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''Prāyaścitta'' () is the
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
word which means "atonement, penance, expiation". In Hinduism, it is a ''
dharma Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...
''-related term and refers to voluntarily accepting one's errors and misdeeds, confession, repentance, means of penance and expiation to undo or reduce the karmic consequences. It includes atonement for intentional and unintentional misdeeds. The ancient Hindu literature on repentance, expiation and atonement is extensive, with earliest mentions found in the
Vedic literature FIle:Atharva-Veda samhita page 471 illustration.png, upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the ''Atharvaveda''. The Vedas ( or ; ), sometimes collectively called the Veda, are a large body of relig ...
. Illustrative means to repent for intentional and unintentional misdeeds include admitting one's misdeeds, austerities, fasting, pilgrimage and bathing in
sacred waters Sacred waters are sacred natural sites characterized by tangible topographical land formations such as rivers, lakes, spring (hydrosphere), springs, Water reservoir, reservoirs, and oceans, as opposed to holy water which is water elevated with th ...
, ascetic lifestyle, yajna (fire sacrifice, homa), praying, yoga, giving gifts to the poor and needy, and others. Those texts that discuss Prāyaścitta, states Robert Lingat, debate the intent and thought behind the improper act, and consider penance appropriate when the "effect" had to be balanced, but "cause" was unclear.


History and meaning

The term ''Prāyaścitta'', and variations such as ''Prāyaścitti'', appear in the Vedic literature. However, in some instances such as in Taittiriya Samhita verses 2.1.2.4 and 5.1.9.3, these words simply imply "accidental happening or mishap" and associated sense of remorse, and their context has nothing to do with "sin". In other cases, such as in Taittiriya Samhita 5.3.12.1, the word ''Prāyaścitti'' appears with the meaning of expiation for a sin. The error or mistake mentioned in the ancient Hindu texts, such as the
Brahmana The Brahmanas (; Sanskrit: , International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: ''Brāhmaṇam'') are Vedas, Vedic śruti works attached to the Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rigveda, Rig, Samaveda, Sama, Yajurveda, Yajur, and Athar ...
and
Aranyaka The ''Aranyakas'' (; ; IAST: ') are a part of the ancient Indian Vedas concerned with the meaning of ritual sacrifice, composed in about 700 BC. They typically represent the later sections of the Vedas, and are one of many layers of Vedic text ...
layers of Vedic texts, as well as various Sutras and Shastras, include those related to ritual procedure such as letting the altar fire go out, or unintentional breaking a cooking pot, or an intentional inappropriate conduct, and any range of events where a person feels remorseful. A generic definition of Prāyaścitta in the Sruti texts is provided by Shabara in his commentary on '' Mimamsasutra'' 12.3.16. He states that they are of two types. One category of Prāyaścitta are those to correct anything ritual-related that emerges from one's neglect or heedlessness, while the others are atonement for "not doing what one must" or "doing what one must not". Most sources state the word Prāyaścitta originates from ''Prāya'' and ''citta'', which Kane states respectively mean "austerity" and "a resolve". However, some Indian scholars such as Hemadri state that ''Prāya'' implies destruction, while ''citta'' implies "joining together", or "joining together what was destroyed", making good what was lost. A third derivation for the word is in Samavidhana Brahmana, where it is composed of ''pra'', ''ayah'' and ''citta'', which translates to "observances after knowing a certain thing has happened". Yet a fourth definition ties it to sin, wherein it is asserted to be composed of ''Prayata'' and ''Cita'' (as in ''Upacita''), and here it means "actions that destroy sins". A sin (''pāpa'') or ''
Adharma Adharma is the Sanskrit antonym of dharma. It means "that which is not in accord with the dharma". Connotations include betrayal, discord, disharmony, unnaturalness, wrongness, evil, immorality, unrighteousness, wickedness, and vice. Descriptio ...
'' (not dharma), is any transgression, wrongdoing, misdeed or behavior inconsistent with
Dharma Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...
. The word is also used in Hindu texts to refer to actions to expiate one's errors or sins, such as adultery by a married person. Some scholarly literature spell Prāyaścitta without
diacritic A diacritic (also diacritical mark, diacritical point, diacritical sign, or accent) is a glyph added to a letter or to a basic glyph. The term derives from the Ancient Greek (, "distinguishing"), from (, "to distinguish"). The word ''diacrit ...
as Prayascitta or Prayashchitta.


Applicability

The Hindu literature on Prayaschitta is extensive, and most commonly found in the Dharma-related literature as well as the Epics and Puranas. The earliest mentions are found in the Vedas, such as in the
Brahmana The Brahmanas (; Sanskrit: , International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: ''Brāhmaṇam'') are Vedas, Vedic śruti works attached to the Samhitas (hymns and mantras) of the Rigveda, Rig, Samaveda, Sama, Yajurveda, Yajur, and Athar ...
layer of text in the
Samaveda The ''Samaveda'' (, , from '' सामन्'', "song" and ''वेद'', "knowledge"), is the Veda of melodies and chants. It is an ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, and is one of the sacred scriptures in Hinduism. One of the four Vedas, it is a l ...
. The Smritis of Hinduism do not offer a consistent theory of prāyaścittas. They differ between themselves if, when and what prāyaścittas are applicable, and whether they are sufficient if the errors and sins were done intentionally or unintentionally. Furthermore, states
Patrick Olivelle Patrick Olivelle is an Indologist. A philologist and scholar of Sanskrit Literature whose work has focused on asceticism, renunciation and the dharma, Olivelle has been Professor of Sanskrit and Indian Religions in the Department of Asian Stu ...
, the ancient and medieval manuscripts, relating to prāyaścittas, that have survived show evidence of major corruption and interpolations over their history. For instance, chapter 11 of
Manusmriti The ''Manusmṛti'' (), also known as the ''Mānava-Dharmaśāstra'' or the Laws of Manu, is one of the many legal texts and constitutions among the many ' of Hinduism. Over fifty manuscripts of the ''Manusmriti'' are now known, but the earli ...
starts with the assertion that it will now discuss penance (prāyaścittas), but the 43 verses that follow have nothing to do with penance, and Olivelle suggests this is evidence of later interpolated replacement. The ancient texts suggest that there was significant debate and disagreement between Dharma scholars on what is the appropriate and sufficient penance or punishment for a given crime. For example, some texts suggest suicide as penance, or capital punishment for the crime of incest or rape, but other texts consider this as disproportionate punishment. Theft is a grave sin in these texts, but the penance prescribed vary, with some texts questioning whether food eaten by an ox, without the permission of the owner of a fodder, qualifies as a sin for the owner of that ox. Similarly, there are major disagreements and acknowledgment of controversies within the texts on when and what conduct is inappropriate, whether and what penance must follow. Similarly, the penance and atonement for sexual misconduct and adultery varies in different dharma texts. The emphasis of the Hindu texts is on inner correction through penance, rather than imposed punishment. It is tied to the
karma Karma (, from , ; ) is an ancient Indian concept that refers to an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptively called ...
doctrine. Prāyaścittas, that is penance to self correct, are considered part of dharma. The
Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; , , ) is one of the two major Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epics of ancient India revered as Smriti texts in Hinduism, the other being the ''Ramayana, Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the events and aftermath of the Kuru ...
for example, states Alf Hiltebeitel, asserts that one is not touched by ''adharma'' if one inhabits the space "where the Vedas, sacrifices (
yajna In Hinduism, ''Yajna'' or ''Yagna'' (, Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐd͡ʒɲə ) also known as Hawan, is a ritual done in front of a sacred fire, often with mantras. Yajna has been a Vedas, Vedic tradition, described in a layer of Vedic literature ...
), penance (prāyaścittas), truth (
satya (Sanskrit: ; IAST: ) is a Sanskrit word that can be translated as "truth" or "essence.“ In Indian religions, it refers to a kind of virtue found across them. This virtue most commonly refers to being truthful in one's thoughts, speech and act ...
), restraint ( damah),
ahimsa (, IAST: , ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to actions towards all living beings. It is a key virtue in Indian religions like Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. (also spelled Ahinsa) is one of the cardinal vi ...
and
dharma Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...
are joined together".


Juvenile crimes and sins

Prāyaścitta in Hindu texts vary according to the age and capacity of a person. If a minor commits a sin such as drinking sura (alcohol), he does not need to perform a penance. Instead, states Brhadyama smriti, the minor's guardian such as father, elder brother, family member or relative should perform the penance. If a juvenile under the age of five commits a crime, most ancient Hindu texts do not consider it a crime, as under-5 age are deemed unable to commit a crime or sin. No penance is required, but some texts argue that this only applies to minor infractions. The different Smriti texts vary in their recommendations on penances by ages, the definition of juvenile sins and crimes and age limit, sins and crimes by men above a certain age, women, who the sinner and the victim is, and whether the person is the sick and ailing. The intent behind the sin or crime is also a factor in these texts. The penance requirements are reduced or increased, based on the age, circumstances and intent, depending on the source.


Pratyāmnāyas

Pratyāmnāyas emerged in medieval era, as a form of penance appropriate to the age, the time and the strength of the sinner. They were asserted to be a kind of penance that purify a man without harming or causing undue distress to the sinner.


Practice

The Dharmasastras list many types of ''Prāyaścitta'' or penance. These include: *Abhiśasta (public confession): a person visits homes as a beggar, seeks forgiveness, confesses his crime and asks for food. *Anutāpa (repentance): a person loathes the evil he did, reminds and repeats to himself "I shall not do that again". * Prāṇāyāma (restraint of breath): a person does breath control exercises similar to
yoga Yoga (UK: , US: ; 'yoga' ; ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines that originated with its own philosophy in ancient India, aimed at controlling body and mind to attain various salvation goals, as pra ...
. *
Tapas Tapas () are appetisers or snacks in Spanish cuisine. They can be combined to make a full meal and are served cold (such as mixed olives and cheese) or hot (such as , which are battered, fried baby squid; or , spicy potatoes). In some bars ...
: a person performs austerity such as celibacy, wearing wet clothes till they dry on his body, sleeping on ground or fasting. * Homa: a fire sacrifice accompanied with ''kusmanda'' mantras. * Japa: reciting Vedic prayers, either audibly, inaudibly or mentally. *
Dāna (Devanagari: , IAST: ) is a Sanskrit and Pali word that connotes the virtue of generosity, charity or giving of alms, in Indian religions and philosophies. In Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, is the practice of cultivating generosi ...
: giving away gifts such as cow, horse, land, butter, sesame seeds and food to the needy. * Upavāsa or
Vrata Vrata is a Sanskrit word that means "vow, resolve, devotion", and refers to pious observances such as Fasting#Hinduism, fasting and pilgrimage (Tirtha (Hinduism), Tirtha) found in Indian religions such as Hinduism and Jainism. It is typically ...
s: restricting one's diet, such as by eating bland foods or small quantity as a self reminder of penance, sometimes with vows. * Tirtha (pilgrimages): going on foot to distant pilgrimage sites, or to bathe in holy rivers. Upavasa (restricting diet or fasting) and Vrata (with vow) are the most common form of penance prescribed in Dharma texts of Hinduism.


Pilgrimages

Pilgrimages (tīrthayātrā) to a tīrtha, or holy place, are a type of prāyaścitta. Pilgrimages are not prominent in Dharmasastras such as
Manusmriti The ''Manusmṛti'' (), also known as the ''Mānava-Dharmaśāstra'' or the Laws of Manu, is one of the many legal texts and constitutions among the many ' of Hinduism. Over fifty manuscripts of the ''Manusmriti'' are now known, but the earli ...
and Yajnavalkya Smriti, but they are also found in the epic Mahabharata and the . Most Puranas include large sections on ''Tirtha Mahatmya'' along with tourist guides, particularly the Padma Purana, Skanda Purana, Vayu Purana, Kurma Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Narada Purana, and Bhavishya Purana. The Vishnu Dharmasastra asserts that the type of sin that may be expiated through pilgrimages is referred to as anupātakas (small sin), in contrast to mahapātakas (major sin) that require other penances. According to Kane, many texts asserted that "tirtha-yatra (journey to a holy place) was a popular way for redemption of sins in the case of all classes of men and women. The texts assert that the man should take his wife with him, when proceeding to pilgrimage. However, some also call attention to the fact that doing one's duty as a householder is more important than going on pilgrimages, and it is only in special cases or once one has paid his Three Debts (to his parents, his teacher, and the Vedas) that he should resort to pilgrimages. The proper procedure for a pilgrimage is debated within the , with questions such as whether one should cut his hair before a pilgrimage arising or whether a fast at the tīrtha is required. The mode of travel is also widely discussed, as to whether one may reap any benefit from traveling in a conveyance. The most widely accepted view appears to be that the greatest austerity (prāyaścitta) comes from traveling on foot, and that the use of a conveyance is only acceptable if the pilgrimage is otherwise impossible. Raghunanda's ''Prāyaścitta-tattva'' asserts that the person seeking penance must give up 16 things when he reaches the Ganges river, including behavior such as praising another tirtha, striking anyone, sexual dalliance, accepting gifts and giving one's used clothing as gifts to others.


Vratas

The concept of vratas date back to the , and it refers to self-imposed restrictions on food and behavior, sometimes with a vow. A ''Vrata'' may be motivated by many factors, one of which may be expiatory (prāyaścitta). A Vrata can also be non-penance related voluntary vow or part of practice by a
brahmacharya ''Brahmacharya'' (; Sanskrit: Devanagari: ब्रह्मचर्य) is the concept within Indian religions that literally means "conduct consistent with Brahman" or "on the path of Brahman". Brahmacharya, a discipline of controlling ...
(student) or grihastha (householders) that they feel as obligatory before or during certain spiritual or religious practice. Utsavas, or religious festivals, share some elements with vratas. They may contain elements of are often difficult to distinguish from the practice of vratas. Vratas are discussed as a means to prāyaścitta in Dharmasastra texts. Many prāyaścitta vratas in these texts suggest it include the feeding of "Brahmins, blind, poor and helpless", as well as other acts of charity. However, a Vrata can consist of many different activities. Other examples of Vrata activity include fasting, burning incense sticks, prayers before a deity, meditating and such activities. The śmrtis go into great detail on the subject of vratas, discussing even the details pertaining to what type of flowers should be used in worship. Men and women, state the Dharmashastras and the Puranas, can expiate their sins through the use of vratas. For prāyaścitta, the ''Vratas'' are the second most discussed method in the Puranas, after the Tirtha.


Śāntis

Śāntis are rites a person undertakes to come to terms or create peace with fears, doubts, portents or omens. These include anxiety in an expectant mother, sounds or sights or dreams a person considers unlucky and others. Some texts, such as the ''Kaushikasutra'' state that some Shanti rites are also a form of prāyaścitta. The Atharvaveda has sections on such rites and rituals.


Repentance

The Hindu Dharma texts such as Manusmriti assert ''Anutapa'', or repentance to be an important form of prāyaścitta. Acknowledgment of an unjust act is considered a step towards inner reformation and the start of a purge of the effects of immorality. The texts recommend remorse and repentance to be accompanied with austerity and reflection, as well as study to gain ''jnana'' (knowledge) for redemption and return to a dharmic life. The term ''Anutapa'' (literally, "following heat") is related to ''Paścatāpa'' (literally, sorrow, regret).


Procedures for penance

proscribes the procedures for all penances, while others, like the Śankha and Madanapārijāta also provide elaborate rules about undergoing procedures of prayascittas." Some particular procedures a sinner must undergo include: paring of nails, shaving his head, bathing with clay, cow dung, and holy water, drinking clarified butter, and making a declaration of performing the penance indicated by the assembly of the learned male
Brahmin Brahmin (; ) is a ''Varna (Hinduism), varna'' (theoretical social classes) within Hindu society. The other three varnas are the ''Kshatriya'' (rulers and warriors), ''Vaishya'' (traders, merchants, and farmers), and ''Shudra'' (labourers). Th ...
s, all on the day prior to commencing his penance. On the next day, he is to bathe, perform Śrãddha and Homa, and give gifts to the Brahmins and feed them. Also during the time of prāyaścitta, the sinner must observe certain rules on food and other matters. This includes that the sinner refrain from taking food at another's house, from sexual intercourse, from speaking at an improper time, and from everything that might cause him to feel strength or sexual passion. It is customary that when undergoing a penance, the sinner begins with a mantra that translates "O! Fire, lord of vrata! I shall perform a vrata." In the same way, when one has finished his penance, he recites a mantra that translates, "O! Fire, lord of vratas: I have performed the vrata, I had the strength to do it, may it be propitious for me!" There are also particular virtues that should be practiced while doing penance such as honesty. These are known as yamas. Two kinds of Prāyaścitta exist: one which is done openly, prakāś, and one which is done secretly, rahasya. Many smṛtis lay down rules about performing secret prāyaścittas. One reason a man would perform a secret prāyaścitta is because no one but himself knows about the sin he has committed. A general rule exists that secret penances are meant for those who have consecrated the Vedic fires, who are disciplined, old or learned, and that the open penances are meant for other people. It is even said that women and śūdras can perform secret penances because they too can give gifts and . While some prescribe the enactment of a penance immediately as needed, some other place restrictions on the time (i.e. the Prāyaścittattatva says that a penance should not commence on the 8th or 14th tithi of the month). If one is in mourning, he may also wait to perform penance until the period of mourning has been completed.


Overlap with Vyavahāra

Prāyaścitta is one of three sections that traditionally compose the Dharmashastras, the other two being ''ācāra'' and ''vyavahāra''. Vyavahāra, technically refers to the process, procedure, and administration of justice. If convicted, some sins and crimes were specified to invite penance, while others merited punishment (''danda''). Intentional murder, for instance, was specified to have the punishment of death. This punishment is counted both in a legal sense and as part of the prāyaścitta section. This combining of penance with legal procedure appears to make the prāyaścitta more effective as penance ending in death can result in full expiation from intentional sins. Some text impose a time scale, wherein prāyaścitta increases the longer the crime or sin goes uncorrected.


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Prayascitta Hindu law Hindu texts Ancient Indian law Religious practices