In
biology
Biology is the scientific study of life. It is a natural science with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as a single, coherent field. For instance, all organisms are made up of cells that process hereditary i ...
, a reflex, or reflex action, is an involuntary, unplanned sequence or action and nearly instantaneous response to a
stimulus
A stimulus is something that causes a physiological response. It may refer to:
*Stimulation
**Stimulus (physiology), something external that influences an activity
**Stimulus (psychology), a concept in behaviorism and perception
*Stimulus (economi ...
.
![Improved General Reflex Diagram](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Improved_General_Reflex_Diagram.png)
Reflexes are found with varying levels of complexity in organisms with a
nervous system
In biology, the nervous system is the highly complex part of an animal that coordinates its actions and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body. The nervous system detects environmental changes ...
. A reflex occurs via
neural pathways
In neuroanatomy, a neural pathway is the connection formed by axons that project from neurons to make synapses onto neurons in another location, to enable neurotransmission (the sending of a signal from one region of the nervous system to an ...
in the nervous system called
reflex arcs
A reflex arc is a neural pathway that controls a reflex. In vertebrates, most sensory neurons do not pass directly into the brain, but synapse in the spinal cord. This allows for faster reflex actions to occur by activating spinal motor neurons w ...
. A stimulus initiates a neural signal, which is carried to a synapse. The signal is then transferred across the synapse to a motor neuron which evokes a target response. These neural signals do not always travel to the brain,
so many reflexes are an automatic response to a stimulus that does not receive or need conscious thought.
Many reflexes are fine-tuned to increase organism survival and self-defense. This is observed in reflexes such as the
startle reflex, which provides an automatic response to an unexpected stimuli, and the feline
righting reflex The righting reflex, also known as the labyrinthine righting reflex, is a reflex that corrects the orientation of the body when it is taken out of its normal upright position. It is initiated by the vestibular system, which detects that the body is ...
, which reorients a cat's body when falling to ensure safe landing. The simplest type of reflex, a short-latency reflex, has a single synapse, or junction, in the signaling pathway. Long-latency reflexes produce nerve signals that are transduced across multiple synapses before generating the reflex response.
Types of human reflexes
Myotatic reflexes
The myotatic or muscle
stretch reflex
The stretch reflex (myotatic reflex), or more accurately "muscle stretch reflex", is a muscle contraction in response to stretching within the muscle. The reflex functions to maintain the muscle at a constant length. The term deep tendon reflex is ...
es (sometimes known as ''deep tendon reflexes'') provide information on the integrity of the
central nervous system
The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity of all p ...
and
peripheral nervous system
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is one of two components that make up the nervous system of bilateral animals, with the other part being the central nervous system (CNS). The PNS consists of nerves and ganglia, which lie outside the brain ...
. This information can be detected using
electromyography (EMG).
Generally, decreased reflexes indicate a peripheral problem, and lively or exaggerated reflexes a central one.
A stretch reflex is the contraction of a muscle in response to its lengthwise stretch.
*
Biceps reflex
Biceps reflex is a reflex test that examines the function of the C5 reflex arc and the C6 reflex arc. The test is performed by using a tendon hammer to quickly depress the biceps brachii tendon as it passes through the cubital fossa. Specifically ...
(
C5,
C6)
*
Brachioradialis reflex
The brachioradialis reflex (also known as supinator reflex'' is observed during a neurological exam by striking the brachioradialis tendon (at its insertion at the base of the wrist into the radial styloid process (radial side of wrist around 4 in ...
(C5, C6,
C7)
*
Extensor digitorum reflex The extensor digitorum reflex is tested as part of the neurological examination to assess the sensory and motor pathways within the C6 and C7 spinal nerves. It is also known as Braunecker-Effenberg reflex, or BER.
Testing
The test is performed by t ...
(C6, C7)
*
Triceps reflex The triceps reflex, a deep tendon reflex, is a reflex as it elicits involuntary contraction of the triceps brachii muscle. It is initiated by the Cervical (of the neck region) spinal nerve 7 nerve root (the small segment of the nerve that emerg ...
(C6, C7,
C8)
*
Patellar reflex or knee-jerk reflex (
L2,
L3,
L4)
*
Ankle jerk reflex (Achilles reflex) (
S1,
S2)
While the reflexes above are stimulated mechanically, the term
H-reflex The H-reflex (or Hoffmann's reflex) is a reflectory reaction of muscles after electrical stimulation of sensory fibers (Ia afferents stemming from muscle spindles) in their innervating nerves (for example, those located behind the knee). The H-re ...
refers to the analogous reflex stimulated electrically, and
tonic vibration reflex
Tonic vibration reflex is a sustained contraction of a muscle subjected to vibration. This reflex is caused by vibratory activation of muscle spindles — muscle receptors sensitive to stretch.
Tonic vibration reflex is evoked by placing a vibr ...
for those stimulated to vibration.
Tendon reflex
A
tendon reflex
Tendon reflex (or T-reflex) may refer to:
*The stretch reflex or muscle stretch reflex (MSR), when the stretch is created by a blow upon a muscle tendon. This is the commonly used definition of the term. Albeit a misnomer, in this sense a common ...
is the contraction of a muscle in response to striking its tendon. The
Golgi tendon reflex The Golgi tendon reflex
(also called inverse stretch reflex, autogenic inhibition, tendon reflex)
is an inhibitory effect on the muscle resulting from the muscle tension stimulating Golgi tendon organs (GTO) of the muscle, and hence it is self-indu ...
is the inverse of a stretch reflex.
Reflexes involving cranial nerves
Reflexes usually only observed in human infants
Newborn babies
An infant or baby is the very young offspring of human beings. ''Infant'' (from the Latin word ''infans'', meaning 'unable to speak' or 'speechless') is a formal or specialised synonym for the common term ''baby''. The terms may also be used to ...
have a number of other reflexes which are not seen in adults, referred to as primitive reflexes. These automatic reactions to stimuli enable infants to respond to the environment before any learning has taken place. They include:
*
Asymmetrical tonic neck reflex
The asymmetrical tonic neck reflex (ATNR) is a primitive reflex found in newborn humans that normally vanishes around 6 months of age.
It is also known as the bow and arrow or "fencing reflex" because of the characteristic position of the infant ...
(ATNR)
*
Palmomental reflex The palmomental reflex (PMR) or Marinesco-Radovici Sign or Kinn reflex or Marinesco Reflex is a primitive reflex consisting of a twitch of the chin muscle elicited by stroking a specific part of the palm. It is present in infancy and disappears as t ...
*
Moro reflex
The Moro reflex is an infantile reflex that develops between 28 and 32 weeks of gestation and disappears at 3–6 months of age. It is a response to a sudden loss of support and involves three distinct components:
# spreading out the arms ( abdu ...
, also known as the startle reflex
*
Palmar grasp reflex
Palmar grasp reflex (or grasp reflex) is a primitive and involuntary reflex found in infants of humans and most primates. When an object, such as an adult finger, is placed in an infant's palm, the infant's fingers reflexively grasp the object. ...
*
Rooting reflex
*
Sucking reflex
*
Symmetrical tonic neck reflex
The symmetrical tonic neck reflex (STNR) is a primitive reflex that normally emerges during the first month of an infant's life and is diminished by the age of 9–10 months. It is a bridging or transitional brainstem reflex that is an important ...
(STNR)
*
Tonic labyrinthine reflex The tonic labyrinthine reflex (TLR) is a primitive reflex found in newborn humans. With this reflex, tilting the head back while lying on the back causes the back to stiffen and even arch backwards, the legs to straighten, stiffen, and push togethe ...
(TLR)
Other kinds of reflexes
Other reflexes found in the central nervous system include:
*
Abdominal reflex An abdominal reflex is a superficial neurological reflex stimulated by stroking of the abdomen around the umbilicus. It can be helpful in determining the level of a central nervous system (CNS) lesion. Being a superficial reflex, it is polysynapti ...
es (T6-L1)
*
Gastrocolic reflex
The gastrocolic reflex or gastrocolic response is a physiological reflex that controls the motility, or peristalsis, of the gastrointestinal tract following a meal. It involves an increase in motility of the colon consisting primarily of giant mi ...
*
Anocutaneous reflex (S2-S4)
*
Baroreflex
*
Cough reflex The cough reflex occurs when stimulation of cough receptors in the respiratory tract by dust or other foreign particles produces a cough, which causes rapidly moving air which usually remove the foreign material before it reaches the lungs. This typ ...
*
Cremasteric reflex
The cremasteric reflex is a superficial (i.e., close to the skin's surface) reflex observed in human males.
This reflex is elicited by lightly stroking or poking the superior and medial (inner) part of the thigh—regardless of the direction of ...
(L1-L2)
*
Diving reflex
The diving reflex, also known as the diving response and mammalian diving reflex, is a set of physiological responses to immersion that overrides the basic homeostatic reflexes, and is found in all air-breathing vertebrates studied to date. It o ...
*
Lazarus sign
The Lazarus sign or Lazarus reflex is a reflex movement in brain-dead or brainstem failure patients, which causes them to briefly raise their arms and drop them crossed on their chests (in a position similar to some Egyptian mummies). The phenome ...
*
Muscular defense
*
Photic sneeze reflex
The photic sneeze reflex (also known as Autosomal Dominant Compelling Helio-Ophthalmic Outburst (ACHOO) syndrome or photoptarmosis, of the combining form from Ancient Greek φῶς, ''phōs'', "light" and πταρμός, ''ptarmós'', "sneeze", ...
*
Scratch reflex
*
Sneeze
A sneeze (also known as sternutation) is a semi-autonomous, convulsive expulsion of air from the lungs through the nose and mouth, usually caused by foreign particles irritating the nasal mucosa. A sneeze expels air forcibly from the mouth and ...
*
Startle reflex
*
Withdrawal reflex
The withdrawal reflex (nociceptive flexion reflex or flexor withdrawal reflex) is a spinal reflex intended to protect the body from damaging stimuli. The reflex rapidly coordinates the contractions of all the flexor muscles and the relaxations of ...
**
Crossed extensor reflex
The crossed extensor reflex or crossed extensor response or crossed extension reflex is a reflex in which the contralateral limb compensates for loss of support when the ipsilateral limb withdraws from painful stimulus in a withdrawal reflex.
Dur ...
Many of these reflexes are quite complex requiring a number of synapses in a number of different nuclei in the
CNS (e.g., the
escape reflex). Others of these involve just a couple of synapses to function (e.g., the
withdrawal reflex
The withdrawal reflex (nociceptive flexion reflex or flexor withdrawal reflex) is a spinal reflex intended to protect the body from damaging stimuli. The reflex rapidly coordinates the contractions of all the flexor muscles and the relaxations of ...
).
Processes such as
breath
Breathing (or ventilation) is the process of moving air into and from the lungs to facilitate gas exchange with the internal environment, mostly to flush out carbon dioxide and bring in oxygen.
All aerobic creatures need oxygen for cell ...
ing,
digestion
Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intest ...
, and the maintenance of the
heartbeat can also be regarded as reflex actions, according to some definitions of the term.
Grading
In
medicine
Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pr ...
, reflexes are often used to assess the health of the
nervous system
In biology, the nervous system is the highly complex part of an animal that coordinates its actions and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body. The nervous system detects environmental changes ...
.
Doctors will typically grade the activity of a reflex on a scale from 0 to 4. While 2+ is considered normal, some healthy individuals are hypo-reflexive and register all reflexes at 1+, while others are hyper-reflexive and register all reflexes at 3+.
Reflex modulation
![Demonstration of reflex reversal](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Demonstration_of_reflex_reversal.svg)
Naively, we might imagine that reflexes are immutable. In reality, however, most reflexes are flexible and can be substantially modified to match the requirements of the behavior in both vertebrates and invertebrates.
A good example of reflex modulation is the
stretch reflex
The stretch reflex (myotatic reflex), or more accurately "muscle stretch reflex", is a muscle contraction in response to stretching within the muscle. The reflex functions to maintain the muscle at a constant length. The term deep tendon reflex is ...
.
When a muscle is stretched at rest, the stretch reflex leads to contraction of the muscle, thereby opposing stretch (resistance reflex). This helps to stabilize posture. During voluntary movements, however, the intensity (gain) of the reflex is reduced or its sign is even reversed. This prevents resistance reflexes from impeding movements.
The underlying sites and mechanisms of reflex modulation are not fully understood. There is evidence that the output of sensory neurons is directly modulated during behavior—for example, through
presynaptic inhibition. The effect of sensory input upon motor neurons is also influenced by interneurons in the
spinal cord
The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of nervous tissue, which extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column (backbone). The backbone encloses the central canal of the sp ...
or
ventral nerve cord
The ventral nerve cord is a major structure of the invertebrate central nervous system. It is the functional equivalent of the vertebrate spinal cord. The ventral nerve cord coordinates neural signaling from the brain to the body and vice versa, i ...
and by descending signals from the brain.
Other reflexes
Breathing can also be considered both involuntary and voluntary, since breath can be held through
internal intercostal muscles.
See also
*
All-or-none law
In physiology, the all-or-none law (sometimes the all-or-none principle or all-or-nothing law) is the principle that if a single nerve fibre is stimulated, it will always give a maximal response and produce an electrical impulse of a single amp ...
*
Automatic behavior
Automatic behavior, from the Greek ''automatos'' or self-acting, is the spontaneous production of often purposeless verbal or motor behavior without conscious self-control or self-censorship. This condition can be observed in a variety of context ...
*
Conditioned reflex
Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is a behavioral procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus
A stimulus is something that causes a physiological response. It may refer to:
*Stimulation
**Stimulus ...
*
Instinct
*
Jumping Frenchmen of Maine
The Jumping Frenchmen of Maine were a group of 19th-century lumberjacks who exhibited a rare disorder of unknown origin. The syndrome entails an exaggerated startle reflex which may be described as an uncontrollable "jump"; individuals with this ...
*
List of reflexes (alphabetical)
A list of reflexes in humans.
*Abdominal reflex
*Accommodation reflex — coordinated changes in the vergence, lens shape and pupil size when looking at a distant object after a near object.
*Acoustic reflex or attenuation reflex — contraction ...
*
Preflexes
Preflexes are the latent capacities in the musculoskeletal system that auto-stabilize movements through the use of the nonlinear visco-elastic properties of muscles when they contract. The term "preflex" for such a zero-delay, intrinsic feedback l ...
*
Voluntary action
Voluntary action is an anticipated goal-oriented movement. The concept of voluntary action arises in many areas of study, including cognitive psychology, operant conditioning, philosophy, neurology, criminology, and others. Additionally, voluntary ...
References
{{Authority control
Reflexes
Animal physiology