeates, 2018, p. 50).
Noting that, in his view, "a longer use of this agent will make its real action and degree of usefulness to be better understood", de Jussieu concluded:
::The theory of magnetism cannot be admitted so long as it will not be developed and supported by solid facts. The experiments instituted to ascertain the existence of the magnetic fluid prove only that man produces on his like a sensible action by friction, by contact, and more rarely by simple approximation at some distance. This action, attributed to a universal fluid not demonstrated, certainly appertains to animal heat 'la chaleur animale''existing in bodies, which constantly emanates from them, is carried to a considerable distance, and is capable of passing from one body into another. Animal heat is developed, increased, or diminished in a body by moral as well as by physical causes. Judged by its effects, it participates in the property of tonic remedies, and like them produces salutary or injurious effects according to the quantity communicated, and according to the circumstances in which it is employed. – de Jussieu, 1784, pp. 50-51.
Responses to the Commissions' conclusions
::A measure of the influence of . . . the claims investigated, the methods employed, and the conclusions reached . . . ythe Franklin Report is seen in the changing fortunes of Mesmer during the months of 1784. Prior to the submission of the Report, Mesmer had been the toast of Paris, dealing with many wealthy patrons . . . Following publication of the Report, Mesmer was a focus of public scorn and ridicule . . . – McConkey & Barnier (1991, pp. 77-78)
The release of the reports generated a proliferation of publications, many of which were simply addressing issues relating to either "mesmerism" or "animal magnetism" in general – such as, for instance, those of Jean-Jacques Paulet
Jean-Jacques Paulet (26 April 1740 – 4 August 1826) was a French mycologist.
Paulet was born in Anduze, France and studied medicine in Montpellier, where he received his PhD in March 1764. He published in Paris in 1765 a book titled ''d’Histo ...
(1784), and (1784) – while others, such as those of Charles Joseph Devillers, himself a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences – who (at Devillers, 1784, pp. 165-166) compared the "cures" of Mesmer, with those supposed to have been effected at the tomb of François de Pâris in Saint-Médard, some forty years earlier – and Jacques Cambry
Jacques Cambry (2 October 1749 – 31 December 1807) was a Breton writer and expert in Celtic France. An early proponent of what came to be called Celtomania, he was the founder of the Celtic Academy, the forerunner of the Societé des Ant ...
(1784) – who provided details of beliefs similar to those of Mesmer previously held by the ancient Greeks, Persians, and Romans – strongly supported the findings of the Commissions.
Response of the Paris Faculty of Medicine
Immediately following the release of the reports of the two Commissions, the Paris Faculty of Medicine "pressure its own members to renounce animal magnetism" (Crabtree, 1993, p. 32). The Faculty identified some thirty of its ''docteurs-régent'', including François Louis Thomas d'Onglée and Charles-Louis Varnier, who "openly favored animal magnetism or were suspected of so doing". According to the contemporary account of Thomas d'Onglée (1785, passim), the thirty "magnetic physicians" were subjected to "abuse" and were presented with a declaration, of which it was demanded that they sign. Both Thomas d'Onglée and Varnier, among others, refused to sign the declaration (and were, thereby, immediately expelled). The declaration in question read: ::"No Doctor may declare himself a partisan of animal magnetism, through writings or through practice, under penalty of being removed from the role of ''docteurs-régents''".
d'Eslon's response
d'Eslon immediately published an attack on the Commission's reports, in which he criticized their failure to investigate the longer-term effects of his treatments, and their refusal to accept his (alleged) "cures" as proof of the existence of "animal magnetism", as well as noting that, "the commissioners' recommendation that the practice of magnetism should be prohibited . . . would hardly be possible o implement, because, apart from those within the medical profession who had been trained by himself and by Mesmer, "a large number of other people had, as a result of their own study, begun to practice it" (Pattie, 1994, p. 171). In addition to his specific criticisms of the reports of the two Royal Commissions – and to emphasize the significance of the Royal Commissions' refusal to investigate either the alleged efficacy of his treatment procedures (i.e., investigate d'Eslon's actual practices, rather than just the veracity (or not) of his theoretical claims, and that alone), and the alleged curative effects of his standard, extendedregimen
A regimen is a plan, or course of action such as a Diet (nutrition), diet, exercise or medical treatment. A salt#Health effects, low-salt diet is a regimen. A course of penicillin is a regimen, and there are many chemotherapy regimens in the treat ...
s of "magnetic" treatment – d'Eslon published an 80-page supplementary volume (i.e., d'Eslon, 1784c), that provided the case histories of 115 individuals (the majority of whom were identified by name), that had been successfully treated by d'Eslon's procedures for a very wide range of diseases.
On 10 December 1784, and in support of d'Eslon, one of his associates (and a former student), Louis Caullet de Veaumorel, published a set of Mesmer's class notes that he (Caullet de Veaumorel) had acquired from one of Mesmer's "disloyal" students.
Caullet de Veaumorel's work, which made no mention of d'Eslon's theories, teachings, or clinical procedures, went into three editions. Caullet de Veaumorel stressed that although, as a "disciple of d'Eslon", he was bound by his "word of honour" not to reveal any of d'Eslon's teachings, he was entirely free to publish Mesmer's material – and, in doing so, he had not altered one word of Mesmer's "maxims" – and, moreover, he was certain that, given Mesmer's dissemination of his ideas through his already published works, Mesmer would not be "offended" by the publication of his aphorisms.
Although Mesmer protested to the ''Journal de Paris'' that Caullet de Veaumore's ''Aphorismes'' "were a distorted account of his lectures", according to Pattie (1994, p. 213), "they ereaccurate" and, moreover, "they agree with later writings of Mesmer".
Mesmer's response
In his own responses to the Commissions' Reports, Mesmer stressed that – simply because he had not been involved in any of their investigations – the Commissioners' conclusions had nothing whatsoever to do with ''his'' (metaphorical) "animal magnetism"; and, because their conclusions only applied to d'Eslon's theories and practices, any responses to those conclusions were entirely the concern of d'Eslon alone.
Further, and immediately following the publication of the Reports of the two Commissions, both Nicolas Bergasse (1750-1832) (Bergasse, 1784) and Antoine Esmonin, Marquis de Dampierre (Esmonin, 1784) wrote strong criticisms of the Commissions' orientation, investigations, and findings; and, separately, a number of Mesmer's followers published a composite volume (i.e., Mesmer, et al., 1784) of 478 pages, which included a number of previously published items written by Mesmer, as well as a number of shorter and up-to-date contributions from a range of various authors describing their continued success with animal magnetism.
The "Franklin" Commissions' investigations considered to be a "classic" example of a controlled trial
::" is is the first scientific investigation that we know of into what would today be considered a paranormal or pseudoscientific claim. . . . nd it is clear thatthe control of intervening variables and the testing of specific claims, ''without resort to unnecessary hypothesizing about what is behind the "power"'', is the lesson modern skeptics should take from this historical masterpiece." –Michael Shermer
Michael Brant Shermer (born September 8, 1954) is an American science writer, historian of science, executive director of The Skeptics Society, and founding publisher of ''Skeptic'' magazine, a publication focused on investigating pseudoscientifi ...
(1996, emphasis added to original).
The detailed studies of Stephen Jay Gould (1989) and John Kihlstrom
John Frederick Kihlstrom (born October 24, 1948) is an American cognitive social psychologist. He is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Psychology at the University of California, Berkeley, where he originally began teaching in 1997. In 2013, ...
(2002), drew disciplinary attention to nature and the form of the Commission's extended examination as a ''watershed moment'' in the history of science – subsequent to which things were never the same.
If the Commission was not the first, it was, at least, one of the very earliest examples of a controlled trial; and, in particular, one that included the use of ''physical'' (rather than ''metaphorical'') blindfolds – which were used from time to time on both the experimenters and their experimental subjects – as well as testing both "''sham''" and "''real''" procedures on both "''sham''" and "''real''" patients.
Inspired by these studies, a number of other scholars, in other scientific domains – such as, for example, Shermer (1996), Kaptchuk (1998), Green (2002), Best, Neuhauser, and Slavin (2003), Herr (2005), Lanska & Lanska (2007), Kaptchuk, Kerr & Zanger (2009), Davies Wilson (2014), Jensen, Janik & Waclawik (2016), Zabell (2016), Donaldson (2017), and Rosen et al. (2019) – have also identified the Commission's examination as a previously unrecognized "classic" example of a controlled trial.
The "Franklin" Commissions' legacy
The "classic" structure of the investigations undertaken by the "Franklin" Commission inspired – among many others over the ensuing years – the (1799) investigations of Chester physician John Haygarth (1740-1827) into the efficacy of Perkins' "tractors".
In the process of discussing the experiments he had conducted (with medical colleagues as witnesses) with (dummy) "wooden tractors" on 7 January 1799, and with Perkins' "true metallick tractors" on 8 January 1799, Haygarth emphasized his considerable debt to the (earlier) "Franklin Commission" enterprise:
::"It need not be remarked, how completely the trial illustrates the nature of this popular illusion, which has so wonderfully prevailed, and spread so rapidly; it resembles, in a striking manner, that of Animal Magnetism, which merited the attention of Dr. Franklin, when ambassador from America, and of other philosophers at Paris. If any person would repeat these experiments, they should be performed with due solemnity. During the process, the wonderful cures which this remedy is said to have performed ought to be particularly related. Without these indispensable aids, other trials will not prove as successful as those which are above reported. The whole effect undoubtedly depends upon the impression which can be made upon the patient's Imagination.This method of discovering the truth, distinctly proves to what a surprising degree mere fancy deceives the patient himself; and if the experiment had been tried with the metallick Tractors only, they might and most probably would have deceived even medical observers. Yet this test of truth was perfectly candid. A fair opportunity was offered to discover whether the metallick Tractors possessed any efficacy superior to the ligneous Tractors, or wooden pegs." – John Haygarth (1801).
Four vestiges of the ''magnetization-by-contact'' practice
In relation to the findings of both Commissions – viz., that there was no evidence for d'Eslon's claims, and that d'Eslon's ''magnetization-by-contact'' practices had no place within the "medical penumbra" – and despite the consequent, and widespread ''demedicalization'' of both d'Eslon's ''magnetization-by-contact'' and of ''animal magnetism'' in general, there remained a small number of historically significantvestigial
Vestigiality is the retention, during the process of evolution, of genetically determined structures or attributes that have lost some or all of the ancestral function in a given species. Assessment of the vestigiality must generally rely on co ...
remnants of d'Eslon's ''magnetization-by-contact'', the boundary-work
In science studies, boundary-work comprises instances in which boundaries, demarcations, or other divisions between fields of knowledge are created, advocated, attacked, or reinforced. Such delineations often have high stakes involved for the p ...
of which, for a short while, operated at the ''frontier'' of the "medical penumbra" (Brockliss and Jones, 1997) in the (vain) hope of producing an "expansion of the medicable" (such that they would be admitted to conventional medical practice), which were (later) abandoned by their original advocates.
Phreno-magnetism
In 1843, Robert Hanham Collyer (1814-1891), an American physician and former pupil of John Elliotson, announced that he had discovered the existence of ''phreno-magnetism'' in November 1839; and, prior to Collyer's later retraction, two others claimed to have independently confirmed the veracity of Collyer's "discovery": the architect, Henry George Atkinson (1812-1890), at London, in November 1841, and the chemist, Charles Blandford Mansfield (1819-1855), at Cambridge, in December 1841. Phreno-magnetism, as a practice, involved the physical activation (termed "excitation") of specific " phrenological ''organs''", via the operator's 'magnetisation', directly through the particular cranial area supposedly corresponding to that specific phrenological "organ". It was claimed that, in a suitable subject, whenever an operator "excited" a particular phrenological "''organ''" the subject would manifest whatever sentiments were considered appropriate to that "''organ''". Four years later, by mid-1843, further experiments that had been conducted by Collyer himself had conclusively proved to his own satisfaction that he was mistaken, and Collyer concluded that there was no such thing as phreno-magnetism at all. Unaware, at the time, of Collyer's retraction, James Braid made a careful examination of “phreno-hypnotism” in December 1842; and continued his comprehensive experimentation until August 1844 – when he concluded, along withJohn Campbell Colquhoun
John Campbell Colquhoun (23 January 1803 – 17 April 1870) was a Scottish writer and politician.
Life
Colquhoun was born in Edinburgh on 23 January 1803, son of Archibald Colquhoun and Mary Ann, daughter of the Rev. William Erskine, episcopa ...
(Colquhoun, 1843), that there was no foundation for phrenology, in general, and for phreno-magnetism, in particular.
As a consequence of the debunking by Colquhoun, Braid, and others, phreno-magnetism – which, in yet another case of "''prima facie'' plausiblity", had (initially) seemed to promise such a wide range of valuable therapeutic and moral applications – "soon morphed into theatrical performances demonstrating the ‘reality’ of phrenology to credulous audiences, with lecturers pressing specific locations on the cranium of their agnetisedsubjects, and their subjects immediately displaying responses appropriate to the characteristics of each phrenological zone" (Yeates, 2018, p. 56) ee, for example, figure at right
The "zones" of Albert Pitres
Around 1885, the neurologist Albert Pitres – the Dean
Dean may refer to:
People
* Dean (given name)
* Dean (surname), a surname of Anglo-Saxon English origin
* Dean (South Korean singer), a stage name for singer Kwon Hyuk
* Dean Delannoit, a Belgian singer most known by the mononym Dean
Titles
* ...
of the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Bordeaux
The University of Bordeaux (French: ''Université de Bordeaux'') is a Lists of universities in France, public university based in Nouvelle-Aquitaine in Southern France, southwestern France.
It has several campuses in the cities and towns of Bor ...
, and an associate of Charcot at the Salpêtrière hospital – claimed that he had discovered a system of "zones" on the surface of the body, the stimulation of which induced (or terminated) the hypnotic state; namely:
* zones hypnogènes, or "hypnogenetic zones" which, he said, when stimulated, ''threw'' people into the hypnotic state, and
* zones hypno-frénatrices, or "hypno-arresting zones", which, he said, when stimulated, abruptly ''threw'' people out of that same hypnotic state.
Pitres further claimed that, despite the location of the specific "zones" differing from individual to individual, the location of the relevant "zones" remained constant for each individual: viz., they had a "position habituelle" (Pitres (1891), p. 497).
There is no evidence that there was ever any independent verification of Pitres' claims.
The psychoanalytic couch of Sigmund Freud
The noted neurologist
Neurology (from el, νεῦρον (neûron), "string, nerve" and the suffix -logia, "study of") is the branch of medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the brain, the spinal c ...
and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud ( , ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for evaluating and treating pathologies explained as originating in conflicts ...
not only studied and wrote about "hypnosis" (e.g., Freud, 1891, and 1966), but he also actively used "hypnosis" in his clinical practice for some time.
However the (''à la Salpêtrière'') "hypnosis" that Freud employed – quite unlike the conventional "hypnotism" of James Braid (that was induced by Braid's standard "upwards and inwards squint") – relied upon an induction process that often involved rubbing the top of a patient's head. This requirement, of course, demanded that Freud sat at the end of the therapeutic couch – in order to gain easy access to his subject's head – a practice that Freud continued to follow for his entire (post-"hypnosis") professional career.
Another vestige of phreno-magnetism that demanded that Freud position himself at the patient's head was Freud's application of the "head pressure" technique that he had, in person, observed Hippolyte Bernheim
Hippolyte Bernheim (17 April 1840, in Mulhouse – 2 February 1919, in Paris) was a French physician and neurologist. He is chiefly known for his theory of suggestibility in relation to hypnotism.
Life
Born into a Jewish family, Bernheim receiv ...
use, on one of his visits to Bernheim's clinic, at Nancy, in 1899.
Freud had discontinued this "head pressure" practice by, at least, 1904 – and, possibly, by 1900.
Mistaken identification of Esdaile's ''Jhar-Phoonk'' with d’Eslon's ''magnetization-by-contact''
Due, to a large extent, to the (mistaken) enthusiastic promotion of Esdaile's (otherwise) valuable work in India as "mesmerism" by John Elliotson (1791-1868), and William Collins Engledue (1813-1858) – especially by Elliotson – in their influential journal, '' The Zoist'', over its fifteen years of existence (i.e., March 1843 to January 1856), the entirely mistaken, generally held, and (at the time) widely published view that (the otherwise highly significant) James Esdaile used "mesmerism" to produce the condition under which he conducted completely pain-free surgery is still being repeated in many of the modern accounts of the history of mesmerism, anaesthesia, and hypnotism. It is clear, however, that – having noticed a vague, and superficial similarity between Esdaile's (Islamic/exorcism derived) ''Jhar-Phoonk'' procedures and the (secular/healing derived) "magnetization-by-contact" procedures of d’Eslon – in Esdaile's ''Jhar-Phoonk'', Elliotson and his associates had, to use a biological analogy, (mis)identified in "mesmerism ''à la'' d'Eslon" what was a clear case of "homoplasy
Homoplasy, in biology and phylogenetics, is the term used to describe a feature that has been gained or lost independently in separate lineages over the course of evolution. This is different from homology, which is the term used to characterize ...
" (i.e., similar entities descended from an entirely separate lineage) as if it were, instead, a case of " homology" (i.e., similar entities descended from a common ancestor).This issue is, for example, central to the "contentious" question of whether (or not) the cephalopod's eye and the vertebrate's eye evolved independently.
See also
* Abstract and concrete * Animal magnetism *Blinded experiment
In a blind or blinded experiment, information which may influence the participants of the experiment is withheld until after the experiment is complete. Good blinding can reduce or eliminate experimental biases that arise from a participants' expe ...
* Causality
* Clinical study design
* Construct (philosophy)
In philosophy, a construct is an object which is ''ideal'', that is, an object of the mind or of thought, meaning that its existence may be said to depend upon a subject's mind. This contrasts with any possibly ''mind-independent'' objects, the e ...
* Convulsionnaires of Saint-Médard
* Correlation does not imply causation
* Design of experiments
The design of experiments (DOE, DOX, or experimental design) is the design of any task that aims to describe and explain the variation of information under conditions that are hypothesized to reflect the variation. The term is generally associ ...
* ''Élan vital
''Élan vital'' () is a term coined by French philosopher Henri Bergson in his 1907 book '' Creative Evolution'', in which he addresses the question of self-organisation and spontaneous morphogenesis of things in an increasingly complex manner. ' ...
''
* Emotional contagion
Emotional contagion is a form of social contagion that involves the spontaneous spread of emotions and related behaviors. Such emotional convergence can happen from one person to another, or in a larger group. Emotions can be shared across individ ...
* Exorcism
Exorcism () is the religious or spiritual practice of evicting demons, jinns, or other malevolent spiritual entities from a person, or an area, that is believed to be possessed. Depending on the spiritual beliefs of the exorcist, this may be ...
* ''Experimentum crucis
In science, an ''experimentum crucis'' (English: crucial experiment or critical experiment) is an experiment capable of decisively determining whether or not a particular hypothesis or theory is superior to all other hypotheses or theories whose ...
''
* Fallacy of misplaced concreteness
* Iatrophysics
Iatrophysics or iatromechanics (fr. Greek) is the medical application of physics. It provides an explanation for medical practices with mechanical principles. It was a school of medicine in the seventeenth century which attempted to explain phys ...
* Mill's Methods
Mill's Methods are five methods of induction described by philosopher John Stuart Mill in his 1843 book ''A System of Logic''. They are intended to illuminate issues of causation.
The methods
Direct method of agreement
For a property to be a ...
* Natural history of disease
The natural history of disease is the course a disease takes in individual people from its pathological onset ("inception") until its resolution (either through complete recovery or eventual death). The inception of a disease is not a firmly defin ...
* Necessity and sufficiency
In logic and mathematics, necessity and sufficiency are terms used to describe a conditional or implicational relationship between two statements. For example, in the conditional statement: "If then ", is necessary for , because the truth of ...
* Placebo-controlled study
Placebo-controlled studies are a way of testing a medical therapy in which, in addition to a group of subjects that receives the treatment to be evaluated, a separate control group receives a sham "placebo" treatment which is specifically designed ...
* Protocol (science)
In natural and social science research, a protocol is most commonly a predefined procedural method in the design and implementation of an experiment. Protocols are written whenever it is desirable to standardize a laboratory method to ensure succe ...
* Protoscience
__NOTOC__
In the philosophy of science, there are several definitions of protoscience. Its simplest meaning (most closely reflecting its roots of '' proto-'' + ''science'') involves the earliest eras of the history of science, when the scientific m ...
* Randomized controlled trial
A randomized controlled trial (or randomized control trial; RCT) is a form of scientific experiment used to control factors not under direct experimental control. Examples of RCTs are clinical trials that compare the effects of drugs, surgical te ...
* Research design
Research design refers to the overall strategy utilized to carry out research that defines a succinct and logical plan to tackle established research question(s) through the collection, interpretation, analysis, and discussion of data.
Incorporat ...
* Scientific control
* Scientific method
The scientific method is an empirical method for acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century (with notable practitioners in previous centuries; see the article history of scientific ...
* Sham surgery
Sham surgery (placebo surgery) is a faked surgical intervention that omits the step thought to be therapeutically necessary.
In clinical trials of surgical interventions, sham surgery is an important scientific control. This is because it isolate ...
* Signs and symptoms
* Spurious relationship
In statistics, a spurious relationship or spurious correlation is a mathematical relationship in which two or more events or variables are associated but '' not'' causally related, due to either coincidence or the presence of a certain third, u ...
* ''The Zoist: A Journal of Cerebral Physiology & Mesmerism, and Their Applications to Human Welfare''
* Therapeutic effect
Therapeutic effect refers to the response(s) after a treatment of any kind, the results of which are judged to be useful or favorable. This is true whether the result was expected, unexpected, or even an unintended consequence. An adverse effect ( ...
* Vis medicatrix naturae
''Vis medicatrix naturae'' (literally "the healing power of nature", and also known as ''natura medica'') is the Latin rendering of the Greek ''Νόσων φύσεις ἰητροί'' ("Nature is the physician(s) of diseases"), a phrase attributed ...
* Vitalism
Vitalism is a belief that starts from the premise that "living organisms are fundamentally different from non-living entities because they contain some non-physical element or are governed by different principles than are inanimate things." Wher ...
Footnotes
References
Note that "many pamphlets on magnetism bear false imprints; they purport to have been printed in London, The Hague, Philadelphia, Peking, etc. In this way they evaded French censorship" (Pattie, 1994, p. 179).Anon (1837), ''Animal Magnetism: Report of Dr. Franklin and other Commissioners, charged by the King of France with the Examination of the Animal Magnetism as practised at Paris: Translated from the French, with an Historical Outline of the "Science", an Abstract of the report on Magnetic Experiments made by a committee of the Royal Academy of Medicine in 1831, and remarks on Col. Stone's pamphlet'', Philadelphia: H. Perkins
includes (at pp. 1-44), a reprint of Godwin (1785), pp. 1-108.
Anon (1843), "Recent Demonstrations of Animal Magnetism", ''Chambers's Edinburgh Journal'', Vol. 12, No. 598, (Saturday, 15 July 1843), pp. 205-207.
Anon (1844), "Conversazione on "Hypnotism" -- At the Royal Manchester Institution", ''The Medical Times'', Vol. 10, No. 243, (18 May 1844), pp. 137-139.
* Anon (1911/1912), "Nova et Vetera ('New and Old '): Modern Faith Healing: F. Anton Mesmer]", ''The British Medical Journal''
Vol. 2, No. 2658, (9 December 1911), pp. 1555-1559
an
Vol. 1, No. 2666, (3 February, 1912), pp. 249-252
includes (at pp. 79-84, 133-137) a translation of Bailly (1784a), and (at pp. 199-201) a translation of Bailly (1800).
Armando, D. (trans. J. Johnson) (2018), " Magnetic Crises, Political Convulsions: The Mesmerists in the Constituent Assembly", ''Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française'', Vol. 391, No. 1, (January-March 2018), pp. 129-152.
Armando, D. & Belhoste, B. (trans. J. Johnson) (2018), "Mesmerism Between the End of the Old Regime and the Revolution: Social Dynamics and Political Issues", ''Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française'', Vol. 391, No. 1, (January-March 2018), pp. 3-26.
* Atkinson, H.G.
843
__NOTOC__
Year 843 ( DCCCXLIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Europe
* August – Treaty of Verdun: The Frankish Empire is divided into three k ...
"On Mesmero-Phrenology, and the Function of the Cerebellum: Being a Paper Read at the Second Meeting of the Phrenological Association, July the 4th, 1843; Dr. Elliotson in the Chair", ''The Medical Times''Vol. 8, No. 202, (5 August 1843), pp. 294-296
Bailly, J.S. (ed.) (1784a), ''Rapport des Commissaires chargés par le Roi, de l’examen du magnétisme animal'', Imprimé par ordre du Roi. Paris: Imprimerie Royale.
Bailly, J.S. (ed.) (1784b), ''Exposé des experiences qui ont éte faites pour l'examen du magnetisme animal: lu à l'Académie des Sciences . . . le 4 Septembre 1784'' ('Exposition of the experiments that were carried out to examine Animal Magenetism: Read at the Academy of Sciences . . . on the 4th September 1784'), Paris: Chez Moutard.
Bailly, J.S. (1800). Rapport secret sur le mesmérisme. Le Conservateur, Vol. 1, pp. 146–155.
nbsp;
Bailly, J.-S., and Others (1963), "Secret Report on Mesmerism, or Animal Magnetism", pp. 3-7, in ''The Nature Of Hypnosis: Selected Basic Writings'', ed. Ronald E. Shor and Martin T. Orne, New York, NY: Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc.:
a translation of Bailly (1800). * Bailly, J.-S., Franklin, B., de Bory, G., Lavoisier, A., Majault, M.J., Sallin, C.L., d’Arcet, J., Guillotin, J.-I., & Le Roy, J.B., "Secret Report on Mesmerism or Animal Magnetism", ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', vol. 50, No. 4, (October 2002), pp. 364-368: a translation of Bailly (1800) -- a reprint of Bailly and Others (1963).
Barth, G. (1851), ''The Mesmerist's Manual of Phenomena and Practice: With Directions for Applying Mesmerism to the Cure of Diseases, and the Methods of Producing Mesmeric Phenomena: Intended for Domestic Use and the Instruction of Beginners (Second Edition)'', London: H. Baillière.
Bartha, Paul (2019), "Analogy and Analogical Reasoning", in Edward N. Zalta (ed.), ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2019 Edition).
Belhoste, B. (trans. J. Johnson) (2018), "Franz Anton Mesmer: Magnetiser, Moralist, and Republican", ''Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française'', Vol. 391, No. 1, (January-March 2018), pp. 27-56.
* Bergasse, N. (1784)
''Considérations sur le Magnétisme Animal, ou, sur la Théorie du Monde et des êtres organisés, d'après les principes de M. Mesmer'' ('Considerations on Animal Magnetism, or, on the Theory of the World and Organized Beings, according to the principles of M. Mesmer'), The Hague: n.p.
Bernheim, H. (1888), ''De la Suggestion et de son Application à la Thérapeutique'', Paris: Octave Doin.
Bernheim, H. (trans. Herter, C.A.) (1889), ''Suggestive Therapeutics: A Treatise on the Nature and Uses of Hypnotism'', New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons
an English translation of Bernheim (1888).
Bersani, F. (2011), "Mesmerism: From an Ambiguous Physical and Medical Canon to Psychology", pp. 59-72 in A. Calanchi, G. Castellani, G. Morisco, and G. Turchetti (eds.), ''Interfacing Science, Literature, and the Humanities: ACUME 2, Volume 7: The Case and the Canon: Anomalies, Discontinuities, Metaphors between Science and Literature'', Göttingen: V&R unipress.
Best, M., Neuhauser, D., and Slavin, L. (2003), "Evaluating Mesmerism, Paris, 1784: The Controversy over the Blinded Placebo Controlled Trials has not Stopped", ''BMJ Quality & Safety'', 12(3) (June 2003), pp. 232-233.
* Binet, Alfred & Féré, Charles (1888)
''Animal Magnetism'', New York: D Appleton and Company.
* Bloch, George (1980), ''Mesmerism: A Translation of the Original Scientific and Medical writings of F.A. Mesmer'', Los Altos, CA: William Kaufman.
Bonnefoy, J.B. (1784), ''Analyse raisonnée des Rapports des Commissaires chargés par le Roi de l'examen du Magnétisme Animal'' ('A Reasoned Analysis of the Reports of the Commissioners appointed by the King to examine Animal Magnetism'), Lyon and Paris: Prault.
Booth, C., "The Rod of Aesculapios: John Haygarth (1740–1827) and Perkins’ Metallic Tractors", ''Journal of Medical Biography'', Vol. 13, No. 3, (August 2005), pp. 155-161.
* Braid, J. (1843a)
''Neurypnology or the Rationale of Nervous Sleep Considered in Relation with Animal Magnetism Illustrated by Numerous Cases of its Successful Application in the Relief and Cure of Disease'', London: John Churchill.
**N.B. Braid's ''Errata'', detailing a number of important corrections that need to be made to the foregoing text, is o
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* Colquhoun, J.C. (1843), ''The Fallacy of Phreno-Magnetism Detected and Exposed'', Edinburgh: William Wilson.
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* * Deleuze, J.P.F. (1813)
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* Dingwall, E.J. (1967), ''Abnormal Hypnotic Phenomena: A Survey of Nineteenth Century Cases; Volume I: Ftance'', London: J. & A. Churchill.
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at pp/18-38, a translation of Lavoisier (1865); at pp. 39-67, a translation of Bailly (1784a); at pp. 68-76, a translation of Bailly (1800); and at pp. 77-83, a translation of Bailly (1784b). * * Eden, Jerome (1974), ''Animal Magnetism and the Life Energy: the Natural Curative Force in Everyone: The Definitive Study of the Astounding Discoveries of Dr. Franz Anton Mesmer'', CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. * Ellenberger, H.F., (1970), ''The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry'', New York, NY: Basic Books.
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* Faflack, J. (2009), ''Romantic Psychoanalysis: The Burden of the Mystery'', Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. * Figuier, Louis (1860)
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* Finger, S. (2006), Benjamin Franklin, "Electricity, and the Palsies: On the 300th Anniversary of his Birth", ''Neurology'', Vol. 66, No. 10, (23 May 2006), pp. 1559-1563. * Finger, S. & Gallo, D.A. (2004), "The Music of Madness: Franklin's Armonica and the Vulnerable Nervous System", pp. 207-235 in Rose, F.C. (ed), ''Neurology of the Arts: Painting, Music, Literature'', Singapore: World Scientific. ;
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* Forrest, D. (1999), ''Hypnotism: A History'', London: Penguin Books.
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* Freud, S. (1966), "Hypnosis", pp. 105-114 in J. Strachey (ed. and trans.), ''The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (Vol.I (1886-1899): The Pre-Psycho-Analytic Publications and Unpublished Drafts)'', London: Hogarth Press: English translation of Freud (1891). * Fuller, R.C. (1982). Mesmerism and the American Cure of Souls. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
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* Gauld, A., ''A History of Hypnotism'', Cambridge University Press, 1992. * Gillespie, C.C. (2004), ''Science and Polity in France: The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Years'', Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. * Godwin, William, trans. 1785)
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includes (at pp. 19-108) a translation of Bailly (1784a). * Goldsmith, M., ''Franz Anton Mesmer: A History of Mesmerism'', Doubleday, Doran & Co., (New York), 1934. * Gould, Stephen J.
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* Grimm, F.M. (1880)
"(Remarks on the death of d'Eslon)", at pp. 446-447, in "September 1786", at pp. 438-447, in F. M. Grimm, ''Correspondance Littéraire, Philosophique et Critique par Grimm, Diderot, Raynal, Meister, Etc. ..., (Tome Quatorzième)'', Paris, Garnier Frères.
* Hackmann, W.D. (1998), "Electroscope", pp. 219-221 in R. Bud & D. J. Warner (eds.), ''Instruments of Science'': An Historical Encyclopedia, London: The Science Museum; Washington, DC: National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, 1998. * Hadlock, H. (2000), "Sonorous Bodies: Women and the Glass Harmonica", ''Journal of the American Musicological Society'', Vol. 53, No. 3, (Autumn, 2000), pp. 507-542.
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"Herfner,_Irys"_[pseud._of_Henry_Ferris)._(1844),_"A_Few_More_Words_About_Mesmerism—The_State_of_Sleep-Waking",_''The_Dublin_University_Magazine:_A_Literary_and_Political_Journal'',_Vol. 24,_No. 139,_(July_1844),_pp. 78-90.
*_Herr,_H.W.,_"Franklin,_Lavoisier,_and_Mesmer:_Origin_of_the_Controlled_Clinical_Trial",_''Urologic_Oncology:_Seminars_and_Original_Investigations'',_Vol. 23,_No. 5,_(September_2005),_pp. 346-351._ *_Hesse,_M.B._(1961),_''Forces_and_Fields:_The_Concept_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_the_History_of_Physics'',_New_York,_NY:_Philosophical_Library. *_ "Herfner,_Irys"_[pseud._of_Henry_Ferris)._(1844),_"A_Few_More_Words_About_Mesmerism—The_State_of_Sleep-Waking",_''The_Dublin_University_Magazine:_A_Literary_and_Political_Journal'',_Vol. 24,_No. 139,_(July_1844),_pp. 78-90.
*_Herr,_H.W.,_"Franklin,_Lavoisier,_and_Mesmer:_Origin_of_the_Controlled_Clinical_Trial",_''Urologic_Oncology:_Seminars_and_Original_Investigations'',_Vol. 23,_No. 5,_(September_2005),_pp. 346-351._ *_Hesse,_M.B._(1961),_''Forces_and_Fields:_The_Concept_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_the_History_of_Physics'',_New_York,_NY:_Philosophical_Library. *_Ernest_Hilgard">Hilgard,_E.R._(1980),_"Introduction",_pp.xi-xxiii_in_George_Bloch,_''Mesmerism:_A_Translation_of_the_Original_Scientific_and_Medical_writings_of_F.A._Mesmer'',_Los_Altos,_CA:_William_Kaufman,_1980._
*_Hyatt_King,_A._(1945),_"The_Musical_Glasses_and_Glass_Harmonica",_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Musical_Association'',_Vol. 72,_No. 1,_(1943),_pp. 97-122.._
*_ "Herfner,_Irys"_[pseud._of_Henry_Ferris)._(1844),_"A_Few_More_Words_About_Mesmerism—The_State_of_Sleep-Waking",_''The_Dublin_University_Magazine:_A_Literary_and_Political_Journal'',_Vol. 24,_No. 139,_(July_1844),_pp. 78-90.
*_Herr,_H.W.,_"Franklin,_Lavoisier,_and_Mesmer:_Origin_of_the_Controlled_Clinical_Trial",_''Urologic_Oncology:_Seminars_and_Original_Investigations'',_Vol. 23,_No. 5,_(September_2005),_pp. 346-351._ *_Hesse,_M.B._(1961),_''Forces_and_Fields:_The_Concept_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_the_History_of_Physics'',_New_York,_NY:_Philosophical_Library. *_Ernest_Hilgard">Hilgard,_E.R._(1980),_"Introduction",_pp.xi-xxiii_in_George_Bloch,_''Mesmerism:_A_Translation_of_the_Original_Scientific_and_Medical_writings_of_F.A._Mesmer'',_Los_Altos,_CA:_William_Kaufman,_1980._
*_Hyatt_King,_A._(1945),_"The_Musical_Glasses_and_Glass_Harmonica",_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Musical_Association'',_Vol. 72,_No. 1,_(1943),_pp. 97-122.._
*_Ted_Kaptchuk">Kaptchuk,_T.J._(1998)
*__Kennaway,_J._(2012),_"Musical_Hypnosis:_Sound_and_Selfhood_from_Mesmerism_to_Brainwashing",_''Social_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 25,_No. 2,_(May_2012),_pp. 271–289._ *_ "Herfner,_Irys"_[pseud._of_Henry_Ferris)._(1844),_"A_Few_More_Words_About_Mesmerism—The_State_of_Sleep-Waking",_''The_Dublin_University_Magazine:_A_Literary_and_Political_Journal'',_Vol. 24,_No. 139,_(July_1844),_pp. 78-90.
*_Herr,_H.W.,_"Franklin,_Lavoisier,_and_Mesmer:_Origin_of_the_Controlled_Clinical_Trial",_''Urologic_Oncology:_Seminars_and_Original_Investigations'',_Vol. 23,_No. 5,_(September_2005),_pp. 346-351._ *_Hesse,_M.B._(1961),_''Forces_and_Fields:_The_Concept_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_the_History_of_Physics'',_New_York,_NY:_Philosophical_Library. *_Ernest_Hilgard">Hilgard,_E.R._(1980),_"Introduction",_pp.xi-xxiii_in_George_Bloch,_''Mesmerism:_A_Translation_of_the_Original_Scientific_and_Medical_writings_of_F.A._Mesmer'',_Los_Altos,_CA:_William_Kaufman,_1980._
*_Hyatt_King,_A._(1945),_"The_Musical_Glasses_and_Glass_Harmonica",_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Musical_Association'',_Vol. 72,_No. 1,_(1943),_pp. 97-122.._
*_Ted_Kaptchuk">Kaptchuk,_T.J._(1998)
*__Kennaway,_J._(2012),_"Musical_Hypnosis:_Sound_and_Selfhood_from_Mesmerism_to_Brainwashing",_''Social_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 25,_No. 2,_(May_2012),_pp. 271–289._ *_Robert_Kerr_(writer)">_Kerr,_Robert_(1790)
_a_translation_of_Lavoisier_(1789). *_Kihlstrom,_J._F.,_"Mesmer,_the_Franklin_Commission,_and_Hypnosis:_A_Counterfactual_Essay",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 407-419._ *_ "Herfner,_Irys"_[pseud._of_Henry_Ferris)._(1844),_"A_Few_More_Words_About_Mesmerism—The_State_of_Sleep-Waking",_''The_Dublin_University_Magazine:_A_Literary_and_Political_Journal'',_Vol. 24,_No. 139,_(July_1844),_pp. 78-90.
*_Herr,_H.W.,_"Franklin,_Lavoisier,_and_Mesmer:_Origin_of_the_Controlled_Clinical_Trial",_''Urologic_Oncology:_Seminars_and_Original_Investigations'',_Vol. 23,_No. 5,_(September_2005),_pp. 346-351._ *_Hesse,_M.B._(1961),_''Forces_and_Fields:_The_Concept_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_the_History_of_Physics'',_New_York,_NY:_Philosophical_Library. *_Ernest_Hilgard">Hilgard,_E.R._(1980),_"Introduction",_pp.xi-xxiii_in_George_Bloch,_''Mesmerism:_A_Translation_of_the_Original_Scientific_and_Medical_writings_of_F.A._Mesmer'',_Los_Altos,_CA:_William_Kaufman,_1980._
*_Hyatt_King,_A._(1945),_"The_Musical_Glasses_and_Glass_Harmonica",_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Musical_Association'',_Vol. 72,_No. 1,_(1943),_pp. 97-122.._
*_Ted_Kaptchuk">Kaptchuk,_T.J._(1998)
*__Kennaway,_J._(2012),_"Musical_Hypnosis:_Sound_and_Selfhood_from_Mesmerism_to_Brainwashing",_''Social_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 25,_No. 2,_(May_2012),_pp. 271–289._ *_Robert_Kerr_(writer)">_Kerr,_Robert_(1790)
_a_translation_of_Lavoisier_(1789). *_Kihlstrom,_J._F.,_"Mesmer,_the_Franklin_Commission,_and_Hypnosis:_A_Counterfactual_Essay",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 407-419._ *_Irving_Kirsch">Kirsch,_I.,_"Response_Expectancy_Theory_and_Application:_A_Decennial_Review",_''Applied_and_Preventive_Psychology'',_Vol. 6.,_No. 2,_(1997),_pp. 69-79._ *_Kovach,_F.J.,_"The_Enduring_Question_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_Saint_Albert_the_Great",_''The_Southwestern_Journal_of_Philosophy'',_Vol. 10,_No. 3,_(November_1979),_pp. 161-235._ *_Landefeld,_Seth,_"LE_BACQUET_DE_Mṛ_MESMER:_Paris,_circa_1780",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',_Vol. 31,_No. 3,_(July_1976),_p. 368._ *_Lanska,_D.J._(2019),_"The_Assessment_of_Perkins'_Patent_Metallic_'Tractors':_Abandonment_of_an_18th-century_Therapeutic_Fad_following_Trials_using_Sham_Instruments",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_the_Neurosciences'',_Vol. 28,_No. 2,_(April-June_2019),_pp. 147–175._
*_Laurence,_J.-L._(2002),_"1784",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 309-319._
_English_translation_at_Kerr_(1790).
_for_a_complete_English_translation,_see_Donaldson_(2014),_pp. 18-38. *_ *_Ludwig,_A.M._(1964),_"An_Historical_Survey_of_the_Early_Roots_of_Mesmerism",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 12,_No. 4,_(October_1964),_pp. 205-217._ *_[ "Herfner,_Irys"_[pseud._of_Henry_Ferris)._(1844),_"A_Few_More_Words_About_Mesmerism—The_State_of_Sleep-Waking",_''The_Dublin_University_Magazine:_A_Literary_and_Political_Journal'',_Vol. 24,_No. 139,_(July_1844),_pp. 78-90.
*_Herr,_H.W.,_"Franklin,_Lavoisier,_and_Mesmer:_Origin_of_the_Controlled_Clinical_Trial",_''Urologic_Oncology:_Seminars_and_Original_Investigations'',_Vol. 23,_No. 5,_(September_2005),_pp. 346-351._ *_Hesse,_M.B._(1961),_''Forces_and_Fields:_The_Concept_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_the_History_of_Physics'',_New_York,_NY:_Philosophical_Library. *_Ernest_Hilgard">Hilgard,_E.R._(1980),_"Introduction",_pp.xi-xxiii_in_George_Bloch,_''Mesmerism:_A_Translation_of_the_Original_Scientific_and_Medical_writings_of_F.A._Mesmer'',_Los_Altos,_CA:_William_Kaufman,_1980._
*_Hyatt_King,_A._(1945),_"The_Musical_Glasses_and_Glass_Harmonica",_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Musical_Association'',_Vol. 72,_No. 1,_(1943),_pp. 97-122.._
*_Ted_Kaptchuk">Kaptchuk,_T.J._(1998)
*__Kennaway,_J._(2012),_"Musical_Hypnosis:_Sound_and_Selfhood_from_Mesmerism_to_Brainwashing",_''Social_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 25,_No. 2,_(May_2012),_pp. 271–289._ *_Robert_Kerr_(writer)">_Kerr,_Robert_(1790)
_a_translation_of_Lavoisier_(1789). *_Kihlstrom,_J._F.,_"Mesmer,_the_Franklin_Commission,_and_Hypnosis:_A_Counterfactual_Essay",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 407-419._ *_Irving_Kirsch">Kirsch,_I.,_"Response_Expectancy_Theory_and_Application:_A_Decennial_Review",_''Applied_and_Preventive_Psychology'',_Vol. 6.,_No. 2,_(1997),_pp. 69-79._ *_Kovach,_F.J.,_"The_Enduring_Question_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_Saint_Albert_the_Great",_''The_Southwestern_Journal_of_Philosophy'',_Vol. 10,_No. 3,_(November_1979),_pp. 161-235._ *_Landefeld,_Seth,_"LE_BACQUET_DE_Mṛ_MESMER:_Paris,_circa_1780",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',_Vol. 31,_No. 3,_(July_1976),_p. 368._ *_Lanska,_D.J._(2019),_"The_Assessment_of_Perkins'_Patent_Metallic_'Tractors':_Abandonment_of_an_18th-century_Therapeutic_Fad_following_Trials_using_Sham_Instruments",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_the_Neurosciences'',_Vol. 28,_No. 2,_(April-June_2019),_pp. 147–175._
*_Laurence,_J.-L._(2002),_"1784",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 309-319._
_English_translation_at_Kerr_(1790).
_for_a_complete_English_translation,_see_Donaldson_(2014),_pp. 18-38. *_ *_Ludwig,_A.M._(1964),_"An_Historical_Survey_of_the_Early_Roots_of_Mesmerism",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 12,_No. 4,_(October_1964),_pp. 205-217._ *_Charles_Mackay_(author)">Mackay,_Charles_(1841)
*_McConkey,_K.M._&_Perry,_C._(1985),_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_Mesmerism",_''The_International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 33,_No. 2,_(April_1985),_pp. 122-130._ *_McConkey,_K.M._&_Perry,_C._(2002),_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_Mesmerism,_Revisited",_''The_International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 320-331._ *_Melton,_J.G._(2001a)_(ed),_''Encyclopedia_of_Occultism_and_Parapsychology_(Fifth_Edition),_Volume_1_(A-L)'',_Farmington_Hills,_MI:_Thomson_Gale._ *_Melton,_J.G._(2001b)_(ed),_''Encyclopedia_of_Occultism_and_Parapsychology_(Fifth_Edition),_Volume_2_(M-Z)'',_Farmington_Hills,_MI:_Thomson_Gale._ *_ "Herfner,_Irys"_[pseud._of_Henry_Ferris)._(1844),_"A_Few_More_Words_About_Mesmerism—The_State_of_Sleep-Waking",_''The_Dublin_University_Magazine:_A_Literary_and_Political_Journal'',_Vol. 24,_No. 139,_(July_1844),_pp. 78-90.
*_Herr,_H.W.,_"Franklin,_Lavoisier,_and_Mesmer:_Origin_of_the_Controlled_Clinical_Trial",_''Urologic_Oncology:_Seminars_and_Original_Investigations'',_Vol. 23,_No. 5,_(September_2005),_pp. 346-351._ *_Hesse,_M.B._(1961),_''Forces_and_Fields:_The_Concept_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_the_History_of_Physics'',_New_York,_NY:_Philosophical_Library. *_Ernest_Hilgard">Hilgard,_E.R._(1980),_"Introduction",_pp.xi-xxiii_in_George_Bloch,_''Mesmerism:_A_Translation_of_the_Original_Scientific_and_Medical_writings_of_F.A._Mesmer'',_Los_Altos,_CA:_William_Kaufman,_1980._
*_Hyatt_King,_A._(1945),_"The_Musical_Glasses_and_Glass_Harmonica",_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Musical_Association'',_Vol. 72,_No. 1,_(1943),_pp. 97-122.._
*_Ted_Kaptchuk">Kaptchuk,_T.J._(1998)
*__Kennaway,_J._(2012),_"Musical_Hypnosis:_Sound_and_Selfhood_from_Mesmerism_to_Brainwashing",_''Social_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 25,_No. 2,_(May_2012),_pp. 271–289._ *_Robert_Kerr_(writer)">_Kerr,_Robert_(1790)
_a_translation_of_Lavoisier_(1789). *_Kihlstrom,_J._F.,_"Mesmer,_the_Franklin_Commission,_and_Hypnosis:_A_Counterfactual_Essay",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 407-419._ *_Irving_Kirsch">Kirsch,_I.,_"Response_Expectancy_Theory_and_Application:_A_Decennial_Review",_''Applied_and_Preventive_Psychology'',_Vol. 6.,_No. 2,_(1997),_pp. 69-79._ *_Kovach,_F.J.,_"The_Enduring_Question_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_Saint_Albert_the_Great",_''The_Southwestern_Journal_of_Philosophy'',_Vol. 10,_No. 3,_(November_1979),_pp. 161-235._ *_Landefeld,_Seth,_"LE_BACQUET_DE_Mṛ_MESMER:_Paris,_circa_1780",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',_Vol. 31,_No. 3,_(July_1976),_p. 368._ *_Lanska,_D.J._(2019),_"The_Assessment_of_Perkins'_Patent_Metallic_'Tractors':_Abandonment_of_an_18th-century_Therapeutic_Fad_following_Trials_using_Sham_Instruments",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_the_Neurosciences'',_Vol. 28,_No. 2,_(April-June_2019),_pp. 147–175._
*_Laurence,_J.-L._(2002),_"1784",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 309-319._
_English_translation_at_Kerr_(1790).
_for_a_complete_English_translation,_see_Donaldson_(2014),_pp. 18-38. *_ *_Ludwig,_A.M._(1964),_"An_Historical_Survey_of_the_Early_Roots_of_Mesmerism",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 12,_No. 4,_(October_1964),_pp. 205-217._ *_Charles_Mackay_(author)">Mackay,_Charles_(1841)
*_McConkey,_K.M._&_Perry,_C._(1985),_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_Mesmerism",_''The_International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 33,_No. 2,_(April_1985),_pp. 122-130._ *_McConkey,_K.M._&_Perry,_C._(2002),_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_Mesmerism,_Revisited",_''The_International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 320-331._ *_Melton,_J.G._(2001a)_(ed),_''Encyclopedia_of_Occultism_and_Parapsychology_(Fifth_Edition),_Volume_1_(A-L)'',_Farmington_Hills,_MI:_Thomson_Gale._ *_Melton,_J.G._(2001b)_(ed),_''Encyclopedia_of_Occultism_and_Parapsychology_(Fifth_Edition),_Volume_2_(M-Z)'',_Farmington_Hills,_MI:_Thomson_Gale._ *_Franz_Mesmer">Mesmer,_F.A._(1766)
_summary_at_Pattie_(1994),_pp. 13-27;_for_an_English_translation_of_a_modern_(1971)_French_version_of_the_original_Latin,_see_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 1-22.
_includes_Mesmer's_"27_Propositions",_as_an_appendix_(pp. 74-85);_complete_translation_(including_"Propositions")_at_Tinterow_(1970),_pp. 32-57,_and_at_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 41-79;_translation_of_"Propositions"_(only)_at_Binet_&_Féré_(1888),_pp. 5-8,_Anon_(1911/1912),_pp. 1557-1558_Goldsmith_(1934),_p. 117-121,_Buranelli_(1975),_pp. 101-103,_Wyckoff_(1975),_pp. 76-78,_and_Pattie_(1994),_pp. 87-89..
*_Mesmer,_F.A._(n.d.),_"Catéchism_du_Magnétisme_Animal"_('Catechism_on_Animal_Magnetism'),_reprinted_at_pp. 113-120,_Jean-Jacques_Paulet_(1784)
_translation_at_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 81-86.
_for_an_English_translation,_see_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 87-132.
*_Meyer,_Vera_&_Allen,_Kathleen_J.,_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_the_Glass_Armonica",_''Endeavour'',_Vol. 12,_No. 4,_(January_1988),_pp. 185-188._
*_Mulford,_Carla_J._(2018),_"Benjamin_Franklin_in_Passy,_1784",_''Reviews_in_American_History'',_Vol. 46,_No. 4,_(December_2018),_pp. 573-578._ *_William_Newnham_(physician).html" ;"title="Franz_Mesmer.html" ;"title="harles_Mackay_(author).html" ;"title="Irving_Kirsch.html" ;"title="Robert_Kerr_(writer).html" ;"title="Ted_Kaptchuk.html" ;"title="Ernest_Hilgard.html" ;"title="seud. of Henry Ferris). (1844), "A Few More Words About Mesmerism—The State of Sleep-Waking", ''The Dublin University Magazine: A Literary and Political Journal'', Vol. 24, No. 139, (July 1844), pp. 78-90.">"Herfner, Irys"
*_Herr,_H.W.,_"Franklin,_Lavoisier,_and_Mesmer:_Origin_of_the_Controlled_Clinical_Trial",_''Urologic_Oncology:_Seminars_and_Original_Investigations'',_Vol. 23,_No. 5,_(September_2005),_pp. 346-351._ *_Hesse,_M.B._(1961),_''Forces_and_Fields:_The_Concept_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_the_History_of_Physics'',_New_York,_NY:_Philosophical_Library. *_Ernest_Hilgard">Hilgard,_E.R._(1980),_"Introduction",_pp.xi-xxiii_in_George_Bloch,_''Mesmerism:_A_Translation_of_the_Original_Scientific_and_Medical_writings_of_F.A._Mesmer'',_Los_Altos,_CA:_William_Kaufman,_1980._
*_Hyatt_King,_A._(1945),_"The_Musical_Glasses_and_Glass_Harmonica",_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Musical_Association'',_Vol. 72,_No. 1,_(1943),_pp. 97-122.._
*_Ted_Kaptchuk">Kaptchuk,_T.J._(1998)
*__Kennaway,_J._(2012),_"Musical_Hypnosis:_Sound_and_Selfhood_from_Mesmerism_to_Brainwashing",_''Social_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 25,_No. 2,_(May_2012),_pp. 271–289._ *_Robert_Kerr_(writer)">_Kerr,_Robert_(1790)
_a_translation_of_Lavoisier_(1789). *_Kihlstrom,_J._F.,_"Mesmer,_the_Franklin_Commission,_and_Hypnosis:_A_Counterfactual_Essay",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 407-419._ *_Irving_Kirsch">Kirsch,_I.,_"Response_Expectancy_Theory_and_Application:_A_Decennial_Review",_''Applied_and_Preventive_Psychology'',_Vol. 6.,_No. 2,_(1997),_pp. 69-79._ *_Kovach,_F.J.,_"The_Enduring_Question_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_Saint_Albert_the_Great",_''The_Southwestern_Journal_of_Philosophy'',_Vol. 10,_No. 3,_(November_1979),_pp. 161-235._ *_Landefeld,_Seth,_"LE_BACQUET_DE_Mṛ_MESMER:_Paris,_circa_1780",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',_Vol. 31,_No. 3,_(July_1976),_p. 368._ *_Lanska,_D.J._(2019),_"The_Assessment_of_Perkins'_Patent_Metallic_'Tractors':_Abandonment_of_an_18th-century_Therapeutic_Fad_following_Trials_using_Sham_Instruments",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_the_Neurosciences'',_Vol. 28,_No. 2,_(April-June_2019),_pp. 147–175._
*_Laurence,_J.-L._(2002),_"1784",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 309-319._
_English_translation_at_Kerr_(1790).
_for_a_complete_English_translation,_see_Donaldson_(2014),_pp. 18-38. *_ *_Ludwig,_A.M._(1964),_"An_Historical_Survey_of_the_Early_Roots_of_Mesmerism",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 12,_No. 4,_(October_1964),_pp. 205-217._ *_Charles_Mackay_(author)">Mackay,_Charles_(1841)
*_McConkey,_K.M._&_Perry,_C._(1985),_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_Mesmerism",_''The_International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 33,_No. 2,_(April_1985),_pp. 122-130._ *_McConkey,_K.M._&_Perry,_C._(2002),_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_Mesmerism,_Revisited",_''The_International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 320-331._ *_Melton,_J.G._(2001a)_(ed),_''Encyclopedia_of_Occultism_and_Parapsychology_(Fifth_Edition),_Volume_1_(A-L)'',_Farmington_Hills,_MI:_Thomson_Gale._ *_Melton,_J.G._(2001b)_(ed),_''Encyclopedia_of_Occultism_and_Parapsychology_(Fifth_Edition),_Volume_2_(M-Z)'',_Farmington_Hills,_MI:_Thomson_Gale._ *_Franz_Mesmer">Mesmer,_F.A._(1766)
_summary_at_Pattie_(1994),_pp. 13-27;_for_an_English_translation_of_a_modern_(1971)_French_version_of_the_original_Latin,_see_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 1-22.
_includes_Mesmer's_"27_Propositions",_as_an_appendix_(pp. 74-85);_complete_translation_(including_"Propositions")_at_Tinterow_(1970),_pp. 32-57,_and_at_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 41-79;_translation_of_"Propositions"_(only)_at_Binet_&_Féré_(1888),_pp. 5-8,_Anon_(1911/1912),_pp. 1557-1558_Goldsmith_(1934),_p. 117-121,_Buranelli_(1975),_pp. 101-103,_Wyckoff_(1975),_pp. 76-78,_and_Pattie_(1994),_pp. 87-89..
*_Mesmer,_F.A._(n.d.),_"Catéchism_du_Magnétisme_Animal"_('Catechism_on_Animal_Magnetism'),_reprinted_at_pp. 113-120,_Jean-Jacques_Paulet_(1784)
_translation_at_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 81-86.
_for_an_English_translation,_see_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 87-132.
*_Meyer,_Vera_&_Allen,_Kathleen_J.,_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_the_Glass_Armonica",_''Endeavour'',_Vol. 12,_No. 4,_(January_1988),_pp. 185-188._
*_Mulford,_Carla_J._(2018),_"Benjamin_Franklin_in_Passy,_1784",_''Reviews_in_American_History'',_Vol. 46,_No. 4,_(December_2018),_pp. 573-578._ *_William_Newnham_(physician)">Newnham,_W._(1845)
*_Ogden,_Emily_(2012),_"Mesmer's_Demon:_Fiction,_Falsehood,_and_the_Mechanical_Imagination",_''Early_American_Literature'',_Vol. 47,_No. 1,_(2012),_pp. 143–170._ *_Pattie,_F.A._(1956),_"Mesmer's_Medical_Dissertation_and_Its_Debt_to_Mead's_''De_Imperio_Solis_ac_Lunae''",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',_Vol. 11,_No. 3,_(July,_1956),_pp. 275-287._ *_Pattie,_F.A._(1994),_''Mesmer_and_Animal_Magnetism:_A_Chapter_in_the_History_of_Medicine'',_Hamilton,_NY:_Edmonston_Publishing._ *_Jean-Jacques_Paulet.html" ;"title="seud. of Henry Ferris). (1844), "A Few More Words About Mesmerism—The State of Sleep-Waking", ''The Dublin University Magazine: A Literary and Political Journal'', Vol. 24, No. 139, (July 1844), pp. 78-90.
* Herr, H.W., "Franklin, Lavoisier, and Mesmer: Origin of the Controlled Clinical Trial", ''Urologic Oncology: Seminars and Original Investigations'', Vol. 23, No. 5, (September 2005), pp. 346-351. * Hesse, M.B. (1961), ''Forces and Fields: The Concept of Action at a Distance in the History of Physics'', New York, NY: Philosophical Library. * Hilgard,_E.R._(1980),_"Introduction",_pp.xi-xxiii_in_George_Bloch,_''Mesmerism:_A_Translation_of_the_Original_Scientific_and_Medical_writings_of_F.A._Mesmer'',_Los_Altos,_CA:_William_Kaufman,_1980._
*_Hyatt_King,_A._(1945),_"The_Musical_Glasses_and_Glass_Harmonica",_''Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Musical_Association'',_Vol. 72,_No. 1,_(1943),_pp. 97-122.._
*_Ted_Kaptchuk">Kaptchuk,_T.J._(1998)
*__Kennaway,_J._(2012),_"Musical_Hypnosis:_Sound_and_Selfhood_from_Mesmerism_to_Brainwashing",_''Social_History_of_Medicine'',_Vol. 25,_No. 2,_(May_2012),_pp. 271–289._ *_Robert_Kerr_(writer)">_Kerr,_Robert_(1790)
_a_translation_of_Lavoisier_(1789). *_Kihlstrom,_J._F.,_"Mesmer,_the_Franklin_Commission,_and_Hypnosis:_A_Counterfactual_Essay",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 407-419._ *_Irving_Kirsch">Kirsch,_I.,_"Response_Expectancy_Theory_and_Application:_A_Decennial_Review",_''Applied_and_Preventive_Psychology'',_Vol. 6.,_No. 2,_(1997),_pp. 69-79._ *_Kovach,_F.J.,_"The_Enduring_Question_of_Action_at_a_Distance_in_Saint_Albert_the_Great",_''The_Southwestern_Journal_of_Philosophy'',_Vol. 10,_No. 3,_(November_1979),_pp. 161-235._ *_Landefeld,_Seth,_"LE_BACQUET_DE_Mṛ_MESMER:_Paris,_circa_1780",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',_Vol. 31,_No. 3,_(July_1976),_p. 368._ *_Lanska,_D.J._(2019),_"The_Assessment_of_Perkins'_Patent_Metallic_'Tractors':_Abandonment_of_an_18th-century_Therapeutic_Fad_following_Trials_using_Sham_Instruments",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_the_Neurosciences'',_Vol. 28,_No. 2,_(April-June_2019),_pp. 147–175._
*_Laurence,_J.-L._(2002),_"1784",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 309-319._
_English_translation_at_Kerr_(1790).
_for_a_complete_English_translation,_see_Donaldson_(2014),_pp. 18-38. *_ *_Ludwig,_A.M._(1964),_"An_Historical_Survey_of_the_Early_Roots_of_Mesmerism",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 12,_No. 4,_(October_1964),_pp. 205-217._ *_Charles_Mackay_(author)">Mackay,_Charles_(1841)
*_McConkey,_K.M._&_Perry,_C._(1985),_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_Mesmerism",_''The_International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 33,_No. 2,_(April_1985),_pp. 122-130._ *_McConkey,_K.M._&_Perry,_C._(2002),_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_Mesmerism,_Revisited",_''The_International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol. 50,_No. 4,_(October_2002),_pp. 320-331._ *_Melton,_J.G._(2001a)_(ed),_''Encyclopedia_of_Occultism_and_Parapsychology_(Fifth_Edition),_Volume_1_(A-L)'',_Farmington_Hills,_MI:_Thomson_Gale._ *_Melton,_J.G._(2001b)_(ed),_''Encyclopedia_of_Occultism_and_Parapsychology_(Fifth_Edition),_Volume_2_(M-Z)'',_Farmington_Hills,_MI:_Thomson_Gale._ *_Franz_Mesmer">Mesmer,_F.A._(1766)
_summary_at_Pattie_(1994),_pp. 13-27;_for_an_English_translation_of_a_modern_(1971)_French_version_of_the_original_Latin,_see_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 1-22.
_includes_Mesmer's_"27_Propositions",_as_an_appendix_(pp. 74-85);_complete_translation_(including_"Propositions")_at_Tinterow_(1970),_pp. 32-57,_and_at_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 41-79;_translation_of_"Propositions"_(only)_at_Binet_&_Féré_(1888),_pp. 5-8,_Anon_(1911/1912),_pp. 1557-1558_Goldsmith_(1934),_p. 117-121,_Buranelli_(1975),_pp. 101-103,_Wyckoff_(1975),_pp. 76-78,_and_Pattie_(1994),_pp. 87-89..
*_Mesmer,_F.A._(n.d.),_"Catéchism_du_Magnétisme_Animal"_('Catechism_on_Animal_Magnetism'),_reprinted_at_pp. 113-120,_Jean-Jacques_Paulet_(1784)
_translation_at_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 81-86.
_for_an_English_translation,_see_Bloch_(1980),_pp. 87-132.
*_Meyer,_Vera_&_Allen,_Kathleen_J.,_"Benjamin_Franklin_and_the_Glass_Armonica",_''Endeavour'',_Vol. 12,_No. 4,_(January_1988),_pp. 185-188._
*_Mulford,_Carla_J._(2018),_"Benjamin_Franklin_in_Passy,_1784",_''Reviews_in_American_History'',_Vol. 46,_No. 4,_(December_2018),_pp. 573-578._ *_William_Newnham_(physician)">Newnham,_W._(1845)
*_Ogden,_Emily_(2012),_"Mesmer's_Demon:_Fiction,_Falsehood,_and_the_Mechanical_Imagination",_''Early_American_Literature'',_Vol. 47,_No. 1,_(2012),_pp. 143–170._ *_Pattie,_F.A._(1956),_"Mesmer's_Medical_Dissertation_and_Its_Debt_to_Mead's_''De_Imperio_Solis_ac_Lunae''",_''Journal_of_the_History_of_Medicine_and_Allied_Sciences'',_Vol. 11,_No. 3,_(July,_1956),_pp. 275-287._ *_Pattie,_F.A._(1994),_''Mesmer_and_Animal_Magnetism:_A_Chapter_in_the_History_of_Medicine'',_Hamilton,_NY:_Edmonston_Publishing._ *_Jean-Jacques_Paulet">Paulet,_Jean-Jacques_(1784)
*_Peter,_B._(2005),_"Gassner’s_Exorcism_—_not_Mesmer’s_magnetism_—_is_the_real_Predecessor_of_modern_Hypnosis",_''International_Journal_of_Clinical_and_Experimental_Hypnosis'',_Vol.53,_No.1,_(February_2005),_pp.1-12._ *_Pick,_D._(2000),_''Svengali's_Web:_The_Alien_Enchanter_in_Modern_Culture'',_New_Haven,_CT:_Yale_University_Press._
*_Frank_Podmore.html" ;"title="Ernest Hilgard">Hilgard, E.R. (1980), "Introduction", pp.xi-xxiii in George Bloch, ''Mesmerism: A Translation of the Original Scientific and Medical writings of F.A. Mesmer'', Los Altos, CA: William Kaufman, 1980.
Huneman, Phillippe (2008), "Montpellier Vitalism and the Emergence of Alienism in France (1750–1800): The Case of the Passions", Science in Context", Vol. 21, No. 4, (2008), 615-647.
* Hyatt King, A. (1945), "The Musical Glasses and Glass Harmonica", ''Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association'', Vol. 72, No. 1, (1943), pp. 97-122..
James, C.D. (1975), "Mesmerism: A Prelude to Anaesthesia, ''Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine'', Vol. 68, No. 7, (July 1975), pp. 446-447.
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* Ted Kaptchuk">Kaptchuk, T.J. (1998)
"Intentional Ignorance: A History of Blind Assessment and Placebo Controls in Medicine", ''Bulletin of the History of Medicine'', Vol. 72, No 3, (Fall 1998), pp. 389-433.
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* Kennaway, J. (2012), "Musical Hypnosis: Sound and Selfhood from Mesmerism to Brainwashing", ''Social History of Medicine'', Vol. 25, No. 2, (May 2012), pp. 271–289. * Robert Kerr (writer)"> Kerr, Robert (1790)
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a translation of Lavoisier (1789). * Kihlstrom, J. F., "Mesmer, the Franklin Commission, and Hypnosis: A Counterfactual Essay", ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', Vol. 50, No. 4, (October 2002), pp. 407-419. * Irving Kirsch">Kirsch, I., "Response Expectancy Theory and Application: A Decennial Review", ''Applied and Preventive Psychology'', Vol. 6., No. 2, (1997), pp. 69-79. * Kovach, F.J., "The Enduring Question of Action at a Distance in Saint Albert the Great", ''The Southwestern Journal of Philosophy'', Vol. 10, No. 3, (November 1979), pp. 161-235. * Landefeld, Seth, "LE BACQUET DE Mṛ MESMER: Paris, circa 1780", ''Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences'', Vol. 31, No. 3, (July 1976), p. 368. * Lanska, D.J. (2019), "The Assessment of Perkins' Patent Metallic 'Tractors': Abandonment of an 18th-century Therapeutic Fad following Trials using Sham Instruments", ''Journal of the History of the Neurosciences'', Vol. 28, No. 2, (April-June 2019), pp. 147–175.
Lanska, D.J., & Lanska, J.T. (2007). "Franz Anton Mesmer and the Rise and Fall of Animal Magnetism: Dramatic Cures, Controversy, and Ultimately a Triumph for the Scientific Method", pp. 301-320 in H. Whitaker, C.U.M. Smith, and Stanley Finger (Eds), ''Brain, Mind and Medicine: Essays in Eighteenth-Century Neuroscience'', Boston, MA: Springer.
* Laurence, J.-L. (2002), "1784", ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', Vol. 50, No. 4, (October 2002), pp. 309-319.
Lavoisier, A. (1789), ''Traité Élémentaire de Chimie, &c. (Tome Premiere)'' ('Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, Volume One'), Paris: Chez Cuchet
English translation at Kerr (1790).
Lavoisier, A. (1865), "Sur le Magnétisme Animal", pp. 499-527 in A. Lavoisier, ''Oeuvres de Lavoisier Publiées par les Soins de S. Exc. le Ministre de l’Instruction Publique, Tome III'', Paris: J.-B. Dumas, E. Grimauxm and F.A. Fouqué
for a complete English translation, see Donaldson (2014), pp. 18-38. * * Ludwig, A.M. (1964), "An Historical Survey of the Early Roots of Mesmerism", ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', Vol. 12, No. 4, (October 1964), pp. 205-217. * Charles Mackay (author)">Mackay, Charles (1841)
"The Magnetisers", pp. 283-404 in Charles Mackay, ''Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds, Volume III: Philosophical Delusions'', London: Richard Bentley.
McConkey, K.M. & Barnier, A.J. (1991), "The Benjamin Franklin Report on Animal Magnetism: A Summary Comment", ''Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', Vol. 19, No. 2, (November 1991), pp. 77-86.
* McConkey, K.M. & Perry, C. (1985), "Benjamin Franklin and Mesmerism", ''The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', Vol. 33, No. 2, (April 1985), pp. 122-130. * McConkey, K.M. & Perry, C. (2002), "Benjamin Franklin and Mesmerism, Revisited", ''The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', Vol. 50, No. 4, (October 2002), pp. 320-331. * Melton, J.G. (2001a) (ed), ''Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology (Fifth Edition), Volume 1 (A-L)'', Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale. * Melton, J.G. (2001b) (ed), ''Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology (Fifth Edition), Volume 2 (M-Z)'', Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale. * Franz Mesmer">Mesmer, F.A. (1766)
''Dissertatio Physico-Medica de Planetarum Influxu'', Vienna: Ghelen
summary at Pattie (1994), pp. 13-27; for an English translation of a modern (1971) French version of the original Latin, see Bloch (1980), pp. 1-22.
Mesmer, F.A. (1779), ''Mémoire sur la découverte du magnetisme animal'' ('Memoir on the Discovery of Animal Magnetism'), Geneva and Paris: P. Fr. Didot
includes Mesmer's "27 Propositions", as an appendix (pp. 74-85); complete translation (including "Propositions") at Tinterow (1970), pp. 32-57, and at Bloch (1980), pp. 41-79; translation of "Propositions" (only) at Binet & Féré (1888), pp. 5-8, Anon (1911/1912), pp. 1557-1558 Goldsmith (1934), p. 117-121, Buranelli (1975), pp. 101-103, Wyckoff (1975), pp. 76-78, and Pattie (1994), pp. 87-89..
Mesmer, F.A. (1781), ''Précis historique des faits relatifs au magnétisme animal jusques en avril 1781. Par M. Mesmer, Docteur en Médecine de la Faculté´ de Vienne. Ouvrage traduit de l’Allemand'' ('Historical Summary of the facts relating to animal magnetism until April 1781. By Monsieur Mesmer, Doctor of Medicine of the Faculty of Vienna. Book translated from German'), London.
* Mesmer, F.A. (n.d.), "Catéchism du Magnétisme Animal" ('Catechism on Animal Magnetism'), reprinted at pp. 113-120, Jean-Jacques Paulet (1784)
''L'antimagnétisme, ou origine, progrès, décadence, renouvellement et réfutation du magnétisme animal'' ('Antimagnetism, or the origin, progress, decadence, renewal and refutation of animal magnetism'), London: n.p.
translation at Bloch (1980), pp. 81-86.
Mesmer, F.A. (1784a), ''Lettres de M. Mesmer, à Messieurs les auteurs du Journal de Paris, et à M. Franklin (20 Août 1784)''. (Paris).
Mesmer, F.A. (1784b), ''Lettre de M. Mesmer à M. le Comte de C*** (31 Août 1784)''. (Paris).
Mesmer, F.A. (1785), "(Letter to the Editors, dated 4 January 1785)", ''Journal de Paris'', Vol. 9, No. 6, (6 January 1785), p. 22.
Mesmer, F.A. (1799), ''Mémoire de F. A. Mesmer, Docteur en Médecine, sur ses Découvertes" ('Dissertation by F.A. Mesmer, Doctor of Medicne, on his Discoveries')'', Paris: Fuchs
for an English translation, see Bloch (1980), pp. 87-132.
Mesmer, F.A., et al. (1784), ''Recueil des Pièces les plus intéressantes sur le Magnétisme Animal'' ('A collection of the most interesting pieces on Animal Magnetism'), Paris: Gastelier.
* Meyer, Vera & Allen, Kathleen J., "Benjamin Franklin and the Glass Armonica", ''Endeavour'', Vol. 12, No. 4, (January 1988), pp. 185-188.
Moll, A. (1890a), ''Der Hypnotismus (Zweite vermehrte und umgearbeitete Auflage)'', Berlin: Fischer.
Moll, A. (1890b), ''Hypnotism (Second Edition)'', London: Walter Scott.
Morabito, Carmela, "Rethinking Mesmerism and its Dissemination in the 19th Century: at the Intersection between Philosophy, Medicine and Psychology", ''Medicina nei Secoli—Arte e Scienza'', Vol. 31, No. 1, (June 2019), pp. 71-92.
* Mulford, Carla J. (2018), "Benjamin Franklin in Passy, 1784", ''Reviews in American History'', Vol. 46, No. 4, (December 2018), pp. 573-578. * William Newnham (physician)">Newnham, W. (1845)
"Of Phreno-Magnetism", pp. 374-411 in W. Newnham, ''Human Magnetism; Its Claims to Dispassionate Inquiry: Being an Attempt to Show the Utility of Its Application for the Relief of Human Suffering'', London: John Churchill.
* Ogden, Emily (2012), "Mesmer's Demon: Fiction, Falsehood, and the Mechanical Imagination", ''Early American Literature'', Vol. 47, No. 1, (2012), pp. 143–170. * Pattie, F.A. (1956), "Mesmer's Medical Dissertation and Its Debt to Mead's ''De Imperio Solis ac Lunae''", ''Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences'', Vol. 11, No. 3, (July, 1956), pp. 275-287. * Pattie, F.A. (1994), ''Mesmer and Animal Magnetism: A Chapter in the History of Medicine'', Hamilton, NY: Edmonston Publishing. * Jean-Jacques Paulet">Paulet, Jean-Jacques (1784)
''L'antimagnétisme, ou origine, progrès, décadence, renouvellement et réfutation du magnétisme animal'' ('Antimagnetism, or the origin, progress, decadence, renewal and refutation of animal magnetism'), London: n.p.
* Peter, B. (2005), "Gassner’s Exorcism — not Mesmer’s magnetism — is the real Predecessor of modern Hypnosis", ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'', Vol.53, No.1, (February 2005), pp.1-12. * Pick, D. (2000), ''Svengali's Web: The Alien Enchanter in Modern Culture'', New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Pitres, A., Leçons Cliniques sur l'Hystérie et l'Hypnotisme: Faites à l'Hôpital Saint-André de Bordeaux: Tome 2 (Ouvrage précédé D'une Lettre-Préface de M. le Professeur J.-M. Charcot), Octave Doin (Paris), 1891.
* Frank Podmore">Podmore, F. (1909)
''Mesmerism and Christian Science: A Short History of Mental Healing'', Philadelphia: G.W. Jacobs.
Poissonnier, P.-I., Caille, C.-A., Mauduyt de La Varenne, P.-J.-C., & Andry, C.-L.-F. (1784), ''Rapport des commissaires de la Société royale de médecine nommés par le Roi pour fair l’examen du magnétisme animal, Imprimé par ordre du Roi'', Paris: Imprimerie royale.
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Rance, K. (trans. J. Johnson) (2018), "Between Enlightenment and Romanticism: A Counter-Revolutionary Mesmerism?", ''Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française'', Vol. 391, No. 1, (January-March 2018), pp. 177-196.
* Ridgway, E.S. (1993), "John Elliotson (1791-1868): A Bitter Enemy of Legitimate Medicine? Part I: Earlier Years and the Introduction to Mesmerism", ''Journal of Medical Biography'', Vol. 1, No. 4, (November 1993), pp. 191-198. * Ridgway, E.S. [1994], "John Elliotson (1791-1868): A Bitter Enemy of Legitimate Medicine? Part II: The Mesmeric Scandal and Later Years", ''Journal of Medical Biography'', Vol. 2, No. 1, (February 1994), pp. 1-7. * Rosen, G. (1946), "Mesmerism and Surgery: A Strange Chapter in the History of Anesthesia", ''Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences'', Vol. 1, No. 4, (October 1946), pp. 527–550. * Rosen, G. (1959), "History of Medical Hypnosis", in Schneck, J.M. (ed.), ''Hypnosis in Modern Medicine, (Second Edition)'', Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1959. * Rosen, G.M., Lilienfeld, S.O. & Glasgow, R.E. (2019), "Psychiatry's stance towards scientifically implausible therapies: Are we losing ground?", ''The Lancet Psychiatry'', Vol. 6, No. 10 (October 2019), pp. 802–803. * Salas D. & Salas, D. (trans.), "The First Scientific Investigation if the Paranormal Ever Conducted, Commissioned by King Louis XVI. Designed, Conducted, & Written by Benjamin Franklin, Antoine Lavoisier, & Others", ''Skeptic'', (Fall 1996), pp. 68-83: a translation of Bailly (1784a). * Schneck, J.M. (1959), "The History of Electrotherapy and its Correlation with Mesmer's Animal Magnetism", Vol. 116, No. 5, (November 1959), pp. 463–464.
Schwartz, S.A. (2004), "Franklin's Forgotten Triumph: Scientific Testing", ''American heritage'', Vol. 55, No. 5, (October 2004), pp. 65-69.
* Servan, J.M.A. (1784)
''Doutes d'un provincial, Proposés à MM. les Médecins-Commissaires chargés par le Roi de l'examen du Magnétisme animal'' ('Doubts of a Man from the Provinces, Proposed to MM. the Medical Commissioners Charged by the King with the Examination of Animal Magnetism'), Lyon: Prault.
* Shermer, M., "Testing the Claims of Mesmerism", ''Skeptic'', (Fall 1996), pp. 66-67. * Shor, R.E. (1972), "The Fundamental Problem in Hypnosis Research as Viewed from Historic Perspectives", pp. 14-40 in E. Fromm & R.E. Shor (eds.), ''Hypnosis: Developments in Research and New Perspectives'', New York: Aldine-Atherton. * Sibly, E. (1820)
"Of Animal Magnetism", pp. 256-277 in ''A Key to Physic, and the Occult Sciences, etc.'', London: G. Jones.
* Spanos, N.P. & Gottlieb, J. (1979), "Demonic Possession, Mesmerism, and Hysteria: A Social Psychological Perspective on their Historical Interrelations", ''Journal of Abnormal Psychology'', Vol. 88, No. 5, (October 1979), pp. 527-546. * Steinke, H. (2005), ''Irritating Experiments: Haller's Concept and the European Controversy on Irritability and Sensibility, 1750-90'', Amsterdam, Rodopi.
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* Sutton, G., "Electric Medicine and Mesmerism ", ''Isis'', Vol. 72, No. 3, (September 1981), pp. 375-392. * Tatar, Maria M. (1978), ''Spellbound: Studies on Mesmerism and Literature'', Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. * Temkin, O. (1936), "A Dissertation on the Sensible and Irritable Parts of Animals, by Albrecht von Haller (English Translation of 1755)", ''Bulletin of the Institute of the History of Medicine'', Vol. 4, No. 8, (October 1936): 651-699. * Teste, Alphonse, trans. D. Spillan (1843)
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* Tinterow, M.M., ''Foundations of Hypnosis: From Mesmer to Freud'', Charles C. Thomas, (Springfield), 1970.
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* von Haller, A. (1753a)
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von Haller, A. (1755) (trans. M. Tissot), ''A Dissertation on the Sensible and Irritable Parts of Animals'', London: J. Nourse.
* Vinchon, J. (1936), ''Mesmer et son Secret'', Paris: A. Legrand. * Walmsley, D M. (1967), "Mesmer, Marie Antoinette and a Royal Commission", ''History Today'', Vol. 17, No. 4, (1 April 1967), pp. 264-270.
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* Wyckoff, J.
975
Year 975 ( CMLXXV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Byzantine Empire
* Arab–Byzantine War: Emperor John I raids Mesopotamia and invades Syria, using ...
''Franz Anton Mesmer: Between God and Devil'', Prentice-Hall, (Englewood Cliffs), 1975.
* Yapko, M.D. (1994), ''Suggestions of Abuse: True and False Memories of Childhood Sexual Trauma'', New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Yeates, L.B., ''James Braid: Surgeon, Gentleman Scientist, and Hypnotist'', Ph.D. Dissertation, School of History and Philosophy of Science, Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences, University of New South Wales, January 2013.
Yeates, L.B. (2018), "James Braid (II): Mesmerism, Braid's Crucial Experiment, and Braid's Discovery of Neuro-Hypnotism", ''Australian Journal of Clinical Hypnotherapy & Hypnosis'', Vol. 40, No. 1, (Autumn 2018), pp. 40–92.
Younger, D. (1887), ''The Magnetic and Botanic Family Physician, and Domestic Practice of Natural Medicine: With Illustrations Showing Various Phases of Mesmeric Treatment, including Full and Concise Instruction in Mesmerism, Curative Magnetism, Massage, and Medical Botany'', London: E.W. Allen.
* Zabell, S. (2016), "The Virtues of Being Blind, ''Chance'', Vol. 29, No. 1, (January 2016), pp. 32-36.
Zanetti, F. (trans. J. Johnson) (2018), "The Setbacks and Counterpoints of Mesmerism: Knowledge and Personalities on the Margins at the End of the Old Regime", ''Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française'', Vol. 391, No. 1, (January-March 2018), pp. 57-80.
External links
''Museum of the History of Medicine and Pharmacy, at Lyon''.
''Museum of the History of Medicine and Pharmacy, at Lyon'': Mesmer's Baquet.
* Glass Armonica by Benjamin Franklin, ''The Bakken Museum Artifact Collection'', (catalog no. 81.064): {{cite web , last = The Bakken , title = Glass Armonica , url=http://www.thebakken.org/exhibits/mesmer/glass-armonica.htm , access-date = 2021-09-08 , archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070405115543/http://www.thebakken.org/exhibits/mesmer/glass-armonica.htm , archive-date = 2021-09-08 1784 in science History of science History of medicine History of medicine in France French medical research Scientific method Clinical trials Design of experiments Benjamin Franklin Louis XVI Concepts in metaphysics Obsolete scientific theories Obsolete medical theories Phrenology Animal magnetism Energy therapies Vitalism