Place names of Palestine

Many place names in Palestine were Arabized forms of ancient Hebrew and Canaanite place-names used in biblical times or later Aramaic formations. Most of these names have been handed down for thousands of years though their meaning was understood by only a few. The cultural interchange fostered by the various successive empires to have ruled the region is apparent in its place names. Any particular place can be known by the different names used in the past, with each of these corresponding to a historical period.Miller and Hayes, 1986, p. 29. For example, the city of Beit Shean, today in Israel, was known during the Israelite period as ''Beth-shean'', under Hellenistic rule and Roman rule as ''Scythopolis'', and under Arab and Islamic rule as ''Beisan''.

The importance of toponymy, or geographical naming, was first recognized by the Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF), a British organization who mounted geographical map-making expeditions in the region in the late 19th century. Shortly thereafter, the British Mandatory authorities set out to gather toponymic information from local fellahin, who had been proven to have preserved knowledge of the ancient place names which could help identify archaeological sites.Benvenisti and Kaufman-Lacusta, 2000, p. 16.

Since the establishment of the State of Israel, many place names have since been Hebraicized, and are referred to by their revived biblical names. In some cases, even sites with only Arabic names and no pre-existing ancient Hebrew names or associations have been given new Hebrew names.Swedenburg, 2003, p. 50. Place names in the region have been the subject of much scholarship and contention, particularly in the context of the Arab–Israeli conflict. Their significance lies in their potential to legitimize the historical claims asserted by the involved parties, all of whom claim priority in chronology, and who use archaeology, cartography, and place names as their proofs.Kramer and Harman, 2008, pp. 1–2

History

The local population of Palestine used Semitic languages, such as Hebrew, Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, Christian Palestinian Aramaic, Samaritan Aramaic and Arabic for thousands of years.Ellenblum, 2003, p. 256. Almost all place names in the region have Semitic roots, with only a few place names being of Latin origin, and hardly any of Greek or Turkish origins. The Semitic roots of the oldest names continued to be used by the indigenous population, though during classical antiquity, many names underwent modifications due to the influence of local ruling elites well versed in Greek and Latin.

In his 4th-century work, the '' Onomasticon'', Eusebius of Caesarea provides a listing of the place-names of Palestine with geographical and historical commentary, and his text was later translated into Latin and edited and corrected by Jerome.Richard, 2003, p. 442.

Following the Arab conquest of the Levant, many of the pre-classical Semitic names were revived, though often the spelling and pronunciation differed. Of course, for places where the old name had been lost or for new settlements established during this period, new Arabic names were coined. Though often visited by European travelers in the centuries to follow, many of whom composed travel accounts describing its topography and demography, towards the end of Ottoman imperial rule, there was still much confusion over the place names in Palestine.Kramer and Harman, 2008, p. 128. Existing Turkish transliterations of the Arabic and Arabicized names made identification and study into the etymology of the place names even more challenging.

Edward Robinson identified more than 100 biblical place names in Palestine, by pursuing his belief that linguistic analysis of the place names used by the Arab fellahin would reveal preserved traces of their ancient roots.Swedenburg, 2003, p. 49.Davis, 2004, p. 6. The PEF's ''Names and Places in the Old and New Testaments and the Apocrypha, with their Modern Identifications'' (1895) lists more than 1,150 place names related to the Old Testament and 162 related to the New, most of which are located in Palestine.Macalister, 1977, p. 79. These surveys by Robinson the PEF, and other Western biblical geographers in late 19th and early 20th centuries, also eventually contributed to the shape of the borders delineated for the British Mandate in Palestine, as proposed by the League of Nations.

With the establishment of Israel, in parts of Palestine, many place names have since been Hebraized or are referred to by their revived Biblical names. In some cases, even sites with only Arabic names and no pre-existing ancient Hebrew names or associations have been given new Hebrew names.Swedenburg, 2003, p. 50.

The preservation of place names "with amazing consistency" is noted by Yohanan Aharoni in ''The Land of the Bible'' (1979).Cansdale, 1997, p. 111. He attributes this continuity to the common Semitic background of Palestine's local inhabitants throughout the ages, and the fact that place names tended to reflect extant agricultural features at the site in question. According to Uzi Leibner, this preservation of names is "a function of continuity of settlement at the site itself, or at least in the immediate region", and most of the sites in question were inhabited during the Byzantine and Middle Islamic periods.Leibner, 2009, pp. 395–396.

Linguistic roots

Water sources

Agricultural features are common to roots of place names in Palestine. For example, some place names incorporate the Semitic root for "spring" or "cistern", such as Beersheba or Bir as'Saba, ("be'er" and "bir" meaning "well" in Hebrew and Arabic respectively) and En Gedi or 'Ayn Jeddi ("en" and "'ayn" meaning "spring" in Hebrew and Arabic respectively).Rast, 1992, p. 25.

Features

Some place names are derived from Hebrew or Aramaic names for local features, as in for 'fort' ( he, טירה, translit=Tira, link=no, as in At-Tira, Al-Tira and others) or 'castle' ( he, בירה, translit=Bira, link=no). Some of these place names were later confounded with the Arabic for ''tair'' (bird) or ''bir'' (well).

Deities

Other place names preserve the names of Semitic gods and goddesses from ancient times. For example, the name of the goddess Anat survives in the name of the village of 'Anata, believed to be site of the ancient city of Anathoth.Hitti, 2002, p. 120.

Direct translations

In some cases the original name was simply translated, such as the ancient city of Dan ( he, דן, "judge") which turned into the Arabic Tell el-Qadi, "mound of the judge". However, the original name of the city was preserved in the nearby source of the Jordan river, which had the name "Dhan" ( ar, ضان).

Linguistic conversion

The Hebrew suffix t ( ת) tends to drop from Hebrew to Arabic, as in Ḥammat > al-Ḥamme (for Hamma), ‛Aqrabat > ‛Aqraba (for Aqraba), and Nāṣrat > en-Nāṣre (for Nazareth).

Identification methods

The vast majority of place-name identifications are made upon their similarity to existing Palestinian Arabic place names, or else upon the assessment of other geographical information provided by the Biblical texts.

James B. Pritchard wrote in 1959 that of the thousands of ancient places throughout Palestine known by name from the Hebrew Bible

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