Pashtoo

Pashto (,; , ) is an Eastern Iranian language in the Indo-European language family. It is known in historical Persian literature as Afghani ().

Spoken as a native language mostly by ethnic Pashtuns, it is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan alongside Dari, Constitution of Afghanistan �
''Chapter 1 The State, Article 16 (Languages) and Article 20 (Anthem)''
/ref> and it is the second-largest provincial language of Pakistan, spoken mainly in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the northern districts of Balochistan. Likewise, it is the primary language of the Pashtun diaspora around the world. The total number of Pashto-speakers is at least 40 million, (40 million) although some estimates place it as high as 60 million. Pashto is "one of the primary markers of ethnic identity" amongst Pashtuns.

Geographic distribution

A national language of Afghanistan, Pashto is primarily spoken in the east, south, and southwest, but also in some northern and western parts of the country. The exact number of speakers is unavailable, but different estimates show that Pashto is the mother tongue of 45–60% (50%) of the total population of Afghanistan.

In Pakistan, Pashto is spoken by % of its population,http://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/tables/POPULATION%20BY%20MOTHER%20TONGUE.pdf mainly in the northwestern province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and northern districts of Balochistan province. It is also spoken in parts of Mianwali and Attock districts of the Punjab province, areas of Gilgit-Baltistan and in Islamabad. Pashto speakers are found in other major cities of Pakistan, most notably Karachi, Sindh,
, thefridaytimes which may have the largest Pashtun population of any city in the world.

Other communities of Pashto speakers are found in India, Tajikistan, and northeastern Iran (primarily in South Khorasan Province to the east of Qaen, near the Afghan border). In India most ethnic Pashtun (Pathan) peoples speak the geographically native Hindi-Urdu language rather than Pashto, but there are small numbers of Pashto speakers, such as the Sheen Khalai in Rajasthan, and the Pathan community in the city of Kolkata, often nicknamed the ''Kabuliwala'' ("people of Kabul"). Pashtun diaspora communities in other countries around the world speak Pashto, especially the sizable communities in the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia.

Afghanistan

Pashto is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan, along with Dari Persian.Modarresi, Yahya: "Iran, Afghanistan and Tadjikistan, 1911–1916." In: ''Sociolinguistics'', Vol. 3, Part. 3. Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill (eds.). Berlin, De Gryuter: 2006. p. 1915.

/ref> Since the early 18th century, List of heads of state of Afghanistan, the monarchs of Afghanistan have been ethnic Pashtuns (except for Habibullāh Kalakāni in 1929). Persian, the literary language of the royal court, was more widely used in government institutions, while the Pashtun tribes spoke Pashto as their native tongue. King Amanullah Khan began promoting Pashto during his reign (1926–1929) as a marker of ethnic identity and as a symbol of "official nationalism" leading Afghanistan to independence after the defeat of the British Empire in the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919. In the 1930s a movement began to take hold to promote Pashto as a language of government, administration, and art with the establishment of a Pashto Society ''Pashto Anjuman'' in 1931 and the inauguration of the Kabul University in 1932 as well as the formation of the Pashto Academy (Pashto ''Tolana)'' in 1937. Muhammad Na'im Khan, the minister of education between 1938 and 1946, inaugurated the formal policy of promoting Pashto as Afghanistan's national language, leading to the commission and publication of Pashto textbooks. The Pashto Tolana was later incorporated into the Academy of Sciences Afghanistan in line with Soviet model following the Saur Revolution in 1978.

Although officially supporting the use of Pashto, the Afghan elite regarded Persian as a "sophisticated language and a symbol of cultured upbringing".Tariq Rahman. "Pashto Language & Identity Formation in Pakistan." ''Contemporary South Asia'', July 1995, Vol 4, Issue 2, p151-20. King Zahir Shah (reigning 1933–1973) thus followed suit after his father Nadir Khan had decreed in 1933 that officials were to study and utilize both Persian and Pashto. In 1936 a royal decree of Zahir Shah formally granted Pashto the status of an official language, with full rights to use in all aspects of government and education – despite the fact that the ethnically Pashtun royal family and bureaucrats mostly spoke Persian.Hussain, Rizwan. ''Pakistan and the emergence of Islamic militancy in Afghanistan''. Burlington, Ashgate: 2005
p. 63.
/ref> Thus Pashto became a national language, a symbol for Pashtun nationalism.

The constitutional assembly reaffirmed the status of Pashto as an official language in 1964 when Afghan Persian was officially renamed to Dari. The lyrics of the national anthem of Afghanistan are in Pashto.

Pakistan

In British India, prior to the creation of Pakistan by the British government, the 1920s saw the blossoming of Pashto language in the then NWFP: Abdul Ghafar Khan in 1921 established the ''Anjuman-e- Islah al-Afaghina'' (Society for the Reformation of Afghans) to promote Pashto as an extension of Pashtun culture; around 80,000 people attended the Society's annual meeting in 1927. In 1955, Pashtun intellectuals including Abdul Qadir formed the Pashto Academy Peshawar on the model of Pashto Tolana formed in Afghanistan. In 1974, the Department of Pashto was established in the University of Balochistan for the promotion of Pashto.

In Pakistan, Pashto is the first language around of % of its population (per the 1998 census). However, Urdu and English are the two official languages of Pakistan. Pashto has no official status at the federal level. On a provincial level, Pashto is the regional language of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and north Balochistan. Yet, the primary medium of education in government schools in Pakistan is Urdu.

The lack of importance given to Pashto and her neglect has caused growing resentment amongst Pashtuns. It is noted that Pashto is taught poorly in schools in Pakistan. Moreover, in government schools material is not provided for in the Pashto dialect of that locality, Pashto being a dialectically rich language. Further, researchers have observed that Pashtun students are unable to fully comprehend educational material in Urdu.

Professor Tariq Rahman states:Robert Nicols states:

Although Pashto used as a medium of instruction in schools for Pashtun students results in better understanding and comprehension for students when compared to using Urdu, still the government of Pakistan has only introduced Pashto at the primary levels in state-run schools. Taimur Khan remarks: "the dominant Urdu language squeezes and denies any space for Pashto language in the official and formal capacity. In this contact zone, Pashto language exists but in a subordinate and unofficial capacity".

History

Some linguists have argued that Pashto is descended from Avestan or a variety very similar to it, while others have attempted to place it closer to Bactrian. However, neither position is universally agreed upon. What scholars do agree on is the fact that Pashto is an Eastern Iranian language sharing characteristics with Eastern Middle Iranian languages such as Bactrian, Khwarezmian and Sogdian.

Compare with other Eastern Iranian Languages and Old Avestan:

Strabo, who lived between 64 BC and 24 CE, explains that the tribes inhabiting the lands west of the Indus River were part of Ariana. This was around the time when the area inhabited by the Pashtuns was governed by the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. From the 3rd century CE onward, they are mostly referred to by the name ''Afghan'' (''Abgan'').

Abdul Hai Habibi believed that the earliest modern Pashto work dates back to Amir Kror Suri of the early Ghurid period in the 8th century, and they use the writings found in Pata Khazana. Pə́ṭa Xazāná () is a Pashto manuscript claimed to be written by Mohammad Hotak under the patronage of the Pashtun emperor Hussain Hotak in Kandahar; containing an anthology of Pashto poets. However, its authenticity is disputed by scholars such as David Neil MacKenzie and Lucia Serena Loi.Lucia Serena Loi: ''Il tesoro nascosto degli Afghani''. Il Cavaliere azzurro, Bologna 1987, p. 33 Nile Green comments in this regard:

From the 16th century, Pashto poetry become very popular among the Pashtuns. Some of those who wrote in Pashto are Bayazid Pir Roshan (a major inventor of the Pashto alphabet), Khushal Khan Khattak, Rahman Baba, Nazo Tokhi, and Ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of the modern state of Afghanistan or the Durrani Empire. The Pashtun literary tradition grew in the backdrop to weakening Pashtun power following Mughal rule: Khushal Khan Khattak used Pashto poetry to rally for Pashtun unity and Pir Bayazid as an expedient means to spread his message to the Pashtun masses.

For instance Khushal Khattak laments in :

Grammar

Pashto is a subject–object–verb (SOV) language with split ergativity. In Pashto, this means that the verb agrees with the subject in transitive and intransitive sentences in non-past, non-completed clauses, but when a completed action is reported in any of the past tenses, the verb agrees with the subject if it is intransitive, but with the object if it is transitive. Verbs are inflected for present, simple past, past progressive, present perfect, and past perfect tenses. There is also an inflection for the subjunctive mood.

Nouns and adjectives are inflected for two genders (masculine and feminine), two numbers (singular and plural), and four cases (direct, oblique, ablative, and vocative). The possessor precedes the possessed in the genitive construction, and adjectives come before the nouns they modify.

Unlike most other Indo-Iranian languages, Pashto uses all three types of adpositions—prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions.

Phonology

Vowels

Consonants

* Phonemes that have been borrowed, thus non-native to Pashto, are color coded. The phonemes and tend to be replaced by and respectively.
* is apical postalveolar . The exact place of articulation of is unclear. The approximant is palatal, whereas and vary from retroflex sibilants to non-sibilant dorso-palatal fricatives , depending on the dialect. In particular, the retroflex fricatives, which represent the original pronunciation of these sounds, are preserved in the South Western dialects (especially the prestige dialect of Kandahar), while they are pronounced as palatal fricatives in the North Western dialects. Other dialects merge the retroflexes with other existing sounds: The South Eastern dialects merge them with the postalveolar fricatives , while the North Eastern dialects merge them with the velar phonemes in an asymmetric pattern, pronouncing them as . Furthermore, according to Henderson (1983), the voiced palatal fricative actually occurs generally in the Wardak Province, and is merged into elsewhere in the North Western dialects. Sometimes it is also pronounced as in Bati Kot according to the findings of D.W Coyle.
* The velars followed by the close back rounded vowel assimilate into the labialized velars .
* Voiceless stops are all unaspirated, like Romance languages, and Austronesian languages; they have slightly aspirated allophones prevocalically in a stressed syllable.

Vocabulary

In Pashto, most of the native elements of the lexicon are related to other Eastern Iranian languages. As noted by Josef Elfenbein, "Loanwords have been traced in Pashto as far back as the third century B.C., and include words from Greek and probably Old Persian". For instance, Georg Morgenstierne notes the Pashto word i.e. ''a hand-mill'' as being derived from the Ancient Greek word (, i.e. a device). Post-7th century borrowings came primarily from Persian and Hindi-Urdu, with Arabic words being borrowed through Persian, but sometimes directly. Modern speech borrows words from English, French, and German.

However, a remarkably large number of words are unique to Pashto.

Here is an exemplary list of Pure Pashto and borrowings:

Due to the incursion of Persian and Persianized-Arabic in modern speech, linguistic purism of Pashto is advocated to prevent its own vocabulary from dying out.

Classical vocabulary

There is a lot of old vocabulary that has been replaced by borrowings e.g

'throne' with , from Persian. Or the wor

meaning 'uniqueness' used by Pir Roshan Bayazid. Such classical vocabulary is being reintroduced to modern Pashto. Some words also survive in dialects like 'the bride-room'.

Example from Khayr al-Bayān:

:
: Transliteration:
: Translation: "... without singularity/uniqueness, without calmness and by bad-attitude are on sin ."

Writing system

Pashto employs the Pashto alphabet, a modified form of the Perso-Arabic alphabet or Arabic script. In the 16th century, Bayazid Pir Roshan introduced 13 new letters to the Pashto alphabet. The alphabet was further modified over the years.

The Pashto alphabet consists of 45 to 46 letters and 4 diacritic marks. Latin Pashto is also used. In Latin transliteration, stress is represented by the following markers over vowels: ә́, á, ā́, ú, ó, í and é. The following table (read from left to right) gives the letters' isolated forms, along with possible Latin equivalents and typical IPA values:

Dialects

Pashto dialects are divided into two categories, the "soft" southern grouping of ''Paṣ̌tō'', and the "hard" northern grouping of ''Pax̌tō'' (Pakhtu). Each group is further divided into a number of dialcets. The Southern dialect of Tareeno is the most distinctive Pashto dialect.1. Southern variety
:*'' Abdaili'' or Kandahar dialect (or ''South Western'' dialect)
:*''Kakar'' dialect (or ''South Eastern'' dialect)
:*''Shirani'' dialect
:*''Mandokhel'' dialect
:*''Marwat-Bettani'' dialect
:* Southern Karlani group
::*''Khattak'' dialect
::*'' Wazirwola'' dialect
:::*''Dawarwola'' dialect
:::*''Masidwola'' dialect
::*''Banisi (Banu)'' dialect

2. Northern variety
:*''Central Ghilji'' dialect (or ''North Western'' dialect)
:*Yusapzai and Momand dialect (or ''North Eastern'' dialect)
:* Northern Karlani group
::*''Wardak'' dialect
::*''Taniwola'' dialect
::*''Mangal tribe'' dialect
::*''Khosti'' dialect
::*''Zadran'' dialect
::*''Bangash-Orakzai-Turi-Zazi'' dialect
::*'' Afridi'' dialect
::*''Khogyani'' dialect

3. Tareeno Dialect

Literary Pashto

Literary Pashto is the artificial variety of Pashto which is used at times as literary register of Pashto. It is said to be based on the North Western dialect, spoken in the central Ghilji region. Literary Pashto's vocabulary, also derives from other dialects.

Criticism

There is no actual Pashto that can be identified as "Standard" Pashto, as Colye remarks:

As David MacKenzie notes there is no real need to develop a "Standard" Pashto:

Standardisation also comes at the cost of overlooking the rich number of Pashto dialects.

Literature

Pashto-speakers have long had a tradition of oral literature, including proverbs, stories, and poems. Written Pashto literature saw a rise in development in the 17th century mostly due to poets like Khushal Khan Khattak (1613–1689), who, along with Rahman Baba (1650–1715), is widely regarded as among the greatest Pashto poets. From the time of Ahmad Shah Durrani (1722–1772), Pashto has been the language of the court. The first Pashto teaching text was written during the period of Ahmad Shah Durrani by Pir Mohammad Kakar with the title of ''Maʿrifat al-Afghānī'' ("The Knowledge of Afghani ashto). After that, the first grammar book of Pashto verbs was written in 1805 under the title of ''Riyāż al-Maḥabbah'' ("Training in Affection") through the patronage of Nawab Mahabat Khan, son of Hafiz Rahmat Khan, chief of the Barech. Nawabullah Yar Khan, another son of Hafiz Rahmat Khan, in 1808 wrote a book of Pashto words entitled ''ʿAjāyib al-Lughāt'' ("Wonders of Languages").

Poetry example

An excerpt from the ''Kalām'' of Rahman Baba:

Pronunciation:

Transliteration:

Translation: "I Rahman, myself am guilty that I am a lover,

On what does this other universe call me guilty."

Proverbs

''See:''

Pashto also has a rich heritage of proverbs (Pashto ''matalúna'', sg. ''matál''). An example of a proverb:

Transliteration: O''bә́ pə ḍāng nə beléẓ̌i''

Translation: "One cannot divide water by itting it witha pole."

Phrases

Greeting phrases

Colors

List of colors:

List of colors borrowed from neighbouring languages:

* ''nārәnjí'' - orange Persian">rom Persian/small>
* ''gulābí'' - pink Hindustani, originally Persian]
* ''nilí'' - indigo [from Persian, ultimately Sanskrit]]

Times of the day

Months

Pashtuns use the Vikrami calendar:

Notes

References

Bibliography

*
* Georg Morgenstierne (1926) ''Report on a Linguistic Mission to Afghanistan''. Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning, Serie C I-2. Oslo.
* Daniel G. Hallberg (1992) ''Pashto, Waneci, Ormuri (Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan, 4)''. National Institute of Pakistani Studies, 176 pp. .
* Herbert Penzl ''A Grammar of Pashto: A Descriptive Study of the Dialect of Kandahar, Afghanistan'',
* Herbert Penzl ''A Reader of Pashto'',

Further reading

*Morgenstierne, Georg. "The Place of Pashto among the Iranic Languages and the Problem of the Constitution of Pashtun Linguistic and Ethnic Unity." Paṣto Quarterly 1.4 (1978): 43-55.

External links

Pashto Dictionary with Phonetic Keyboard & Auto-Suggestion

Pashto Phonetic Keyboard

Pashto Language & Identity Formation in Pakistan

Indo-Aryan identity of Pashto
* Henry George Raverty
''A Dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or Language of the Afghans''
Second edition, with considerable additions. London: Williams and Norgate, 1867.
* D. N. MacKenzie
"A Standard Pashto"
Khyber.org

Freeware Online Pashto Dictionaries



Origins of Pashto

Resources for the Study of the Pashto Language

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pashto Language

Iranian languages
Eastern Iranian languages
Languages of Afghanistan
Languages of Balochistan, Pakistan
Languages of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Languages of Pakistan
Subject–object–verb languages
Fusional languages
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