A quark () is a type of
elementary particle
In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a subatomic particle that is not composed of other particles. Particles currently thought to be elementary include electrons, the fundamental fermions ( quarks, leptons, a ...
and a fundamental constituent of
matter
In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume. All everyday objects that can be touched are ultimately composed of atoms, which are made up of interacting subatomic part ...
. Quarks combine to form
composite particle
This is a list of known and hypothesized particles.
Elementary particles
Elementary particles are particles with no measurable internal structure; that is, it is unknown whether they are composed of other particles. They are the fundamental ob ...
s called
hadron
In particle physics, a hadron (; grc, ἁδρός, hadrós; "stout, thick") is a composite subatomic particle made of two or more quarks held together by the strong interaction. They are analogous to molecules that are held together by the e ...
s, the most stable of which are
protons and
neutron
The neutron is a subatomic particle, symbol or , which has a neutral (not positive or negative) charge, and a mass slightly greater than that of a proton. Protons and neutrons constitute the nuclei of atoms. Since protons and neutrons beh ...
s, the components of
atomic nuclei
The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom, discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford based on the 1909 Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment. After the discovery of the neutron ...
. All commonly observable matter is composed of up quarks, down quarks and
electron
The electron ( or ) is a subatomic particle with a negative one elementary electric charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family,
and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no ...
s. Owing to a phenomenon known as ''
color confinement
In quantum chromodynamics (QCD), color confinement, often simply called confinement, is the phenomenon that color-charged particles (such as quarks and gluons) cannot be isolated, and therefore cannot be directly observed in normal conditions b ...
'', quarks are never found in isolation; they can be found only within hadrons, which include
baryon
In particle physics, a baryon is a type of composite subatomic particle which contains an odd number of valence quarks (at least 3). Baryons belong to the hadron family of particles; hadrons are composed of quarks. Baryons are also classif ...
s (such as protons and neutrons) and
meson
In particle physics, a meson ( or ) is a type of hadronic subatomic particle composed of an equal number of quarks and antiquarks, usually one of each, bound together by the strong interaction. Because mesons are composed of quark subparticles, ...
s, or in
quark–gluon plasma
Quark–gluon plasma (QGP) or quark soup is an interacting localized assembly of quarks and gluons at thermal (local kinetic) and (close to) chemical (abundance) equilibrium. The word ''plasma'' signals that free color charges are allowed. In a ...
s.
[
][
][more exotic phases of quark matter.] For this reason, much of what is known about quarks has been drawn from observations of hadrons.
Quarks have various
intrinsic
In science and engineering, an intrinsic property is a property of a specified subject that exists itself or within the subject. An extrinsic property is not essential or inherent to the subject that is being characterized. For example, mass ...
properties
Property is the ownership of land, resources, improvements or other tangible objects, or intellectual property.
Property may also refer to:
Mathematics
* Property (mathematics)
Philosophy and science
* Property (philosophy), in philosophy an ...
, including
electric charge
Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes charged matter to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. Electric charge can be ''positive'' or ''negative'' (commonly carried by protons and electrons respe ...
,
mass
Mass is an intrinsic property of a body. It was traditionally believed to be related to the quantity of matter in a physical body, until the discovery of the atom and particle physics. It was found that different atoms and different eleme ...
,
color charge
Color charge is a property of quarks and gluons that is related to the particles' strong interactions in the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD).
The "color charge" of quarks and gluons is completely unrelated to the everyday meanings of colo ...
, and
spin. They are the only elementary particles in the
Standard Model of
particle physics
Particle physics or high energy physics is the study of fundamental particles and forces that constitute matter and radiation. The fundamental particles in the universe are classified in the Standard Model as fermions (matter particles) an ...
to experience all four
fundamental interaction
In physics, the fundamental interactions, also known as fundamental forces, are the interactions that do not appear to be reducible to more basic interactions. There are four fundamental interactions known to exist: the gravitational and electro ...
s, also known as ''fundamental forces'' (
electromagnetism
In physics, electromagnetism is an interaction that occurs between particles with electric charge. It is the second-strongest of the four fundamental interactions, after the strong force, and it is the dominant force in the interactions of ...
,
gravitation,
strong interaction, and
weak interaction
In nuclear physics and particle physics, the weak interaction, which is also often called the weak force or weak nuclear force, is one of the four known fundamental interactions, with the others being electromagnetism, the strong interaction ...
), as well as the only known particles whose electric charges are not
integer
An integer is the number zero (), a positive natural number (, , , etc.) or a negative integer with a minus sign ( −1, −2, −3, etc.). The negative numbers are the additive inverses of the corresponding positive numbers. In the languag ...
multiples of the
elementary charge.
There are six types, known as ''
flavors'', of quarks:
up,
down,
charm,
strange,
top, and
bottom
Bottom may refer to:
Anatomy and sex
* Bottom (BDSM), the partner in a BDSM who takes the passive, receiving, or obedient role, to that of the top or dominant
* Bottom (sex), a term used by gay couples and BDSM
* Buttocks or bottom, part of th ...
.
[
] Up and down quarks have the lowest
mass
Mass is an intrinsic property of a body. It was traditionally believed to be related to the quantity of matter in a physical body, until the discovery of the atom and particle physics. It was found that different atoms and different eleme ...
es of all quarks. The heavier quarks rapidly change into up and down quarks through a process of
particle decay
In particle physics, particle decay is the spontaneous process of one unstable subatomic particle transforming into multiple other particles. The particles created in this process (the ''final state'') must each be less massive than the original, ...
: the transformation from a higher mass state to a lower mass state. Because of this, up and down quarks are generally stable and the most common in the
universe
The universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy. The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological description of the development of the universe. ...
, whereas strange, charm, bottom, and top quarks can only be produced in
high energy collisions (such as those involving
cosmic ray
Cosmic rays are high-energy particles or clusters of particles (primarily represented by protons or atomic nuclei) that move through space at nearly the speed of light. They originate from the Sun, from outside of the Solar System in our own ...
s and in
particle accelerator
A particle accelerator is a machine that uses electromagnetic fields to propel charged particles to very high speeds and energies, and to contain them in well-defined beams.
Large accelerators are used for fundamental research in particle ...
s). For every quark flavor there is a corresponding type of
antiparticle
In particle physics, every type of particle is associated with an antiparticle with the same mass but with opposite physical charges (such as electric charge). For example, the antiparticle of the electron is the positron (also known as an antie ...
, known as an antiquark, that differs from the quark only in that some of its properties (such as the electric charge) have
equal magnitude but opposite sign.
The
quark model
In particle physics, the quark model is a classification scheme for hadrons in terms of their valence quarks—the quarks and antiquarks which give rise to the quantum numbers of the hadrons. The quark model underlies "flavor SU(3)", or the Ei ...
was independently proposed by physicists
Murray Gell-Mann
Murray Gell-Mann (; September 15, 1929 – May 24, 2019) was an American physicist who received the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the theory of elementary particles. He was the Robert Andrews Millikan Professor of Theoretical ...
and
George Zweig
George Zweig (; born May 30, 1937) is a Russian-American physicist. He was trained as a particle physicist under Richard Feynman. He introduced, independently of Murray Gell-Mann, the quark model (although he named it "aces"). He later turned his ...
in 1964.
[
] Quarks were introduced as parts of an ordering scheme for hadrons, and there was little evidence for their physical existence until
deep inelastic scattering
Deep inelastic scattering is the name given to a process used to probe the insides of hadrons (particularly the baryons, such as protons and neutrons), using electrons, muons and neutrinos. It provided the first convincing evidence of the reali ...
experiments at the
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in 1968.
[
][
] Accelerator program experiments have provided evidence for all six flavors. The top quark, first observed at
Fermilab
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), located just outside Batavia, Illinois, near Chicago, is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory specializing in high-energy particle physics. Since 2007, Fermilab has been opera ...
in 1995, was the last to be discovered.
Classification
The
Standard Model is the theoretical framework describing all the known
elementary particle
In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a subatomic particle that is not composed of other particles. Particles currently thought to be elementary include electrons, the fundamental fermions ( quarks, leptons, a ...
s. This model contains six
flavors of quarks (), named
up (),
down (),
strange (),
charm (),
bottom
Bottom may refer to:
Anatomy and sex
* Bottom (BDSM), the partner in a BDSM who takes the passive, receiving, or obedient role, to that of the top or dominant
* Bottom (sex), a term used by gay couples and BDSM
* Buttocks or bottom, part of th ...
(), and
top ().
Antiparticle
In particle physics, every type of particle is associated with an antiparticle with the same mass but with opposite physical charges (such as electric charge). For example, the antiparticle of the electron is the positron (also known as an antie ...
s of quarks are called ''antiquarks'', and are denoted by a bar over the symbol for the corresponding quark, such as for an up antiquark. As with
antimatter
In modern physics, antimatter is defined as matter composed of the antiparticles (or "partners") of the corresponding particles in "ordinary" matter. Antimatter occurs in natural processes like cosmic ray collisions and some types of radioac ...
in general, antiquarks have the same mass,
mean lifetime
A quantity is subject to exponential decay if it decreases at a rate proportional to its current value. Symbolically, this process can be expressed by the following differential equation, where is the quantity and ( lambda) is a positive rate ...
, and spin as their respective quarks, but the electric charge and other
charges have the opposite sign.
Quarks are
spin- particles, which means they are
fermions according to the
spin–statistics theorem
In quantum mechanics, the spin–statistics theorem relates the intrinsic spin of a particle (angular momentum not due to the orbital motion) to the particle statistics it obeys. In units of the reduced Planck constant ''ħ'', all particles tha ...
. They are subject to the
Pauli exclusion principle
In quantum mechanics, the Pauli exclusion principle states that two or more identical particles with half-integer spins (i.e. fermions) cannot occupy the same quantum state within a quantum system simultaneously. This principle was formulat ...
, which states that no two identical fermions can simultaneously occupy the same
quantum state
In quantum physics, a quantum state is a mathematical entity that provides a probability distribution for the outcomes of each possible measurement on a system. Knowledge of the quantum state together with the rules for the system's evolution i ...
. This is in contrast to
boson
In particle physics, a boson ( ) is a subatomic particle whose spin quantum number has an integer value (0,1,2 ...). Bosons form one of the two fundamental classes of subatomic particle, the other being fermions, which have odd half-integer spi ...
s (particles with integer spin), of which any number can be in the same state. Unlike
leptons, quarks possess
color charge
Color charge is a property of quarks and gluons that is related to the particles' strong interactions in the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD).
The "color charge" of quarks and gluons is completely unrelated to the everyday meanings of colo ...
, which causes them to engage in the
strong interaction. The resulting attraction between different quarks causes the formation of composite particles known as ''
hadron
In particle physics, a hadron (; grc, ἁδρός, hadrós; "stout, thick") is a composite subatomic particle made of two or more quarks held together by the strong interaction. They are analogous to molecules that are held together by the e ...
s'' (see "
Strong interaction and color charge" below).
The quarks that determine the
quantum numbers of hadrons are called ''valence quarks''; apart from these, any hadron may contain an indefinite number of
virtual "
sea" quarks, antiquarks, and
gluons, which do not influence its quantum numbers. There are two families of hadrons:
baryon
In particle physics, a baryon is a type of composite subatomic particle which contains an odd number of valence quarks (at least 3). Baryons belong to the hadron family of particles; hadrons are composed of quarks. Baryons are also classif ...
s, with three valence quarks, and
meson
In particle physics, a meson ( or ) is a type of hadronic subatomic particle composed of an equal number of quarks and antiquarks, usually one of each, bound together by the strong interaction. Because mesons are composed of quark subparticles, ...
s, with a valence quark and an antiquark. The most common baryons are the proton and the neutron, the building blocks of the
atomic nucleus
The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom, discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford based on the 1909 Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment. After the discovery of the neutron ...
.
[
] A great number of hadrons are known (see
list of baryons and
list of mesons
:''This list is of all known and predicted scalar, pseudoscalar and vector mesons. See list of particles for a more detailed list of particles found in particle physics.''
This article contains a list of mesons, unstable subatomic particles ...
), most of them differentiated by their quark content and the properties these constituent quarks confer. The existence of
"exotic" hadrons with more valence quarks, such as
tetraquark
A tetraquark, in particle physics, is an exotic meson composed of four valence quarks. A tetraquark state has long been suspected to be allowed by quantum chromodynamics, the modern theory of strong interactions. A tetraquark state is an example ...
s () and
pentaquark
A pentaquark is a human-made subatomic particle, consisting of four quarks and one antiquark bound together; they are not known to occur naturally, or exist outside of experiments specifically carried out to create them.
As quarks have a baryo ...
s (), was conjectured from the beginnings of the quark model
[
] but not discovered until the early 21st century.
[
][
][
][
]
Elementary fermions are grouped into three
generations, each comprising two leptons and two quarks. The first generation includes up and down quarks, the second strange and charm quarks, and the third bottom and top quarks. All searches for a fourth generation of quarks and other elementary fermions have failed, and there is strong indirect evidence that no more than three generations exist.
[The main evidence is based on the ]resonance width
In physics and engineering, the quality factor or ''Q'' factor is a dimensionless parameter that describes how underdamped an oscillator or resonator is. It is defined as the ratio of the initial energy stored in the resonator to the energ ...
of the boson, which constrains the 4th generation neutrino to have a mass greater than ~. This would be highly contrasting with the other three generations' neutrinos, whose masses cannot exceed . Particles in higher generations generally have greater mass and less stability, causing them to
decay
Decay may refer to:
Science and technology
* Bit decay, in computing
* Software decay, in computing
* Distance decay, in geography
* Decay time (fall time), in electronics
Biology
* Decomposition of organic matter
* Tooth decay (dental caries ...
into lower-generation particles by means of
weak interaction
In nuclear physics and particle physics, the weak interaction, which is also often called the weak force or weak nuclear force, is one of the four known fundamental interactions, with the others being electromagnetism, the strong interaction ...
s. Only first-generation (up and down) quarks occur commonly in nature. Heavier quarks can only be created in high-energy collisions (such as in those involving
cosmic ray
Cosmic rays are high-energy particles or clusters of particles (primarily represented by protons or atomic nuclei) that move through space at nearly the speed of light. They originate from the Sun, from outside of the Solar System in our own ...
s), and decay quickly; however, they are thought to have been present during the first fractions of a second after the
Big Bang, when the universe was in an extremely hot and dense phase (the
quark epoch
In physical cosmology, the Quark epoch was the period in the evolution of the early universe when the fundamental interactions of gravitation, electromagnetism, the strong interaction and the weak interaction had taken their present forms, but th ...
). Studies of heavier quarks are conducted in artificially created conditions, such as in
particle accelerator
A particle accelerator is a machine that uses electromagnetic fields to propel charged particles to very high speeds and energies, and to contain them in well-defined beams.
Large accelerators are used for fundamental research in particle ...
s.
Having electric charge, mass, color charge, and flavor, quarks are the only known elementary particles that engage in all four
fundamental interaction
In physics, the fundamental interactions, also known as fundamental forces, are the interactions that do not appear to be reducible to more basic interactions. There are four fundamental interactions known to exist: the gravitational and electro ...
s of contemporary physics: electromagnetism, gravitation, strong interaction, and weak interaction.
Gravitation is too weak to be relevant to individual particle interactions except at extremes of energy (
Planck energy) and distance scales (
Planck distance). However, since no successful
quantum theory of gravity
Quantum gravity (QG) is a field of theoretical physics that seeks to describe gravity according to the principles of quantum mechanics; it deals with environments in which neither gravitational nor quantum effects can be ignored, such as in the vi ...
exists, gravitation is not described by the Standard Model.
See the
table of properties below for a more complete overview of the six quark flavors' properties.
History
![George Zweig](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/George_Zweig.jpg)
The
quark model
In particle physics, the quark model is a classification scheme for hadrons in terms of their valence quarks—the quarks and antiquarks which give rise to the quantum numbers of the hadrons. The quark model underlies "flavor SU(3)", or the Ei ...
was independently proposed by physicists
Murray Gell-Mann
Murray Gell-Mann (; September 15, 1929 – May 24, 2019) was an American physicist who received the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the theory of elementary particles. He was the Robert Andrews Millikan Professor of Theoretical ...
[
] and
George Zweig
George Zweig (; born May 30, 1937) is a Russian-American physicist. He was trained as a particle physicist under Richard Feynman. He introduced, independently of Murray Gell-Mann, the quark model (although he named it "aces"). He later turned his ...
[
][
] in 1964.
The proposal came shortly after Gell-Mann's 1961 formulation of a particle classification system known as the ''
Eightfold Way'' – or, in more technical terms,
SU(3)
In mathematics, the special unitary group of degree , denoted , is the Lie group of unitary matrices with determinant 1.
The more general unitary matrices may have complex determinants with absolute value 1, rather than real 1 in the specia ...
flavor symmetry, streamlining its structure. Physicist
Yuval Ne'eman
Yuval Ne'eman ( he, יובל נאמן, 14 May 1925 – 26 April 2006) was an Israeli theoretical physicist, military scientist, and politician. He was Minister of Science and Development in the 1980s and early 1990s. He was the President o ...
had independently developed a scheme similar to the Eightfold Way in the same year. An early attempt at constituent organization was available in the
Sakata model
In particle physics, the Sakata model of hadrons was a precursor to the quark model. It proposed that the proton, neutron, and Lambda baryon were elementary particles (sometimes referred to as sakatons
), and that all other known hadrons were made ...
.
At the time of the quark theory's inception, the "
particle zoo" included a multitude of
hadron
In particle physics, a hadron (; grc, ἁδρός, hadrós; "stout, thick") is a composite subatomic particle made of two or more quarks held together by the strong interaction. They are analogous to molecules that are held together by the e ...
s, among other particles. Gell-Mann and Zweig posited that they were not elementary particles, but were instead composed of combinations of quarks and antiquarks. Their model involved three flavors of quarks,
up,
down, and
strange, to which they ascribed properties such as spin and electric charge.
The initial reaction of the physics community to the proposal was mixed. There was particular contention about whether the quark was a physical entity or a mere abstraction used to explain concepts that were not fully understood at the time.
In less than a year, extensions to the Gell-Mann–Zweig model were proposed.
Sheldon Glashow
Sheldon Lee Glashow (, ; born December 5, 1932) is a Nobel Prize-winning American theoretical physicist. He is the Metcalf Professor of Mathematics and Physics at Boston University and Eugene Higgins Professor of Physics, Emeritus, at Harvard U ...
and
James Bjorken
James Daniel "BJ" Bjorken (born 1934) is an American theoretical physicist. He was a Putnam Fellow in 1954, received a BS in physics from MIT in 1956, and obtained his PhD from Stanford University in 1959. He was a visiting scholar at the Inst ...
predicted the existence of a fourth flavor of quark, which they called ''charm''. The addition was proposed because it allowed for a better description of the
weak interaction
In nuclear physics and particle physics, the weak interaction, which is also often called the weak force or weak nuclear force, is one of the four known fundamental interactions, with the others being electromagnetism, the strong interaction ...
(the mechanism that allows quarks to decay), equalized the number of known quarks with the number of known
leptons, and implied a mass formula that correctly reproduced the masses of the known
meson
In particle physics, a meson ( or ) is a type of hadronic subatomic particle composed of an equal number of quarks and antiquarks, usually one of each, bound together by the strong interaction. Because mesons are composed of quark subparticles, ...
s.
Deep inelastic scattering
Deep inelastic scattering is the name given to a process used to probe the insides of hadrons (particularly the baryons, such as protons and neutrons), using electrons, muons and neutrinos. It provided the first convincing evidence of the reali ...
experiments conducted in 1968 at the
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) and published on October 20, 1969, showed that the proton contained much smaller,
point-like objects and was therefore not an elementary particle.
Physicists were reluctant to firmly identify these objects with quarks at the time, instead calling them "
partons
In particle physics, the parton model is a model of hadrons, such as protons and neutrons, proposed by Richard Feynman. It is useful for interpreting the cascades of radiation (a parton shower) produced from quantum chromodynamics (QCD) processes ...
" – a term coined by
Richard Feynman
Richard Phillips Feynman (; May 11, 1918 – February 15, 1988) was an American theoretical physicist, known for his work in the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics, the theory of quantum electrodynamics, the physics of the superfl ...
.
[
] The objects that were observed at SLAC would later be identified as up and down quarks as the other flavors were discovered. Nevertheless, "parton" remains in use as a collective term for the constituents of hadrons (quarks, antiquarks, and
gluons).
The strange quark's existence was indirectly validated by SLAC's scattering experiments: not only was it a necessary component of Gell-Mann and Zweig's three-quark model, but it provided an explanation for the
kaon
KAON (Karlsruhe ontology) is an ontology infrastructure developed by the University of Karlsruhe and the Research Center for Information Technologies in Karlsruhe.
Its first incarnation was developed in 2002 and supported an enhanced version of ...
() and
pion
In particle physics, a pion (or a pi meson, denoted with the Greek letter pi: ) is any of three subatomic particles: , , and . Each pion consists of a quark and an antiquark and is therefore a meson. Pions are the lightest mesons and, more gene ...
() hadrons discovered in cosmic rays in 1947.
In a 1970 paper, Glashow,
John Iliopoulos and
Luciano Maiani
Luciano Maiani (born 16 July 1941, in Rome) is a Sammarinese physicist best known for his prediction of the charm quark with Sheldon Glashow and John Iliopoulos (the " GIM mechanism").
Academic history
In 1964 Luciano Maiani received his degree ...
presented the
GIM mechanism In particle physics, the GIM mechanism (or Glashow–Iliopoulos–Maiani mechanism) is the mechanism through which flavour-changing neutral currents (FCNCs) are suppressed in loop diagrams. It also explains why weak interactions that change strang ...
(named from their initials) to explain the experimental non-observation of
flavor-changing neutral current
In particle physics, flavor-changing neutral currents or flavour-changing neutral currents (FCNCs) are hypothetical interactions that change the flavor of a fermion without altering its electric charge.
Details
If they occur in nature (as refl ...
s. This theoretical model required the existence of the as-yet undiscovered
charm quark
The charm quark, charmed quark or c quark (from its symbol, c) is the third-most massive of all quarks, a type of elementary particle. Charm quarks are found in hadrons, which are subatomic particles made of quarks. Examples of hadrons containin ...
. The number of supposed quark flavors grew to the current six in 1973, when
Makoto Kobayashi and
Toshihide Maskawa
was a Japanese theoretical physicist known for his work on CP-violation who was awarded one quarter of the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics "for the discovery of the origin of the broken symmetry which predicts the existence of at least three famil ...
noted that the experimental observation of
CP violation
In particle physics, CP violation is a violation of CP-symmetry (or charge conjugation parity symmetry): the combination of C-symmetry (charge symmetry) and P-symmetry ( parity symmetry). CP-symmetry states that the laws of physics should be th ...
[CP violation is a phenomenon that causes weak interactions to behave differently when left and right are swapped ( P symmetry) and particles are replaced with their corresponding antiparticles ( C symmetry).][
] could be explained if there were another pair of quarks.
Charm quarks were produced almost simultaneously by two teams in November 1974 (see
November Revolution) – one at SLAC under
Burton Richter
Burton Richter (March 22, 1931 – July 18, 2018) was an American physicist. He led the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) team which co-discovered the J/ψ meson in 1974, alongside the Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) team led by Sa ...
, and one at
Brookhaven National Laboratory
Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory located in Upton, Long Island, and was formally established in 1947 at the site of Camp Upton, a former U.S. Army base and Japanese internment c ...
under
Samuel Ting. The charm quarks were observed
bound
Bound or bounds may refer to:
Mathematics
* Bound variable
* Upper and lower bounds, observed limits of mathematical functions
Physics
* Bound state, a particle that has a tendency to remain localized in one or more regions of space
Geography
*B ...
with charm antiquarks in mesons. The two parties had assigned the discovered meson two different symbols, and ; thus, it became formally known as the
meson. The discovery finally convinced the physics community of the quark model's validity.
In the following years a number of suggestions appeared for extending the quark model to six quarks. Of these, the 1975 paper by
Haim Harari
use both this parameter and , birth_date to display the person's date of birth, date of death, and age at death) -->
, death_place =
, death_cause =
, body_discovered =
, resting_place =
, resting_place_coordinates ...
[
] was the first to coin the terms ''
top'' and ''
bottom
Bottom may refer to:
Anatomy and sex
* Bottom (BDSM), the partner in a BDSM who takes the passive, receiving, or obedient role, to that of the top or dominant
* Bottom (sex), a term used by gay couples and BDSM
* Buttocks or bottom, part of th ...
'' for the additional quarks.
[
]
In 1977, the bottom quark was observed by a team at
Fermilab
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), located just outside Batavia, Illinois, near Chicago, is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory specializing in high-energy particle physics. Since 2007, Fermilab has been opera ...
led by
Leon Lederman
Leon, Léon (French) or León (Spanish) may refer to:
Places
Europe
* León, Spain, capital city of the Province of León
* Province of León, Spain
* Kingdom of León, an independent state in the Iberian Peninsula from 910 to 1230 and again f ...
. This was a strong indicator of the top quark's existence: without the top quark, the bottom quark would have been without a partner. It was not until 1995 that the top quark was finally observed, also by the
CDF[
] and
DØ[
] teams at Fermilab.
It had a mass much larger than expected, almost as large as that of a
gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from la, aurum) and atomic number 79. This makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. It is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile me ...
atom.
Etymology
For some time, Gell-Mann was undecided on an actual spelling for the term he intended to coin, until he found the word ''quark'' in
James Joyce
James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist, poet, and literary critic. He contributed to the modernist avant-garde movement and is regarded as one of the most influential and important writers of ...
's 1939 book ''
Finnegans Wake
''Finnegans Wake'' is a novel by Irish writer James Joyce. It is well known for its experimental style and reputation as one of the most difficult works of fiction in the Western canon. It has been called "a work of fiction which combines a bod ...
'':
The word ''quark'' is an outdated English word meaning ''to croak'' and the above-quoted lines are about a bird choir mocking king
Mark of Cornwall
Mark of Cornwall ( la, Marcus, kw, Margh, cy, March, br, Marc'h) was a sixth-century King of Kernow (Cornwall), possibly identical with King Conomor. He is best known for his appearance in Arthurian legend as the uncle of Tristan and the husb ...
in the legend of
Tristan and Iseult
Tristan and Iseult, also known as Tristan and Isolde and other names, is a medieval chivalric romance told in numerous variations since the 12th century. Based on a Celtic legend and possibly other sources, the tale is a tragedy about the illic ...
. Especially in the German-speaking parts of the world there is a widespread legend, however, that Joyce had taken it from the word , a
German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
** Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ge ...
word of
Slavic origin which denotes
a curd cheese, but is also a colloquial term for "trivial nonsense". In the legend it is said that he had heard it on a journey to Germany at a
farmers' market
A farmers' market (or farmers market according to the AP stylebook, also farmer's market in the Cambridge Dictionary) is a physical retail marketplace intended to sell foods directly by farmers to consumers. Farmers' markets may be indoors or o ...
in
Freiburg
Freiburg im Breisgau (; abbreviated as Freiburg i. Br. or Freiburg i. B.; Low Alemannic: ''Friburg im Brisgau''), commonly referred to as Freiburg, is an independent city in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. With a population of about 230,000 (as o ...
.
Some authors, however, defend a possible German origin of Joyce's word ''quark''. Gell-Mann went into further detail regarding the name of the quark in his 1994 book ''The Quark and the Jaguar'':
[
]
Zweig preferred the name ''ace'' for the particle he had theorized, but Gell-Mann's terminology came to prominence once the quark model had been commonly accepted.
The quark flavors were given their names for several reasons. The up and down quarks are named after the up and down components of
isospin
In nuclear physics and particle physics, isospin (''I'') is a quantum number related to the up- and down quark content of the particle. More specifically, isospin symmetry is a subset of the flavour symmetry seen more broadly in the interactions ...
, which they carry.
[
] Strange quarks were given their name because they were discovered to be components of the
strange particle A strange particle is an elementary particle with a strangeness quantum number different from zero. Strange particles are members of a large family of elementary particles carrying the quantum number of strangeness, including several cases where the ...
s discovered in cosmic rays years before the quark model was proposed; these particles were deemed "strange" because they had unusually long lifetimes.
Glashow, who co-proposed charm quark with Bjorken, is quoted as saying, "We called our construct the 'charmed quark', for we were fascinated and pleased by the symmetry it brought to the subnuclear world." The names "bottom" and "top", coined by Harari, were chosen because they are "logical partners for up and down quarks".
[
] Alternative names for bottom and top quarks are "beauty" and "truth" respectively, but these names have somewhat fallen out of use. While "truth" never did catch on, accelerator complexes devoted to massive production of bottom quarks are sometimes called "
beauty factories".
Properties
Electric charge
Quarks have
fractional electric charge values – either (−) or (+) times the
elementary charge (e), depending on flavor. Up, charm, and top quarks (collectively referred to as ''up-type quarks'') have a charge of + e; down, strange, and bottom quarks (''down-type quarks'') have a charge of − e. Antiquarks have the opposite charge to their corresponding quarks; up-type antiquarks have charges of − e and down-type antiquarks have charges of + e. Since the electric charge of a
hadron
In particle physics, a hadron (; grc, ἁδρός, hadrós; "stout, thick") is a composite subatomic particle made of two or more quarks held together by the strong interaction. They are analogous to molecules that are held together by the e ...
is the sum of the charges of the constituent quarks, all hadrons have integer charges: the combination of three quarks (baryons), three antiquarks (antibaryons), or a quark and an antiquark (mesons) always results in integer charges. For example, the hadron constituents of atomic nuclei, neutrons and protons, have charges of 0 e and +1 e respectively; the neutron is composed of two down quarks and one up quark, and the proton of two up quarks and one down quark.
Spin
Spin is an intrinsic property of elementary particles, and its direction is an important
degree of freedom
Degrees of freedom (often abbreviated df or DOF) refers to the number of independent variables or parameters of a thermodynamic system. In various scientific fields, the word "freedom" is used to describe the limits to which physical movement or ...
. It is sometimes visualized as the rotation of an object around its own axis (hence the name "
spin"), though this notion is somewhat misguided at subatomic scales because elementary particles are believed to be
point-like
A point particle (ideal particle or point-like particle, often spelled pointlike particle) is an idealization of particles heavily used in physics. Its defining feature is that it lacks spatial extension; being dimensionless, it does not take up ...
.
Spin can be represented by a
vector
Vector most often refers to:
*Euclidean vector, a quantity with a magnitude and a direction
*Vector (epidemiology), an agent that carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into another living organism
Vector may also refer to:
Mathematic ...
whose length is measured in units of the
reduced Planck constant
The Planck constant, or Planck's constant, is a fundamental physical constant of foundational importance in quantum mechanics. The constant gives the relationship between the energy of a photon and its frequency, and by the mass-energy equivalen ...
''ħ'' (pronounced "h bar"). For quarks, a measurement of the spin vector
component
Circuit Component may refer to:
•Are devices that perform functions when they are connected in a circuit.
In engineering, science, and technology Generic systems
* System components, an entity with discrete structure, such as an assem ...
along any axis can only yield the values + or −; for this reason quarks are classified as
spin- particles. The component of spin along a given axis – by convention the ''z'' axis – is often denoted by an up arrow ↑ for the value + and down arrow ↓ for the value −, placed after the symbol for flavor. For example, an up quark with a spin of + along the ''z'' axis is denoted by u↑.
Weak interaction
A quark of one flavor can transform into a quark of another flavor only through the weak interaction, one of the four
fundamental interaction
In physics, the fundamental interactions, also known as fundamental forces, are the interactions that do not appear to be reducible to more basic interactions. There are four fundamental interactions known to exist: the gravitational and electro ...
s in particle physics. By absorbing or emitting a
W boson
In particle physics, the W and Z bosons are vector bosons that are together known as the weak bosons or more generally as the intermediate vector bosons. These elementary particles mediate the weak interaction; the respective symbols are , , and ...
, any up-type quark (up, charm, and top quarks) can change into any down-type quark (down, strange, and bottom quarks) and vice versa. This flavor transformation mechanism causes the
radioactive
Radioactive decay (also known as nuclear decay, radioactivity, radioactive disintegration, or nuclear disintegration) is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation. A material containing unstable nuclei is consi ...
process of
beta decay
In nuclear physics, beta decay (β-decay) is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta particle (fast energetic electron or positron) is emitted from an atomic nucleus, transforming the original nuclide to an isobar of that nuclide. For ...
, in which a neutron () "splits" into a proton (), an
electron
The electron ( or ) is a subatomic particle with a negative one elementary electric charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family,
and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no ...
() and an
electron antineutrino
The electron neutrino () is an elementary particle which has zero electric charge and a spin of . Together with the electron, it forms the first generation of leptons, hence the name electron neutrino. It was first hypothesized by Wolfgang Pauli ...
() (see picture). This occurs when one of the down quarks in the neutron () decays into an up quark by emitting a
virtual boson, transforming the neutron into a proton (). The boson then decays into an electron and an electron antineutrino.
[
]
Both beta decay and the inverse process of ''
inverse beta decay
Inverse beta decay, commonly abbreviated to IBD, is a nuclear reaction involving an electron antineutrino scattering off a proton, creating a positron and a neutron. This process is commonly used in the detection of electron antineutrinos in ...
'' are routinely used in medical applications such as
positron emission tomography (PET) and in experiments involving
neutrino detection
A neutrino detector is a physics apparatus which is designed to study neutrinos. Because neutrinos only weakly interact with other particles of matter, neutrino detectors must be very large to detect a significant number of neutrinos. Neutrino d ...
.
While the process of flavor transformation is the same for all quarks, each quark has a preference to transform into the quark of its own generation. The relative tendencies of all flavor transformations are described by a
mathematical table, called the
Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa matrix (CKM matrix). Enforcing
unitarity
In quantum physics, unitarity is the condition that the time evolution of a quantum state according to the Schrödinger equation is mathematically represented by a unitary operator. This is typically taken as an axiom or basic postulate of quant ...
, the approximate
magnitudes of the entries of the CKM matrix are:
[
]
:
where ''V''
''ij'' represents the tendency of a quark of flavor ''i'' to change into a quark of flavor ''j'' (or vice versa).
[The actual probability of decay of one quark to another is a complicated function of (among other variables) the decaying quark's mass, the masses of the decay products, and the corresponding element of the CKM matrix. This probability is directly proportional (but not equal) to the magnitude squared (, ''V''''ij'' , 2) of the corresponding CKM entry.]
There exists an equivalent weak interaction matrix for leptons (right side of the W boson on the above beta decay diagram), called the
Pontecorvo–Maki–Nakagawa–Sakata matrix (PMNS matrix). Together, the CKM and PMNS matrices describe all flavor transformations, but the links between the two are not yet clear.
Strong interaction and color charge
![Strong force charges](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Strong_force_charges.svg)
According to
quantum chromodynamics (QCD), quarks possess a property called ''
color charge
Color charge is a property of quarks and gluons that is related to the particles' strong interactions in the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD).
The "color charge" of quarks and gluons is completely unrelated to the everyday meanings of colo ...
''. There are three types of color charge, arbitrarily labeled ''blue'', ''green'', and ''red''.
[Despite its name, color charge is not related to the color spectrum of visible light.] Each of them is complemented by an anticolor – ''antiblue'', ''antigreen'', and ''antired''. Every quark carries a color, while every antiquark carries an anticolor.
The system of attraction and repulsion between quarks charged with different combinations of the three colors is called
strong interaction, which is mediated by
force carrying particles known as ''
gluons''; this is discussed at length below. The theory that describes strong interactions is called
quantum chromodynamics (QCD). A quark, which will have a single color value, can form a
bound system with an antiquark carrying the corresponding anticolor. The result of two attracting quarks will be color neutrality: a quark with color charge ''ξ'' plus an antiquark with color charge −''ξ'' will result in a color charge of 0 (or "white" color) and the formation of a
meson
In particle physics, a meson ( or ) is a type of hadronic subatomic particle composed of an equal number of quarks and antiquarks, usually one of each, bound together by the strong interaction. Because mesons are composed of quark subparticles, ...
. This is analogous to the
additive color
Additive color or additive mixing is a property of a color model that predicts the appearance of colors made by coincident component lights, i.e. the perceived color can be predicted by summing the numeric representations of the component colo ...
model in basic
optics
Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultrav ...
. Similarly, the combination of three quarks, each with different color charges, or three antiquarks, each with different anticolor charges, will result in the same "white" color charge and the formation of a
baryon
In particle physics, a baryon is a type of composite subatomic particle which contains an odd number of valence quarks (at least 3). Baryons belong to the hadron family of particles; hadrons are composed of quarks. Baryons are also classif ...
or
antibaryon
In particle physics, a baryon is a type of composite subatomic particle which contains an odd number of valence quarks (at least 3). Baryons belong to the hadron family of particles; hadrons are composed of quarks. Baryons are also classifie ...
.
In modern particle physics,
gauge symmetries – a kind of
symmetry group – relate interactions between particles (see
gauge theories
In physics, a gauge theory is a type of field theory in which the Lagrangian (and hence the dynamics of the system itself) does not change (is invariant) under local transformations according to certain smooth families of operations (Lie group ...
). Color
SU(3)
In mathematics, the special unitary group of degree , denoted , is the Lie group of unitary matrices with determinant 1.
The more general unitary matrices may have complex determinants with absolute value 1, rather than real 1 in the specia ...
(commonly abbreviated to SU(3)
c) is the gauge symmetry that relates the color charge in quarks and is the defining symmetry for quantum chromodynamics.
[Part III of
] Just as the laws of physics are independent of which directions in space are designated ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'', and remain unchanged if the coordinate axes are rotated to a new orientation, the physics of quantum chromodynamics is independent of which directions in three-dimensional color space are identified as blue, red, and green. SU(3)
c color transformations correspond to "rotations" in color space (which, mathematically speaking, is a
complex space). Every quark flavor ''f'', each with subtypes ''f''
B, ''f''
G, ''f''
R corresponding to the quark colors, forms a triplet: a three-component
quantum field
In theoretical physics, quantum field theory (QFT) is a theoretical framework that combines classical field theory, special relativity, and quantum mechanics. QFT is used in particle physics to construct physical models of subatomic particles ...
that transforms under the fundamental
representation of SU(3)
c. The requirement that SU(3)
c should be local – that is, that its transformations be allowed to vary with space and time – determines the properties of the strong interaction. In particular, it implies the existence of
eight gluon types to act as its force carriers.
Mass
Two terms are used in referring to a quark's mass: ''
current quark mass'' refers to the mass of a quark by itself, while ''
constituent quark A constituent quark is a current quark with a notional "covering" induced by the renormalization group.
In the low-energy limit of QCD, a description by means of perturbation theory is not possible: Here, no asymptotic freedom exists, but collect ...
mass'' refers to the current quark mass plus the mass of the
gluon particle field surrounding the quark. These masses typically have very different values. Most of a hadron's mass comes from the gluons that bind the constituent quarks together, rather than from the quarks themselves. While gluons are inherently massless, they possess energy – more specifically,
quantum chromodynamics binding energy
Quantum chromodynamics binding energy (QCD binding energy), gluon binding energy or chromodynamic binding energy is the energy binding quarks together into hadrons. It is the energy of the field of the strong force, which is mediated by gluons. M ...
(QCBE) – and it is this that contributes so greatly to the overall mass of the hadron (see
mass in special relativity
The word "mass" has two meanings in special relativity: '' invariant mass'' (also called rest mass) is an invariant quantity which is the same for all observers in all reference frames, while the relativistic mass is dependent on the velocity o ...
). For example, a proton has a mass of approximately , of which the rest mass of its three valence quarks only contributes about ; much of the remainder can be attributed to the field energy of the gluons
[ (see ]chiral symmetry breaking
In particle physics, chiral symmetry breaking is the spontaneous symmetry breaking of a chiral symmetry – usually by a gauge theory such as quantum chromodynamics, the quantum field theory of the strong interaction. Yoichiro Nambu was awar ...
). The Standard Model posits that elementary particles derive their masses from the Higgs mechanism
In the Standard Model of particle physics, the Higgs mechanism is essential to explain the generation mechanism of the property "mass" for gauge bosons. Without the Higgs mechanism, all bosons (one of the two classes of particles, the other be ...
, which is associated to the Higgs boson. It is hoped that further research into the reasons for the top quark's large mass of ~, almost the mass of a gold atom,[ might reveal more about the origin of the mass of quarks and other elementary particles.
]
Size
In QCD, quarks are considered to be point-like entities, with zero size. As of 2014, experimental evidence indicates they are no bigger than 10−4 times the size of a proton, i.e. less than 10−19 metres.
Table of properties
The following table summarizes the key properties of the six quarks. Flavor quantum numbers (isospin
In nuclear physics and particle physics, isospin (''I'') is a quantum number related to the up- and down quark content of the particle. More specifically, isospin symmetry is a subset of the flavour symmetry seen more broadly in the interactions ...
(''I''3), charm (''C''), strangeness (''S'', not to be confused with spin), topness
Topness (''T'', also called truth), a flavour quantum number, represents the difference between the number of top quarks (t) and number of top antiquarks () that are present in a particle:
:T = n_\text - n_\bar
By convention, top quarks have a ...
(''T''), and bottomness
In physics, bottomness (symbol ''B''′ using a prime as plain ''B'' is used already for baryon number) or beauty is a flavour quantum number reflecting the difference between the number of bottom antiquarks (''n'') and the number of botto ...
(''B''′)) are assigned to certain quark flavors, and denote qualities of quark-based systems and hadrons. The baryon number
In particle physics, the baryon number is a strictly conserved additive quantum number of a system. It is defined as
::B = \frac\left(n_\text - n_\bar\right),
where ''n''q is the number of quarks, and ''n'' is the number of antiquarks. Baryo ...
(''B'') is + for all quarks, as baryons are made of three quarks. For antiquarks, the electric charge (''Q'') and all flavor quantum numbers (''B'', ''I''3, ''C'', ''S'', ''T'', and ''B''′) are of opposite sign. Mass and total angular momentum
In quantum mechanics, the total angular momentum quantum number parametrises the total angular momentum of a given particle, by combining its orbital angular momentum and its intrinsic angular momentum (i.e., its spin).
If s is the particle's sp ...
(''J''; equal to spin for point particles) do not change sign for the antiquarks.
Interacting quarks
As described by quantum chromodynamics, the strong interaction between quarks is mediated by gluons, massless vector
Vector most often refers to:
*Euclidean vector, a quantity with a magnitude and a direction
*Vector (epidemiology), an agent that carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into another living organism
Vector may also refer to:
Mathematic ...
gauge bosons. Each gluon carries one color charge and one anticolor charge. In the standard framework of particle interactions (part of a more general formulation known as perturbation theory
In mathematics and applied mathematics, perturbation theory comprises methods for finding an approximate solution to a problem, by starting from the exact solution of a related, simpler problem. A critical feature of the technique is a middl ...
), gluons are constantly exchanged between quarks through a virtual emission and absorption process. When a gluon is transferred between quarks, a color change occurs in both; for example, if a red quark emits a red–antigreen gluon, it becomes green, and if a green quark absorbs a red–antigreen gluon, it becomes red. Therefore, while each quark's color constantly changes, their strong interaction is preserved.[
]
Since gluons carry color charge, they themselves are able to emit and absorb other gluons. This causes ''asymptotic freedom
In quantum field theory, asymptotic freedom is a property of some gauge theories that causes interactions between particles to become asymptotically weaker as the energy scale increases and the corresponding length scale decreases.
Asymptotic fre ...
'': as quarks come closer to each other, the chromodynamic binding force between them weakens. Conversely, as the distance between quarks increases, the binding force strengthens. The color field becomes stressed, much as an elastic band is stressed when stretched, and more gluons of appropriate color are spontaneously created to strengthen the field. Above a certain energy threshold, pairs of quarks and antiquarks are created. These pairs bind with the quarks being separated, causing new hadrons to form. This phenomenon is known as ''color confinement
In quantum chromodynamics (QCD), color confinement, often simply called confinement, is the phenomenon that color-charged particles (such as quarks and gluons) cannot be isolated, and therefore cannot be directly observed in normal conditions b ...
'': quarks never appear in isolation.[
] This process of hadronization
Hadronization (or hadronisation) is the process of the formation of hadrons out of quarks and gluons. There are two main branches of hadronization: quark-gluon plasma (QGP) transformation and colour string decay into hadrons. The transformation o ...
occurs before quarks, formed in a high energy collision, are able to interact in any other way. The only exception is the top quark, which may decay before it hadronizes.[
]
Sea quarks
Hadrons contain, along with the ''valence quark
In particle physics, the quark model is a classification scheme for hadrons in terms of their valence quarks—the quarks and antiquarks which give rise to the quantum numbers of the hadrons. The quark model underlies "flavor SU(3)", or the Ei ...
s'' () that contribute to their quantum numbers, virtual quark–antiquark () pairs known as ''sea quarks'' (). Sea quarks form when a gluon of the hadron's color field splits; this process also works in reverse in that the annihilation
In particle physics, annihilation is the process that occurs when a subatomic particle collides with its respective antiparticle to produce other particles, such as an electron colliding with a positron to produce two photons. The total energy ...
of two sea quarks produces a gluon. The result is a constant flux of gluon splits and creations colloquially known as "the sea". Sea quarks are much less stable than their valence counterparts, and they typically annihilate each other within the interior of the hadron. Despite this, sea quarks can hadronize into baryonic or mesonic particles under certain circumstances.
Other phases of quark matter
Under sufficiently extreme conditions, quarks may become "deconfined" out of bound states and propagate as thermalized "free" excitations in the larger medium. In the course of asymptotic freedom
In quantum field theory, asymptotic freedom is a property of some gauge theories that causes interactions between particles to become asymptotically weaker as the energy scale increases and the corresponding length scale decreases.
Asymptotic fre ...
, the strong interaction becomes weaker at increasing temperatures. Eventually, color confinement would be effectively lost in an extremely hot plasma of freely moving quarks and gluons. This theoretical phase of matter is called quark–gluon plasma
Quark–gluon plasma (QGP) or quark soup is an interacting localized assembly of quarks and gluons at thermal (local kinetic) and (close to) chemical (abundance) equilibrium. The word ''plasma'' signals that free color charges are allowed. In a ...
.
The exact conditions needed to give rise to this state are unknown and have been the subject of a great deal of speculation and experimentation. An estimate puts the needed temperature at kelvin
The kelvin, symbol K, is the primary unit of temperature in the International System of Units (SI), used alongside its prefixed forms and the degree Celsius. It is named after the Belfast-born and University of Glasgow-based engineer and phy ...
. While a state of entirely free quarks and gluons has never been achieved (despite numerous attempts by CERN in the 1980s and 1990s), recent experiments at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider
The Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC ) is the first and one of only two operating heavy-ion colliders, and the only spin-polarized proton collider ever built. Located at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) in Upton, New York, and used by a ...
have yielded evidence for liquid-like quark matter exhibiting "nearly perfect" fluid motion.
The quark–gluon plasma would be characterized by a great increase in the number of heavier quark pairs in relation to the number of up and down quark pairs. It is believed that in the period prior to 10−6 seconds after the Big Bang (the quark epoch
In physical cosmology, the Quark epoch was the period in the evolution of the early universe when the fundamental interactions of gravitation, electromagnetism, the strong interaction and the weak interaction had taken their present forms, but th ...
), the universe was filled with quark–gluon plasma, as the temperature was too high for hadrons to be stable.
Given sufficiently high baryon densities and relatively low temperatures – possibly comparable to those found in neutron star
A neutron star is the collapsed core of a massive supergiant star, which had a total mass of between 10 and 25 solar masses, possibly more if the star was especially metal-rich. Except for black holes and some hypothetical objects (e.g. w ...
s – quark matter is expected to degenerate into a Fermi liquid
Fermi liquid theory (also known as Landau's Fermi-liquid theory) is a theoretical model of interacting fermions that describes the normal state of most metals at sufficiently low temperatures. The interactions among the particles of the many-body ...
of weakly interacting quarks. This liquid would be characterized by a condensation of colored quark Cooper pair
In condensed matter physics, a Cooper pair or BCS pair (Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer pair) is a pair of electrons (or other fermions) bound together at low temperatures in a certain manner first described in 1956 by American physicist Leon Coope ...
s, thereby breaking the local SU(3)c symmetry. Because quark Cooper pairs harbor color charge, such a phase of quark matter would be color superconductive; that is, color charge would be able to pass through it with no resistance.[
]
See also
* Color–flavor locking
* Koide formula
* Nucleon magnetic moment
The nucleon magnetic moments are the intrinsic magnetic dipole moments of the proton and neutron, symbols ''μ''p and ''μ''n. Protons and neutrons, both nucleons, comprise the nucleus of atoms, and both nucleons behave as small magnets whose st ...
* Preon
In particle physics, preons are point particles, conceived of as sub-components of quarks and leptons.
The word was coined by Jogesh Pati and Abdus Salam, in 1974. Interest in preon models peaked in the 1980s but has slowed, as the Standard Mode ...
s
* Quarkonium
In particle physics, quarkonium (from quark and -onium, pl. quarkonia) is a flavorless meson whose constituents are a heavy quark and its own antiquark, making it both a neutral particle and its own antiparticle.
Light quarks
Light quarks ( ...
* Quark star
A quark star is a hypothetical type of compact, exotic star, where extremely high core temperature and pressure has forced nuclear particles to form quark matter, a continuous state of matter consisting of free quarks.
Background
Some massive ...
* Quark–lepton complementarity
Explanatory notes
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
1969 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Murray Gell-Mann
The Top Quark And The Higgs Particle by T.A. Heppenheimer
nbsp;– A description of CERN's experiment to count the families of quarks.
Think Big website, Quarks and Gluons
Think Big website, Quarks 2019
{{Authority control
Elementary particles
Finnegans Wake